* This interface is public for historical purposes. You should have no need to * use it. *
*/ // forked from Apache Hadoop final class BZip2Constants { public static final int BASE_BLOCK_SIZE = 100000; public static final int MAX_ALPHA_SIZE = 258; public static final int RUN_A = 0; public static final int RUN_B = 1; public static final int N_GROUPS = 6; public static final int G_SIZE = 50; public static final int MAX_SELECTORS = (2 + (900000 / G_SIZE)); private BZip2Constants() {} } ================================================ FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/bzip2/BZip2HadoopInputStream.java ================================================ /* * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. * You may obtain a copy of the License at * * http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 * * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and * limitations under the License. */ package io.airlift.compress.v3.bzip2; import io.airlift.compress.v3.hadoop.HadoopInputStream; import java.io.BufferedInputStream; import java.io.IOException; import java.io.InputStream; // forked from Apache Hadoop class BZip2HadoopInputStream extends HadoopInputStream { private final BufferedInputStream bufferedIn; private CBZip2InputStream input; public BZip2HadoopInputStream(InputStream in) { bufferedIn = new BufferedInputStream(in); } @Override public int read(byte[] buffer, int offset, int length) throws IOException { if (length == 0) { return 0; } if (input == null) { // If the stream starts with `BZ`, skip it bufferedIn.mark(2); if (bufferedIn.read() != 'B' || bufferedIn.read() != 'Z') { bufferedIn.reset(); } input = new CBZip2InputStream(bufferedIn); } int result = input.read(buffer, offset, length); // if the result is the end of block marker, no data was read if (result == CBZip2InputStream.END_OF_BLOCK) { // read one byte into the new block and update the position. result = input.read(buffer, offset, 1); } return result; } @Override public int read() throws IOException { byte[] buffer = new byte[1]; int result = read(buffer, 0, 1); if (result < 0) { return result; } return buffer[0] & 0xff; } @Override public void resetState() { // drop the current compression stream, and new one will be created during the next read input = null; } @Override public void close() throws IOException { input = null; bufferedIn.close(); } } ================================================ FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/bzip2/BZip2HadoopOutputStream.java ================================================ /* * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. * You may obtain a copy of the License at * * http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 * * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and * limitations under the License. */ package io.airlift.compress.v3.bzip2; import io.airlift.compress.v3.hadoop.HadoopOutputStream; import java.io.IOException; import java.io.OutputStream; import static java.util.Objects.requireNonNull; // forked from Apache Hadoop class BZip2HadoopOutputStream extends HadoopOutputStream { private final OutputStream rawOutput; private boolean initialized; private CBZip2OutputStream output; public BZip2HadoopOutputStream(OutputStream out) { this.rawOutput = requireNonNull(out, "out is null"); } @Override public void write(int b) throws IOException { openStreamIfNecessary(); output.write(b); } @Override public void write(byte[] b, int off, int len) throws IOException { openStreamIfNecessary(); output.write(b, off, len); } @Override public void finish() throws IOException { if (output != null) { output.finish(); output = null; } } @Override public void flush() throws IOException { rawOutput.flush(); } @Override public void close() throws IOException { try { // it the stream has never been initialized, create an empty block if (!initialized) { openStreamIfNecessary(); } finish(); } finally { rawOutput.close(); } } private void openStreamIfNecessary() throws IOException { if (output == null) { initialized = true; // write magic rawOutput.write(new byte[] {'B', 'Z'}); // open new block output = new CBZip2OutputStream(rawOutput); } } } ================================================ FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/bzip2/BZip2HadoopStreams.java ================================================ /* * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. * You may obtain a copy of the License at * * http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 * * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and * limitations under the License. */ package io.airlift.compress.v3.bzip2; import io.airlift.compress.v3.hadoop.HadoopInputStream; import io.airlift.compress.v3.hadoop.HadoopOutputStream; import io.airlift.compress.v3.hadoop.HadoopStreams; import java.io.InputStream; import java.io.OutputStream; import java.util.List; import static java.util.Collections.singletonList; public class BZip2HadoopStreams implements HadoopStreams { @Override public String getDefaultFileExtension() { return ".bz2"; } @Override public List* The decompression requires large amounts of memory. Thus you should call the * {@link #close() close()} method as soon as possible, to force * CBZip2InputStream to release the allocated memory. See * {@link CBZip2OutputStream CBZip2OutputStream} for information about memory * usage. *
* ** CBZip2InputStream reads bytes from the compressed source stream via * the single byte {@link InputStream#read() read()} method exclusively. * Thus you should consider to use a buffered source stream. *
* ** This Ant code was enhanced so that it can de-compress blocks of bzip2 data. * Current position in the stream is an important statistic for Hadoop. For * example in LineRecordReader, we solely depend on the current position in the * stream to know about the progress. The notion of position becomes complicated * for compressed files. The Hadoop splitting is done in terms of compressed * file. But a compressed file deflates to a large amount of data. So we have * handled this problem in the following way. *
* On object creation time, we find the next block start delimiter. Once such a * marker is found, the stream stops there (we discard any read compressed data * in this process) and the position is reported as the beginning of the block * start delimiter. At this point we are ready for actual reading * (i.e. decompression) of data. *
* The subsequent read calls give out data. The position is updated when the * caller of this class has read off the current block + 1 bytes. In between the * block reading, position is not updated. (We can only update the position on * block boundaries). *
* ** Instances of this class are not thread safe. *
*/ @SuppressWarnings({ "AssignmentToForLoopParameter", "SpellCheckingInspection"}) class CBZip2InputStream extends InputStream { // start of block private static final long BLOCK_DELIMITER = 0X314159265359L; private static final int MAX_CODE_LEN = 23; /** * End of a BZip2 block */ public static final int END_OF_BLOCK = -2; /** * End of BZip2 stream. */ private static final int END_OF_STREAM = -1; private static final int DELIMITER_BIT_LENGTH = 48; // The variable records the current advertised position of the stream. private long reportedBytesReadFromCompressedStream; // The following variable keep record of compressed bytes read. private long bytesReadFromCompressedStream; private boolean initialized; private final byte[] array = new byte[1]; /** * Index of the last char in the block, so the block size == last + 1. */ private int last; /** * Index in zptr[] of original string after sorting. */ private int origPtr; /** * always: in the range 0 .. 9. The current block size is 100000 * this * number. */ private int blockSize100k; private boolean blockRandomised; private long bsBuff; private long bsLive; private final Crc32 crc32 = new Crc32(); private int nInUse; private BufferedInputStream in; private int currentChar = -1; /** * A state machine to keep track of current state of the de-coder */ public enum STATE { EOF, START_BLOCK_STATE, RAND_PART_A_STATE, RAND_PART_B_STATE, RAND_PART_C_STATE, NO_RAND_PART_A_STATE, NO_RAND_PART_B_STATE, NO_RAND_PART_C_STATE, NO_PROCESS_STATE } private STATE currentState = STATE.START_BLOCK_STATE; private int storedBlockCRC; private int storedCombinedCRC; private int computedCombinedCRC; // used by skipToNextMarker private boolean skipResult; // Variables used by setup* methods exclusively private int suCount; private int suCh2; private int suChPrev; private int suI2; private int suJ2; private int suRNToGo; private int suRTPos; private int suTPos; private char suZ; /** * All memory intensive stuff. This field is initialized by initBlock(). */ private Data data; /** * Constructs a new CBZip2InputStream which decompresses bytes read from the * specified stream. * ** Although BZip2 headers are marked with the magic "Bz" this * constructor expects the next byte in the stream to be the first one after * the magic. Thus callers have to skip the first two bytes. Otherwise this * constructor will throw an exception. *
