Full Code of NSExceptional/Runtime for AI

Repository: NSExceptional/Runtime
Branch: master
Commit: 1bb33a438f3b
Files: 23
Total size: 62.5 KB

Directory structure:
gitextract_savhqszy/

├── .github/
│   └── FUNDING.yml
├── .gitignore
├── README.md
├── Runtime/
│   ├── Class.swift
│   ├── ClassBuilder.swift
│   ├── DebugDescriptions.swift
│   ├── Ivar.swift
│   ├── Method.swift
│   ├── Object.swift
│   ├── OrderedSet.swift
│   ├── Platform.swift
│   ├── Pointer.swift
│   ├── Property.swift
│   ├── Protocol.swift
│   ├── RootObject.swift
│   ├── Runtime.swift
│   ├── Struct.swift
│   └── Types.swift
├── Runtime.xcodeproj/
│   ├── project.pbxproj
│   └── project.xcworkspace/
│       └── contents.xcworkspacedata
└── RuntimeTests/
    ├── Info.plist
    ├── Person.swift
    └── RuntimeTests.swift

================================================
FILE CONTENTS
================================================

================================================
FILE: .github/FUNDING.yml
================================================
# These are supported funding model platforms

github: [NSExceptional]


================================================
FILE: .gitignore
================================================
# Xcode
.DS_Store
build/
*.pbxuser
!default.pbxuser
*.mode1v3
!default.mode1v3
*.mode2v3
!default.mode2v3
*.perspectivev3
!default.perspectivev3
!default.xcworkspace
xcuserdata
profile
*.moved-aside
DerivedData
.idea/

*.xcbkptlist
*.xccheckout
*.hmap
*.ipa

*.swp
*.lock
*.xcuserstate

Luna.xcworkspace/xcuserdata/tantan.xcuserdatad/UserInterfaceState.xcuserstate

.AppleDouble
.LSOverride

# Icon must end with two \r
Icon

# Thumbnails
._*

# Files that might appear on external disk
.Spotlight-V100
.Trashes

# Directories potentially created on remote AFP share
.AppleDB
.AppleDesktop
Network Trash Folder
Temporary Items
.apdisk

================================================
FILE: README.md
================================================
# Runtime

An Objective-C simulator written in Swift.

## Goals

With few exceptions, this project aims to simulate, in Swift, how Objective-C works under the hood (i.e. calls to `objc_msgSend`, inserted ARC functions, literal class-refs in class method calls, etc), as opposed to mirroring Objective-C style code and dynamism which Swift can accomplish already via `@objc` classes.

This project could theoretically be used as a dynamic runtime backend for a transpiled progamming language, and as such, this framework and its conventions were crafted with this idea in mind. Many of the constructs used here may seem to lack type-safety, but everything is perfectly safe if the code is generated by some other, more type-safe language. In short, this code is not meant to be written by hand if used for anything serious.

## Features

- Dynamic method dispatch
- Method swizzling / replacing
- Creating entire classes at runtime
- Non-fragile ivars

See `Person.Swift` for an examples of everything mentioned in the readme.

## Overview

Runtime metadata types provided by this framework mirrors that of the public Objective-C runtime interface as closely as possible, declaring types such as `Class`, `Ivar`, `Method`, etc, all of which provide about as much information as their Objective-C counterparts.

### Defining classes

A base class, `RootObject`, is provided for other classes to inherit from if they wish. New classes are defined by declaring a `struct` type to enclose the `Class` object in, with the class object itself being declared as a `static let`, followed by method variables.

```swift
struct Person {
    static let `class` = Class(
        isa: Person_meta.class,
        superclass: RootObject.class,
        name: "Person",
        ivars: [
            (name: "_name", type: .string),
            (name: "_age", type: .integer)
        ],
        methods: [_init, name, setName_, age, setAge_, description],
        properties: [
            Property(name: "name", getter: name, setter: setName_),
            Property(name: "age", getter: age, setter: setAge_),
        ],
        protocols: []
    )
    
    // Methods go here as static vars
    
    static var _init = Method("init", returns: .object("this")) { this, _cmd, args in
        func init$(_ this: id, _ _cmd: SEL) -> id {
            _msgSend(this, "setName_", ("Bob"))
            _msgSend(this, "setAge_", (18))

            return msgSend(super: true, this, _cmd)
        }

        return init$(this, _cmd)
    }
    
    static var name = Method("name", returns: .string) ...
    ...
}

private struct Person_meta {
    static let `class` = Class(
        isa: nil,
        superclass: nil,
        name: "Person.meta",
        ...
    )
}
```

It is good practice to declare a struct for the class itself and another for the metaclass, as above, to reduce ambiguity between class members and instance members (methods, properties, etc). The metaclass stores class members.

`isa:` should be the class's metaclass (or `nil` if the class is a metaclass itself). `superclass:` should be the superclass.

#### The Metaclass

Metaclasses inherit from the super-metaclass, not the superclass. It is convention to declare the compile-time variable like `MyClass_meta` and name it `"MyClass.meta"`. So, `Person` inherits from `Object.class`, and `Person_meta` inherits from `Object_meta.class`.

Each metaclass can be looked up by using `Class.named("Foo").isa` or directly by name with `Class.named("Foo.meta")`.

#### Methods
###### Declaration

`Method`s should be defined as `static var/let` as well (as opposed to right inside the `methods:` argument to the `.class` initializer as I have done with `properties:`), in case you need to reference the method as an argument to a `Property` at compile-time. Declaring them inline also makes the initializer very hard to parse visually since method declarations are typically no less than 7 or 8 lines.