* * @throws IOException if the stream content is malformed or an I/O error occurs. * @throws NullPointerException if in == null */ public CBZip2InputStream(final InputStream in) { int blockSize = 0X39; // i.e 9 this.blockSize100k = blockSize - (int) '0'; this.in = new BufferedInputStream(in, 1024 * 9); // >1 MB buffer } /** * This method reports the processed bytes so far. Please note that this * statistic is only updated on block boundaries and only when the stream is * initiated in BYBLOCK mode. */ public long getProcessedByteCount() { return reportedBytesReadFromCompressedStream; } /** * This method keeps track of raw processed compressed * bytes. * * @param count count is the number of bytes to be * added to raw processed bytes */ private void updateProcessedByteCount(int count) { this.bytesReadFromCompressedStream += count; } /** * This method reads a Byte from the compressed stream. Whenever we need to * read from the underlying compressed stream, this method should be called * instead of directly calling the read method of the underlying compressed * stream. This method does important record keeping to have the statistic * that how many bytes have been read off the compressed stream. */ private int readAByte(InputStream inStream) throws IOException { int read = inStream.read(); if (read >= 0) { this.updateProcessedByteCount(1); } return read; } /** * This method tries to find the marker (passed to it as the first parameter) * in the stream. It can find bit patterns of length <= 63 bits. Specifically * this method is used in CBZip2InputStream to find the end of block (EOB) * delimiter in the stream, starting from the current position of the stream. * If marker is found, the stream position will be at the byte containing * the starting bit of the marker. * * @param marker The bit pattern to be found in the stream * @param markerBitLength No of bits in the marker * @return true if the marker was found otherwise false * @throws IllegalArgumentException if marketBitLength is greater than 63 */ private boolean skipToNextMarker(long marker, int markerBitLength) throws IllegalArgumentException { try { if (markerBitLength > 63) { throw new IllegalArgumentException( "skipToNextMarker can not find patterns greater than 63 bits"); } // pick next marketBitLength bits in the stream long bytes; bytes = this.bsR(markerBitLength); if (bytes == -1) { this.reportedBytesReadFromCompressedStream = this.bytesReadFromCompressedStream; return false; } while (true) { if (bytes == marker) { // Report the byte position where the marker starts long markerBytesRead = (markerBitLength + this.bsLive + 7) / 8; this.reportedBytesReadFromCompressedStream = this.bytesReadFromCompressedStream - markerBytesRead; return true; } else { bytes = bytes << 1; bytes = bytes & ((1L << markerBitLength) - 1); int oneBit = (int) this.bsR(1); if (oneBit != -1) { bytes = bytes | oneBit; } else { this.reportedBytesReadFromCompressedStream = this.bytesReadFromCompressedStream; return false; } } } } catch (IOException ex) { this.reportedBytesReadFromCompressedStream = this.bytesReadFromCompressedStream; return false; } } private void makeMaps() { final boolean[] inUse = this.data.inUse; final byte[] seqToUnseq = this.data.seqToUnseq; int nInUseShadow = 0; for (int i = 0; i < 256; i++) { if (inUse[i]) { seqToUnseq[nInUseShadow++] = (byte) i; } } this.nInUse = nInUseShadow; } private void changeStateToProcessABlock() throws IOException { if (skipResult) { initBlock(); setupBlock(); } else { this.currentState = STATE.EOF; } } @Override public int read() throws IOException { if (this.in != null) { int result = this.read(array, 0, 