###### Method.init() structure

The `Method` initializer takes the name of the method, the return and argument types (`Type`) an implementation (`IMP`). The return and argument types default to `.void` and `[]`. For initializers, it is convention to return `.object("self")` where you would use `instancetype` in Objective-C. You could use `.object("anything you want")`, but I find that `"self"` makes the most sense here. In cases where you return another object of a fixed type, use `.object("ClassName")`. This runtime aims to provide as much metadata for method type signatures as Objective-C does for property type signatures.

###### IMP arguments

Like Objective-C, all methods take two fixed arguments: `this` in place of `self`, and `_cmd`. However, due to limitations in the Swift type system, all method `IMP`s must return the same thing, `Any`, and without using assembly, they must all take `Any` as the variable arguments, even if a method takes no other arguments. An `IMP` is invoked by passing `this`, `_cmd`, and `args` where `args` is a tuple of the non-fixed arguments to the method.

###### Implementation conventions

To counteract the lack of type safety and enhance readability, I find it helpful to declare a function within the scope of the method `IMP` named with a traling `$` to represent the actual type signature of the method (and to hold the non-trivial implementation), like so:

```swift
static var add__ = Method(…) { this, _cmd, args in
    // Actual implementation and type signature of method
    func add__$(_ this: id, _ _cmd: SEL, a: Int, b: Int) -> Int {
        return a + b
    }
        
    // Cast out arguments and call method
    let args = args as! (Int, Int)
    return add__$(this, _cmd, args.0, args.1)
}
```

Arguments must be cast from `Any` to their actual types as a tuple before being used.

###### Overriding methods

To override a method, simply give your subclass another method with the same name as the method you wish to override. If you need to call the `super` implementation, simply pass `super: true` to your call to `msgSend`:

```swift
static var _init = Method("init", ...) { this, _cmd, args in
    func init$(_ this: id, _ _cmd: SEL) -> id {
        return msgSend(super: true, this, _cmd)
        print("init override: \(this)")
    }

    return init$(this, _cmd)
}
```

###### Init

If you're familiar with Swift, you may know that Swift doesn't allow you to use `self` before all ivars have been initialized. With some exceptions, the same is true here. That said, all ivars are initialized to `0` or `nil`, so it is not necessary to initialize primitive integral types to `nil` or `0`.

> Technically, if a class has no stored complex Swift structures in it (such as `String`), it should be safe to use prior to ivar initialization. I plan to make a wrapper for `String` and `Array`, etc, to counteract these edge cases.


#### Instance variables

Ivars are passed to the `Class` initializer as a tuple of their name and type. Their offset is detremined at runtime, and as a result, classes do not have fragile ivars.

> Metaclasses can not have any instance variables; trying to use ivars on a metaclass is undefined behavior.

#### Properties

Properties take a name and one or two implementations. A property's `type` comes from its `getter`.

--

### Creating objects

Instances of objects are allocated by calling `class.createInstance()`, i.e.:

```swift
let instance1 = Person.class.createInstance()
let instance2 = Class.named("Person").createInstance()
```

### Calling methods

Like Objective-C, this runtime uses dynamic dispatch via the `msgSend` and `_msgSend` functions. `_msgSend` only exists as a shortcut for void-returning methods, or cases where you want to discard the return value.

```swift
let bob: id = msgSend(Person.class.createInstance(), "init")
let name: String = msgSend(bob, "name")
let age: Int = msgSend(bob, "age")
let description: String = msgSend(bob, "description")
```

### Accessing ivars

Ivar access works similarly to how it works in Objective-C. You must retrieve the offset from the runtime and add it to `this` to access the ivar. A lot of casting is involved, and I've provided some operators to ease the pain:

```swift
let offset = this|.getClass.getIvarOffset("_someInt")!
let pointer: Pointer<Int> = ~pointer + offset
let ivarValue = pointer.pointee
```

`this|` is shorthand for `this.pointee`. `~pointer` is shorthand for `unsafeBitCast(pointer, to: T.self)`. Note that the runtime uses its own `Pointer` type, which allows `+` to offset it by bytes at at time.

The above is still pretty convoluted and heavily repeated, so I've provided yet another operator which returns `ivarValue` above:

```swift
let ivarValue: Int = this|"_someInt"
```

In general, `|` provides some form of dereferencing an object pointer. Here is another operator which can be used to set an ivar `_foo` to `5`:

```swift
this |= (5, "_foo")
```

--

### Type system "gotchas"

#### You're stuck with `id`
Since new classes are weakly defined as runtime metadata and not as concrete types in Swift code, you cannot declare a `Pointer` to a custom type directly. That is, all object references are typed as `Pointer<Object>` aka `id`, as defined by `Object.swift` (not to be confused with `RootObject`, which is akin to `NSObject`).

If you really want to declare a `Pointer<Vehicle>` for example, you could declare members on your `Vehicle ` struct like so, alongside the `static let class` declaration:

```swift
struct Vehicle {
    let _super: Object
    let _capacity: Int
    ...
    
    static let `class` = Class(isa: ...)
}

/// Vehicle subclass
struct Car {
    let _super: Vehicle
    let make: String
    let model: String
    let year: Int
    ...
    
    static let `class` = Class(isa: ...)
}
```

Now, you could possibly do the following:

```swift
let fiesta: Pointer<Car> = msgSend(
    Car.class.createInstance(),
    "init",
    ("Ford", "Fiesta", 2014, ...)
)
fiesta.year = 2017
```

Be sure to continue to declare all ivars and methods inside the `Class` variable. Statically declaring the layout like this is only useful for extra type-safety and direct ivar access if you wish to bypass non-fragile ivar lookup.