1); int value = 0XFF & array[0]; return (result > 0 ? value : result); } else { throw new IOException("stream closed"); } } /** * In CONTINOUS reading mode, this read method starts from the * start of the compressed stream and end at the end of file by * emitting un-compressed data. In this mode stream positioning * is not announced and should be ignored. ** In BYBLOCK reading mode, this read method informs about the end * of a BZip2 block by returning EOB. At this event, the compressed * stream position is also announced. This announcement tells that * how much of the compressed stream has been de-compressed and read * out of this class. In between EOB events, the stream position is * not updated. * * @return int The return value greater than 0 are the bytes read. A value * of -1 means end of stream while -2 represents end of block * @throws IOException if the stream content is malformed or an I/O error occurs. */ @Override public int read(final byte[] dest, final int offs, final int len) throws IOException { if (offs < 0) { throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("offs(" + offs + ") < 0."); } if (len < 0) { throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("len(" + len + ") < 0."); } if (offs + len > dest.length) { throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("offs(" + offs + ") + len(" + len + ") > dest.length(" + dest.length + ")."); } if (this.in == null) { throw new IOException("stream closed"); } if (!initialized) { this.init(); this.initialized = true; } final int hi = offs + len; int destOffs = offs; int b = 0; while (((destOffs < hi) && ((b = read0())) >= 0)) { dest[destOffs++] = (byte) b; } int result = destOffs - offs; if (result == 0) { //report 'end of block' or 'end of stream' result = b; skipResult = this.skipToNextMarker(BLOCK_DELIMITER, DELIMITER_BIT_LENGTH); changeStateToProcessABlock(); } return result; } private int read0() throws IOException { final int retChar = this.currentChar; switch (this.currentState) { case EOF: return END_OF_STREAM; // return -1 case NO_PROCESS_STATE: return END_OF_BLOCK; // return -2 case START_BLOCK_STATE: throw new IllegalStateException(); case RAND_PART_A_STATE: throw new IllegalStateException(); case RAND_PART_B_STATE: setupRandPartB(); break; case RAND_PART_C_STATE: setupRandPartC(); break; case NO_RAND_PART_A_STATE: throw new IllegalStateException(); case NO_RAND_PART_B_STATE: setupNoRandPartB(); break; case NO_RAND_PART_C_STATE: setupNoRandPartC(); break; default: throw new IllegalStateException(); } return retChar; } private void init() throws IOException { int magic2 = this.readAByte(in); if (magic2 != 'h') { throw new IOException("Stream is not BZip2 formatted: expected 'h'" + " as first byte but got '" + (char) magic2 + "'"); } int blockSize = this.readAByte(in); if ((blockSize < '1') || (blockSize > '9')) { throw new IOException("Stream is not BZip2 formatted: illegal " + "blocksize " + (char) blockSize); } this.blockSize100k = blockSize - (int) '0'; initBlock(); setupBlock(); } private void initBlock() throws IOException { char magic0 = bsGetUByte(); char magic1 = bsGetUByte(); char magic2 = bsGetUByte(); char magic3 = bsGetUByte(); char magic4 = bsGetUByte(); char magic5 = bsGetUByte(); if (magic0 == 0x17 && magic1 == 0x72 && magic2 == 0x45 && magic3 == 0x38 && magic4 == 0x50 && magic5 == 0x90) { complete(); // end of file } else if (magic0 != 0x31 || // '1' magic1 != 0x41 || // ')' magic2 != 0x59 || // 'Y' magic3 != 0x26 || // '&' magic4 != 0x53 || // 'S' magic5 != 0x59 /* 'Y' */) { this.currentState = STATE.EOF; throw new IOException("bad block header"); } else { this.storedBlockCRC = bsGetInt(); this.blockRandomised = bsR(1) == 1; // Allocate data here instead in constructor, so we do not allocate // it if the input file is empty. if (this.data == null) { this.data = new Data(this.blockSize100k); } // currBlockNo++; getAndMoveToFrontDecode(); this.crc32.initialiseCRC(); this.currentState = STATE.START_BLOCK_STATE; } } private void endBlock() throws IOException { int computedBlockCRC = this.crc32.getFinalCRC(); // A bad CRC is considered a fatal error. if (this.storedBlockCRC != computedBlockCRC) { // make next blocks readable without error // (repair feature, not yet documented, not