#### Using `Class`es as objects

`Class` instances could only be made possible by making `Class` a Swift `class` and not a `struct`, due to limitations in Swift's type system and several abstractions Swift imposes on the user. Therefore, they do not have the same underlying structure as `Object` does (that is, `Class` does not start with the `isa` defined by the `Object` declaration). To call a class method on a class, pass `.ref` as `this`:

```swift
_msgSend(Person.class.ref, "someClassMethod")
```

In general, use `class.ref` whenever you wish to treat a `Class` as an object.
    
### Other caveats

`Class` objects will not be available via `Class.named(_:)` until they have been accessed statically. You should "load" these classes manually by accessing all classes you define, like so:

```swift
func runtimeInit() {
    // Runtime initialization
    _ = RootObject.class
    _ = Person.class
    ...
}
```

Ideally this shouldn't be necessary, or should be easier. Please submit a pull request if you have suggestions on how to make this easier or unnecessary!

---

## To-do

- More tests
- Zeroing deallocated references
- Suggestions welcome!


================================================
FILE: Runtime/Class.swift
================================================
//
//  Class.swift
//  Runtime
//
//  Created by Tanner on 10/18/17.
//  Copyright © 2017 Tanner Bennett. All rights reserved.
//

import Foundation

public class Class {
    public let isa: Class! // metaclass, nil for metaclasses
    let magic: UInt = 0xAAAABBBBCCCCDDDD // for debugging purposes, will be removed
    public let superclass: Class! // nil if no superclass
    public let name: String
    public let instanceSize: Int

    /// Instance class property-backing variables
    let ivars: [Ivar]
    /// Instance or class methods
    let methods: [SEL: Method]
    /// Instance or class properties
    let properties: [Property]
    /// Protocols conformed to by instances; not applicable to classes
    let protocols: [Protocol]

    private static let __swobjSize = 16
    /// Used to refer to the class as an object.
    /// Temporary workaround since class objects themselves
    /// already have an `isa` provided by Swift.
    public var ref: id {
        var ptr: id = ~self
        ptr += Class.__swobjSize
        return ptr
    }

    public init(isa: Class!, superclass: Class?, name: String,
        ivars stubs: [Ivar.Stub] = [], methods: [Method] = [], properties: [Property] = [], protocols: [Protocol] = [], extraBytes: Int = 0) {
        let offset = superclass?.instanceSize ?? Type.pointer(.class("")).size

        self.isa = isa
        self.superclass = superclass
        self.name = name
        self.instanceSize = offset + stubs.map { return $0.type.size }.reduce(0, +) + extraBytes

        self.ivars = Ivar.make(from: stubs, offset)
        self.properties = properties
        self.protocols = protocols
        self.methods = {
            var dict: [SEL: Method] = [:]
            for method in methods {
                dict[method.name] = method
            }

            return dict
        }()

        Class.classList.append(self)
    }

    public func createInstance() -> id {
        let instance = Pointer<Object>.calloc(self.instanceSize)
        instance.pointee.isa = self
        return instance
    }

    public func method(named: String) -> Method! {
        return self.methods[named]
    }

    public func ivar(named name: String) -> Ivar! {
        return self.ivars.filter { $0.name == name }.first
    }

    public func property(named  name: String) -> Property! {
        return self.properties.filter { $0.name == name }.first
    }

    public func conforms(to protocol: String) -> Bool {
        return !self.protocols.filter { $0.name == name }.isEmpty
    }

    public func getIvarOffset(_ name: String) -> Int! {
        return self.ivar(named: name)?.offset
    }

    public func getMethodIMP(_ sel: SEL) -> IMP? {
        return self.method(named: sel)?.imp
    }

    public static func isClass(_ object: id) -> Bool {
        if object|.isa == nil {
            // Metaclass.isa -> nil
            return true
        } else if object|.isa.isa == nil {
            // Class.isa -> metaclass.isa -> nil
            return true
        } else {
            // Object.isa -> Class.isa -> metaclass.isa -> nil
            return false
        }
    }
}

public extension Class {
    static var classList: [Class] = []

    public static func named(_ name: String) -> Class! {
        return Class.classList.filter { $0.name == name }.first
    }
}


================================================
FILE: Runtime/ClassBuilder.swift
================================================
//
//  ClassBuilder.swift
//  Runtime
//
//  Created by Tanner on 10/21/17.
//  Copyright © 2017 Tanner Bennett. All rights reserved.
//

import Foundation

public class ClassBuilder {
    public var superclass: Class?
    public var name: String
    public var extraBytes: Int

    private var final = false
    private var methods: OrderedSet<Method> = []
    private var classMethods: OrderedSet<Method> = []
    private var ivars: OrderedSet<IvarStub> = []
    private var properties: OrderedSet<Property> = []
    private var classProperties: OrderedSet<Property> = []
    private var protocols: OrderedSet<Protocol> = []

    /// - Warning: returns nil if a class with the given name already exists.
    public init?(name: String, superclass: Class? = RootObject.class, extraBytes: Int = 0) {
        if Class.named(name) != nil {
            return nil
        }

        self.superclass = superclass
        self.name = name
        self.extraBytes = extraBytes
    }

    /// Actually creates the class and adds it to the runtime.
    ///
    /// The class you are constructing cannot be used until it is finalized.
    /// - Returns: The newly created class.
    public func finalize() -> Class {
        let metaclass = Class(
            isa: nil,
            superclass: self.superclass?.isa,
            name: self.name + ".meta",
            ivars: [],
            methods: self.classMethods.array,
            properties: self.classProperties.array,
            protocols: []
        )
        let cls = Class(
            isa: metaclass,
            superclass: self.superclass,
            name: self.name,
            ivars: self.ivars.array.map({ $0.stub }),
            methods: self.methods.array,
            properties: self.properties.array,
            protocols: self.protocols.array,
            extraBytes: self.extraBytes
        )

        self.final = true
        Class.classList.append(cls)
        return cls
    }

    public func add(_ methods: [Method], toClass: Bool = false) {
        if toClass {
            self.classMethods.addAll(methods)
        } else {
            self.methods.addAll(methods)
        }
    }

    public func add(_ ivars: [IvarStub]) {
        self.ivars.addAll(ivars)
    }

    public func add(_ properties: [Property], toClass: Bool = false) {
        if toClass {
            self.classProperties.addAll(properties)
        } else {
            self.properties.addAll(properties)
        }
    }

    public func add(_ protocols: [Protocol]) {
        self.protocols .addAll(protocols)
    }

    public struct IvarStub: Hashable {
        let name: String
        let type: Type

        fileprivate var stub: Ivar.Stub { return (name, type) }

        public var hashValue: Int {
            return self.name.hashValue
        }

        public static func ==(lhs: IvarStub, rhs: IvarStub) -> Bool {
            return lhs.name == rhs.name
        }
    }
}


================================================
FILE: Runtime/DebugDescriptions.swift
================================================
//
//  DebugDescriptions.swift
//  Runtime
//
//  Created by Tanner on 10/21/17.
//  Copyright © 2017 Tanner Bennett. All rights reserved.
//

import Foundation

extension Class: CustomDebugStringConvertible, CustomStringConvertible, CustomPlaygroundQuickLookable {
    public var customPlaygroundQuickLook: PlaygroundQuickLook {
        return .text(self.name)
    }
    
    public var description: String {
        return self.name
    }
    
    public var debugDescription: String {
        var me = self
        return """
<Class \(self.name) (\(|me))> {
    isa:        \(self.isa?.name ?? "nil"),
    superclass: \(self.superclass?.name ?? "nil"),
    methods:    \(self.methods.count),
    properties: \(self.properties.count),
    protocols:  \(self.protocols.count),
}
"""
    }
}


================================================
FILE: Runtime/Ivar.swift
================================================
//
//  Ivar.swift
//  Runtime
//
//  Created by Tanner on 10/18/17.
//  Copyright © 2017 Tanner Bennett. All rights reserved.
//

import Foundation

public struct Ivar: Hashable {
    public typealias Stub = (name: String, type: Type)
    
    public let name: String
    public let type: Type
    public let offset: Int

    public var hashValue: Int {
        return self.name.hashValue
    }

    public static func ==(lhs: Ivar, rhs: Ivar) -> Bool {
        return lhs.name == rhs.name
    }
}

extension Ivar {
    static func make(from stubs: [Stub], _ offset: Int) -> [Ivar] {
        var offsett = offset
        return stubs.map { stub -> Ivar in
            defer { offsett += stub.type.size }
            return Ivar(name: stub.name, type: stub.type, offset: offsett)
        }
    }
}


================================================
FILE: Runtime/Method.swift
================================================
//
//  Method.swift
//  Runtime
//
//  Created by Tanner on 10/18/17.
//  Copyright © 2017 Tanner Bennett. All rights reserved.
//

import Foundation

public class Method: Hashable {
    public typealias Signauture = (returnType: Type, argumentTypes: [Type])
    
    public let name: String
    public var imp: IMP
    public let returnType: Type
    public let argumentTypes: [Type]

    public var signature: Signauture {
        return (self.returnType, self.argumentTypes)
    }

    public init(_ name: String, returns: Type = .void, args: [Type] = [], _ imp: @escaping IMP) {
        self.name = name
        self.returnType = returns
        self.argumentTypes = args
        self.imp = imp
    }

    convenience public init(name: String, signature: Signauture = (.void, []), _ imp: @escaping IMP) {
        self.init(name, returns: signature.returnType, args: signature.argumentTypes, imp)
    }

    public var hashValue: Int {
        return self.name.hashValue
    }

    public static func ==(lhs: Method, rhs: Method) -> Bool {
        return lhs.name == rhs.name
    }
}


================================================
FILE: Runtime/Object.swift
================================================
//
//  Object.swift
//  Runtime
//
//  Created by Tanner on 10/18/17.
//  Copyright © 2017 Tanner Bennett. All rights reserved.
//

import Foundation

public struct Object {
    var isa: Class!

    public var getClass: Class {
        return self.isa
    }

    public func respondsTo(_ selector: SEL) -> Bool {
        return self.isa.getMethodIMP(selector) != nil
    }
}

extension Pointer: CustomStringConvertible, CustomDebugStringConvertible {
    public var debugDescription: String { return self.description }
    public var description: String {
        if Pointee.self is Object.Type {
            let this: id = ~self
            if this|.respondsTo("description") {
                return msgSend(this, "description")
            } else {
                return "<\(this|.getClass) \(self.raw.debugDescription)>"
            }
        }

        return self.raw.debugDescription
    }
}


================================================
FILE: Runtime/OrderedSet.swift
================================================
//
//  OrderedSet.swift
//  Runtime
//
//  Created by Tanner on 10/23/17.
//  Copyright © 2017 Tanner Bennett. All rights reserved.
//

import Foundation

class OrderedSet<T: Hashable>: ExpressibleByArrayLiteral {
    var array: [T] = []
    var set: Set<T> = []

    init() { }

    /// - Returns: true if the element was not already in the set, false otherwise
    @discardableResult
    func add(_ element: T) -> Bool {
        if self.set.insert(element).inserted {
            array.append(element)
            return true
        }

        return false
    }

    /// - Returns: true if all elements were not already in the set, false otherwise
    @discardableResult
    func addAll(_ elements: [T]) -> Bool {
        var allIn = true
        for e in elements {
            if !self.add(e) {
                allIn = false
            }
        }

        return allIn
    }

    required init(arrayLiteral elements: T...) {
        self.addAll(elements)
    }
}


================================================
FILE: Runtime/Platform.swift
================================================
//
//  Platform.swift
//  Runtime
//
//  Created by Tanner on 10/18/17.
//  Copyright © 2017 Tanner Bennett. All rights reserved.
//

import Foundation

struct Platform {
    static let is64Bit = MemoryLayout<Int>.size == MemoryLayout<Int64>.size
}


================================================
FILE: Runtime/Pointer.swift
================================================
//
//  Pointer.swift
//  MirrorKit.swift
//
//  Created by Tanner on 8/25/17.
//

import Foundation

extension UnsafeMutableRawPointer {
    @inline(__always)
    init<T>(to thing: inout T) {
        self = withUnsafeMutablePointer(to: &thing) { UnsafeMutableRawPointer($0) }
    }
}

prefix operator ~
public prefix func ~<T,U>(thing: T) -> U {
    return unsafeBitCast(thing, to: U.self)
}

infix operator |=
/// Shorthand ivar set
public func |=<T>(pointer: id, change: (value: T, ivar: String)) {
    let offset = pointer|.getClass.getIvarOffset(change.ivar)!
    let pointer: Pointer<T> = ~pointer + offset
    pointer.pointee = change.value
}

infix operator |
/// Shorthand ivar get
public func |<T>(pointer: id, ivar: String) -> T {
    let offset = pointer|.getClass.getIvarOffset(ivar)!
    let ivarPtr: Pointer<T> = ~(pointer + offset)
    return ivarPtr.pointee
}

postfix operator |
/// Shorthand for .pointee
public postfix func |<T>(pointer: Pointer<T>) -> T {
    return pointer.pointee
}

prefix operator |
/// Shorthand for .pointee
@inline(__always)
public prefix func |<T>(pointee: inout T) -> Pointer<T> {
    return Pointer(to: &pointee)
}

public struct Pointer<Pointee>: Strideable, Hashable, Equatable {

    // MARK: Public

    public let raw: UnsafeMutableRawPointer
    public var pointee: Pointee {
        get { return self.read() }
        nonmutating set { return self.write(newValue) }
    }

    // Get a Pointer to some variable
    public init<T>(to thing: inout T) {
        self.raw = UnsafeMutableRawPointer(to: &thing)
    }

    // Convert some variable, which is already a "pointer" itself, into a Pointer
    public init(from pointer: inout Any) {
        self.raw = ~pointer
    }

    public func read<T>(byteOffset: Int = 0) -> T {
        return self.raw.load(fromByteOffset: byteOffset, as: T.self)
    }

    public func write<T>(_ value: T, byteOffset: Int = 0) {
        self.raw.storeBytes(of: value, toByteOffset: byteOffset, as: T.self)
    }

    // MARK: Memory management

    public static func alloc(_ count: Int) -> Pointer {
        return Pointer(raw: UnsafeMutablePointer.allocate(capacity: count))
    }

    public static func calloc(_ count: Int) -> Pointer {
        #if os(Linux)
            return Pointer(raw: Glibc.calloc(count, 1))
        #else
            return Pointer(raw: Darwin.calloc(count, 1))
        #endif
    }

    public func free() {
        #if os(Linux)
            Glibc.free(self.raw)
        #else
            Darwin.free(self.raw)
        #endif
    }

    public func free(_ count: Int) {
        self.raw.deallocate(bytes: count, alignedTo: MemoryLayout<Pointee>.alignment)
    }

    // MARK: Private

    init(raw pointer: UnsafeMutableRawPointer) {
        self.raw = pointer
    }

    // MARK: Strideable

    public func distance(to other: Pointer) -> Int {
        return self.raw.distance(to: other.raw)
    }

    public func advanced(by n: Int) -> Pointer {
        return Pointer(raw: self.raw.advanced(by: n))
    }

    // MARK: Hashable

    public var hashValue: Int {
        return self.raw.hashValue
    }

    // MARK: Convenience

    public static func +(lhs: Pointer, rhs: Int) -> Pointer {
        return lhs.advanced(by: rhs)
    }

    public static func -(lhs: Pointer, rhs: Int) -> Pointer {
        return lhs.advanced(by: -rhs)
    }

    public static func +=(lhs: inout Pointer, rhs: Int) {
        lhs = lhs.advanced(by: rhs)
    }

    public static func -=(lhs: inout Pointer, rhs: Int) {
        lhs = lhs.advanced(by: -rhs)
    }

    public static postfix func ++(pointer: inout Pointer) {
        pointer = pointer.advanced(by: 1)
    }

    public static postfix func --(pointer: inout Pointer) {
        pointer = pointer.advanced(by: -1)
    }
}


================================================
FILE: Runtime/Property.swift
================================================
//
//  Property.swift
//  Runtime
//
//  Created by Tanner on 10/18/17.
//  Copyright © 2017 Tanner Bennett. All rights reserved.
//

import Foundation

public struct Property: Hashable, Equatable {
    public let name: String
    public let getter: Method
    public let setter: Method!

    public var type: Type {
        return self.getter.returnType
    }

    public var hashValue: Int {
        return self.name.hashValue
    }

    public static func ==(lhs: Property, rhs: Property) -> Bool {
        return lhs.name == rhs.name
    }
}


================================================
FILE: Runtime/Protocol.swift
================================================
//
//  Protocol.swift
//  Runtime
//
//  Created by Tanner on 10/18/17.
//  Copyright © 2017 Tanner Bennett. All rights reserved.
//

import Foundation

public class Protocol: Hashable {
    public let name: String
    public let methods: [Method]

    public init(name: String, methods: [Method]) {
        self.name = name
        self.methods = methods
    }

    public var hashValue: Int {
        return self.name.hashValue
    }

    public static func ==(lhs: Protocol, rhs: Protocol) -> Bool {
        return lhs.name == rhs.name
    }
}

public extension Protocol {
    static var protocolList: [Protocol] = []

    public static func named(_ name: String) -> Protocol! {
        return Protocol.protocolList.filter { $0.name == name }.first
    }
}


================================================
FILE: Runtime/RootObject.swift
================================================
//
//  RootObject.swift
//  Runtime
//
//  Created by Tanner on 10/19/17.
//  Copyright © 2017 Tanner Bennett. All rights reserved.
//

import Foundation

/// New classes are defined as static instances within an extension on Class itself.
/// Methods, ivars, properties, etc for these new classes are defined as below.
public struct RootObject {
    static let `class` = Class(
        isa: RootObject_meta.class,
        superclass: nil,
        name: "Object",
        ivars: [("isa", .pointer(.class("self"))), ("_retainCount", .integer)],
        methods: [_init, retain, retainCount]
    )

    static var _init = Method("init", returns: .object("self")) { this, _cmd, args in
        func init$(_ this: id, _ _cmd: SEL) -> id {
            print("\(this|.getClass).init(): \(this)")
            return this
        }

        return init$(this, _cmd)
    }

    static var retain = Method("retain", returns: .object("self")) { this, _cmd, args in
        func retain$(_ this: id, _ _cmd: SEL) -> id {
            let newCount: Int = (this|"_retainCount") + 1
            this |= (newCount, "_retainCount")
            return this
        }

        return retain$(this, _cmd)
    }

    static var release = Method("release") { this, _cmd, args in
        func release$(_ this: id, _ _cmd: SEL) {
            let newCount: Int = (this|"_retainCount") - 1
            this |= (newCount, "_retainCount")
            if newCount < 1 {
                if newCount < 0 {
                    fatalError("Over-released object at \(this.raw.debugDescription)")
                }
                
                this.free()
            }
        }

        release$(this, _cmd)
        return ()
    }

    static var retainCount = Method("retainCount", returns: .integer) { this, _cmd, args in
        func retainCount$(_ this: id, _ _cmd: SEL) {
            return this|"_retainCount"
        }

        retainCount$(this, _cmd)
        return ()
    }
}

public struct RootObject_meta {
    static let `class` = Class(
        isa: nil,
        superclass: nil,
        name: "Object.meta"
    )
}


================================================
FILE: Runtime/Runtime.swift
================================================
//
//  Runtime.swift
//  Runtime
//
//  Created by Tanner on 10/18/17.
//  Copyright © 2017 Tanner Bennett. All rights reserved.
//

import Foundation

public typealias id = Pointer<Object>
public typealias SEL = String
public typealias IMP = (_ self: id, _ _cmd: SEL, _ args: Any) -> Any

@inline(__always) func prepareMsg(_ target: id, _ _cmd: SEL, super: Bool) -> IMP {
    let isClass = Class.isClass(target)
    var cls: Class!
    if isClass {
        cls = `super` ? target|.isa.superclass! : target|.isa
    } else {
        cls = `super` ? target|.getClass.superclass! : target|.getClass
    }

    var imp: IMP!
    repeat {
        imp = cls.getMethodIMP(_cmd)
        cls = cls.superclass
    } while imp == nil && cls != nil
    
    guard imp != nil else {
        let isClass = Class.isClass(target)
        let invocation = (isClass ? "+" : "-") + "[\(target|.getClass.name) \(_cmd)]"
        fatalError("Unrecognized selector sent to instance \(target.raw): " + invocation)
    }

    return imp
}

/// Dynamically calls a method on a `Foo` instance given a method name (like objc_msgSend)
public func msgSend<T>(super: Bool = false, _ target: id, _ _cmd: SEL, _ args: Any = ()) -> T {
    let imp = prepareMsg(target, _cmd, super: `super`)
    return imp(target, _cmd, args) as! T
}

/// Convenience for `Void` or discardable results
public func _msgSend(super: Bool = false, _ target: id, _ _cmd: SEL, _ args: Any = ()) {
    let imp = prepareMsg(target, _cmd, super: `super`)
    _ = imp(target, _cmd, args)
}


================================================
FILE: Runtime/Struct.swift
================================================
//
//  Struct.swift
//  Runtime
//
//  Created by Tanner on 10/18/17.
//  Copyright © 2017 Tanner Bennett. All rights reserved.
//

import Foundation

/// As of now, purely for metadata purposes.
/// Provides no way to create and use structs.
/// It may make more sense just to use standard Swift structs
/// alongside instances of `Struct` for reflection purposes.
public class Struct {
    let name: String
    let instanceSize: Int

    let ivars: [Ivar]
    let methods: [Method]
    let properties: [Property]

    public init(name: String, instanceSize: Int, ivars: [Ivar.Stub] = [], methods: [Method] = [], properties: [Property] = []) {
        self.name = name
        self.instanceSize = instanceSize
        self.ivars = Ivar.make(from: ivars, 0)
        self.methods = methods
        self.properties = properties
    }
}

public extension Struct {
    static var structList: [Struct] = []

    public static func named(_ name: String) -> Struct! {
        return Struct.structList.filter { $0.name == name }.first
    }
}

public extension Struct {
    public var describedAsTuple: String {
        return "(" + self.ivars.map({ ivar in
            if !ivar.name.isEmpty {
                return ivar.name + ": " + ivar.type.description
            } else {
                return ivar.type.description
            }
        }).joined(separator: ", ")
    }

    public var typeEncoding: String {
        return ""
    }
}


================================================
FILE: Runtime/Types.swift
================================================
//
//  Types.swift
//  Runtime
//
//  Created by Tanner on 10/18/17.
//  Copyright © 2017 Tanner Bennett. All rights reserved.
//

import Foundation

public indirect enum Type {
    case void
    case pointer(Type)
    case integer
    case float
    case bool
    case string
    case tuple(String)
    case optional(Type)
    case object(String)
    case `struct`(String)
    case `class`(String)

    public var description: String {
        switch self {
        case .void:
            return "Void"
        case .pointer(let type):
            return "Pointer<\(type)>"
        case .integer:
            return "Integer"
        case .float:
            return "Float"
        case .bool:
            return "Bool"
        case .string:
            return "String"
        case .tuple(let structName):
            return structName // TDOO: struct.describedAsTuple
        case .optional(let type):
            return type.description + "?"
        case .object(let name):
            return name
        case .struct(let name):
            return name
        case .class(let name):
            return name
        }
    }

    public var encoding: String {
        switch self {
        case .void:
            return "v"
        case .pointer(let type):
            return "^\(type.encoding)"
        case .integer:
            return Platform.is64Bit ? "q" : "i"
        case .float:
            return Platform.is64Bit ? "d" : "f"
        case .bool:
            return "C"
        case .string:
            return "{11_StringCore}"
        case .tuple(let structName):
            return Type.struct(structName).encoding
        case .optional(let type):
            return "?\(type.description.count)\(type.description)"
        case .object(_):
            return "@"
        case .struct(let name):
            return "{\(name.count)" + name + "}"
        case .class(_):
            return "#"
        }
    }

    public var size: Int {
        switch self {
        case .void:
            return 0
        case .pointer(_): fallthrough
        case .integer:
            return MemoryLayout<Int>.size
        case .float:
            return Platform.is64Bit ? MemoryLayout<Float64>.size : MemoryLayout<Float32>.size
        case .bool:
            return MemoryLayout<Bool>.size
        case .string:
            return MemoryLayout<String>.size
        case .tuple(let structName):
            return Type.struct(structName).size
        case .optional(let type):
            switch type {
            case .pointer(let ptrType):
                return ptrType.size
            default:
                return type.size + 1
            }
        case .object(let className):
            return Class.named(className).instanceSize
        case .struct(let name):
            return Struct.named(name).instanceSize
        case .class(_):
            return 0 // You'll never need to know the size of a class in practice
        }
    }
}


================================================
FILE: Runtime.xcodeproj/project.pbxproj
================================================
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================================================
FILE: Runtime.xcodeproj/project.xcworkspace/contents.xcworkspacedata
================================================
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<Workspace
   version = "1.0">
   <FileRef
      location = "self:Runtime.xcodeproj">
   </FileRef>
</Workspace>


================================================
FILE: RuntimeTests/Info.plist
================================================
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE plist PUBLIC "-//Apple//DTD PLIST 1.0//EN" "http://www.apple.com/DTDs/PropertyList-1.0.dtd">
<plist version="1.0">
<dict>
	<key>CFBundleDevelopmentRegion</key>
	<string>$(DEVELOPMENT_LANGUAGE)</string>
	<key>CFBundleExecutable</key>
	<string>$(EXECUTABLE_NAME)</string>
	<key>CFBundleIdentifier</key>
	<string>$(PRODUCT_BUNDLE_IDENTIFIER)</string>
	<key>CFBundleInfoDictionaryVersion</key>
	<string>6.0</string>
	<key>CFBundleName</key>
	<string>$(PRODUCT_NAME)</string>
	<key>CFBundlePackageType</key>
	<string>BNDL</string>
	<key>CFBundleShortVersionString</key>
	<string>1.0</string>
	<key>CFBundleVersion</key>
	<string>1</string>
</dict>
</plist>


================================================
FILE: RuntimeTests/Person.swift
================================================
//
//  Person.swift
//  RuntimeTests
//
//  Created by Tanner on 10/19/17.
//  Copyright © 2017 Tanner Bennett. All rights reserved.
//

@testable import Runtime

infix operator |=
infix operator |

/// Example subclass of RootObject.
struct Person {
    static let `class` = Class(
        isa: Person_meta.class,
        superclass: RootObject.class,
        name: "Person",
        ivars: [
            (name: "_name", type: .string),
            (name: "_age", type: .integer)
        ],
        methods: [_init, name, setName_, age, setAge_, description],
        properties: [
            Property(name: "name", getter: name, setter: setName_),
            Property(name: "age", getter: age, setter: setAge_),
        ],
        protocols: []
    )

    static var _init = Method("init", returns: .object("self")) { this, _cmd, args in
        func init$(_ this: id, _ _cmd: SEL) -> id {
            _msgSend(this, "setName_", ("Bob"))
            _msgSend(this, "setAge_", (18))
            print("init override: \(this)")

            return msgSend(super: true, this, _cmd)
        }

        return init$(this, _cmd)
    }

    static var name = Method("name", returns: .string) { this, _cmd, args in
        func name$(_ this: id, _ _cmd: SEL) -> String {
            return this|"_name"
        }

        return name$(this, _cmd)
    }

    static var setName_ = Method("setName_", args: [.string]) { this, _cmd, args in
        func setName$(_ this: id, _ _cmd: SEL, _ name: String) {
            this |= (name, "_name")
        }

        let args = (args as! (String))
        setName$(this, _cmd, args)
        return ()
    }

    static var age = Method("age", returns: .string) { this, _cmd, args in
        func age$(_ this: id, _ _cmd: SEL) -> Int {
            return this|"_age"
        }

        return age$(this, _cmd)
    }

    static var setAge_ = Method("setAge_", args: [.string]) { this, _cmd, args in
        func setName$(_ this: id, _ _cmd: SEL, _ age: Int) {
            this |= (age, "_age")
        }

        let args = (args as! (Int))
        setName$(this, _cmd, args)
        return ()
    }

    static var description = Method("description", returns: .string) { this, _cmd, args in
        func description$(_ this: id, _ _cmd: SEL) -> String {
            let name: String = msgSend(this, "name")
            let age: Int = msgSend(this, "age")
            return """
                   <\(this|.getClass) \(this.raw.debugDescription)> {
                       name: \(name),
                       age: \(age)
                   }
                   """
        }

        return description$(this, _cmd)
    }
}

private struct Person_meta {
    static let `class` = Class(
        isa: nil,
        superclass: nil,
        name: "Person.meta",
        ivars: [],
        methods: [],
        properties: [],
        protocols: []
    )
}

/// For debugging purposes
/// unsafeBitCast(this, to: UnsafePointer<person_>.self).pointee
struct person_ {
    let isa: Class
    let _retainCount: Int
    let _name: String
    let _age: Int
}


================================================
FILE: RuntimeTests/RuntimeTests.swift
================================================
//
//  RuntimeTests.swift
//  RuntimeTests
//
//  Created by Tanner on 10/19/17.
//  Copyright © 2017 Tanner Bennett. All rights reserved.
//

import XCTest
@testable import Runtime

class Tests: XCTestCase {
    typealias id = Runtime.id

    override func setUp() {
        // Runtime initialization
        _ = RootObject.class
        _ = Person.class
    }

    func testPerson() {
        let bob: id = msgSend(Person.class.createInstance(), "init")
        let name: String = msgSend(bob, "name")
        let age: Int = msgSend(bob, "age")
        let description: String = msgSend(bob, "description")
        XCTAssertEqual("Bob", name)
        XCTAssertEqual(18, age)
        XCTAssert(description.hasPrefix("\(bob)"))
    }

    func testPointerAssumptions() {
        class Foo {
            struct Layout {
                let magic: (isa: Int, refCount: Int)
                let count: Int
            }
            let count = 0x72656E6E6174
            public init() {}
        }

        var instance = Foo()
        let bitcast = unsafeBitCast(instance, to: Pointer<Foo.Layout>.self)
        let unsafe = withUnsafePointer(to: &instance, { $0 })

        XCTAssertEqual(bitcast|.count, unsafe.pointee.count)
    }

    func testClassObjectReferencing() {
        var cls = Class.named("Object")!
        XCTAssert(cls === RootObject.class)

        let ptr: Pointer<Class> = |cls
        let unsafePtr = withUnsafePointer(to: &cls, { $0 })

        XCTAssertEqual(cls.name, ptr|.name)
        XCTAssertEqual(ptr.raw.debugDescription, unsafePtr.debugDescription)

        var asObject: id = ~cls
        asObject += 16
        XCTAssertEqual(cls.name, ptr|.name)

        let ref = cls.ref
        XCTAssertEqual(asObject, ref)
        XCTAssert(ref|.isa === RootObject_meta.class)
    }

    func testCreateClass() {
        XCTAssertNil(Class.named("Foo"))
        var counter = 0

        let builder = ClassBuilder(name: "Foo")!
        let initializer = Method("init", returns: .object("self")) { this, _cmd, args in
            func init$(_ this: id, _ _cmd: SEL) -> id {
                let this: id = msgSend(super: true, this, _cmd)
                counter += 1
                return this
            }

            return init$(this, _cmd)
        }
        let method = Method("getClassName", returns: .string) { this, _cmd, args in
            func getClassName$(_ this: id, _ _cmd: SEL) -> String {
                return this|.getClass.name
            }

            return getClassName$(this, _cmd)
        }
        builder.add([initializer, method])

        let classMethod = Method("instanceCount", returns: .integer) { this, _cmd, args in
            func instanceCount$(_ this: id, _ _cmd: SEL) -> Int {
                return counter
            }

            return instanceCount$(this, _cmd)
        }
        builder.add([classMethod], toClass: true)
        let created = builder.finalize()
        let asObject = created.ref // TODO: Make this not necessary

        XCTAssert(created === Class.named("Foo"))
        XCTAssertEqual(0, msgSend(asObject, "instanceCount"))

        _msgSend(created.createInstance(), "init")
        XCTAssertEqual(1, msgSend(asObject, "instanceCount"))
    }
}