tested) this.computedCombinedCRC = (this.storedCombinedCRC << 1) | (this.storedCombinedCRC >>> 31); this.computedCombinedCRC ^= this.storedBlockCRC; throw new IOException("crc error"); } this.computedCombinedCRC = (this.computedCombinedCRC << 1) | (this.computedCombinedCRC >>> 31); this.computedCombinedCRC ^= computedBlockCRC; } private void complete() throws IOException { this.storedCombinedCRC = bsGetInt(); this.currentState = STATE.EOF; this.data = null; if (this.storedCombinedCRC != this.computedCombinedCRC) { throw new IOException("crc error"); } } @Override public void close() throws IOException { InputStream inShadow = this.in; if (inShadow != null) { try { if (inShadow != System.in) { inShadow.close(); } } finally { this.data = null; this.in = null; } } } private long bsR(final long n) throws IOException { long bsLiveShadow = this.bsLive; long bsBuffShadow = this.bsBuff; if (bsLiveShadow < n) { final InputStream inShadow = this.in; do { int thech = readAByte(inShadow); if (thech < 0) { throw new IOException("unexpected end of stream"); } bsBuffShadow = (bsBuffShadow << 8) | thech; bsLiveShadow += 8; } while (bsLiveShadow < n); this.bsBuff = bsBuffShadow; } this.bsLive = bsLiveShadow - n; return (bsBuffShadow >> (bsLiveShadow - n)) & ((1L << n) - 1); } private boolean bsGetBit() throws IOException { long bsLiveShadow = this.bsLive; long bsBuffShadow = this.bsBuff; if (bsLiveShadow < 1) { int thech = this.readAByte(in); if (thech < 0) { throw new IOException("unexpected end of stream"); } bsBuffShadow = (bsBuffShadow << 8) | thech; bsLiveShadow += 8; this.bsBuff = bsBuffShadow; } this.bsLive = bsLiveShadow - 1; return ((bsBuffShadow >> (bsLiveShadow - 1)) & 1) != 0; } private char bsGetUByte() throws IOException { return (char) bsR(8); } private int bsGetInt() throws IOException { return (int) ((((((bsR(8) << 8) | bsR(8)) << 8) | bsR(8)) << 8) | bsR(8)); } /** * Called by createHuffmanDecodingTables() exclusively. */ private static void hbCreateDecodeTables(final int[] limit, final int[] base, final int[] perm, final char[] length, final int minLen, final int maxLen, final int alphaSize) { for (int i = minLen, pp = 0; i <= maxLen; i++) { for (int j = 0; j < alphaSize; j++) { if (length[j] == i) { perm[pp++] = j; } } } for (int i = MAX_CODE_LEN; --i > 0; ) { base[i] = 0; limit[i] = 0; } for (int i = 0; i < alphaSize; i++) { base[(int) length[i] + 1]++; } for (int i = 1, b = base[0]; i < MAX_CODE_LEN; i++) { b += base[i]; base[i] = b; } for (int i = minLen, vec = 0, b = base[i]; i <= maxLen; i++) { final int nb = base[i + 1]; vec += nb - b; b = nb; limit[i] = vec - 1; vec <<= 1; } for (int i = minLen + 1; i <= maxLen; i++) { base[i] = ((limit[i - 1] + 1) << 1) - base[i]; } } private void recvDecodingTables() throws IOException { final Data dataShadow = this.data; final boolean[] inUse = dataShadow.inUse; final byte[] pos = dataShadow.recvDecodingTablesPos; final byte[] selector = dataShadow.selector; final byte[] selectorMtf = dataShadow.selectorMtf; int inUse16 = 0; /* Receive the mapping table */ for (int i = 0; i < 16; i++) { if (bsGetBit()) { inUse16 |= 1 << i; } } for (int i = 256; --i >= 0; ) { inUse[i] = false; } for (int i = 0; i < 16; i++) { if ((inUse16 & (1 << i)) != 0) { final int i16 = i << 4; for (int j = 0; j < 16; j++) { if (bsGetBit()) { inUse[i16 + j] = true; } } } } makeMaps(); final int alphaSize = this.nInUse + 2; /* Now the selectors */ final int nGroups = (int) bsR(3); final int nSelectors = (int) bsR(15); for (int i = 0; i < nSelectors; i++) { int j = 0; while (bsGetBit()) { j++; } selectorMtf[i] = (byte) j; } /* Undo the MTF values for the selectors. */ for (int v = nGroups; --v >= 0; ) { pos[v] = (byte) v; } for (int i = 0; i < nSelectors; i++) { int v = selectorMtf[i] & 0xff; final byte tmp = pos[v]; while (v > 0) { // nearly all times v is zero, 4 in most other cases pos[v] = pos[v - 1]; v--; } pos[0] = tmp; selector[i] = tmp; } final char[][] len = dataShadow.tempCharArray2D; /* Now the coding tables */ for (int t = 0; t < nGroups; t++) { int curr = (int) bsR(5); final char[] lenT = len[t]; for (int i = 0; i < alphaSize; i++) { while (bsGetBit()) { curr += bsGetBit() ? -1 : 1; } lenT[i] = (char) curr; } } // finally create the Huffman tables createHuffmanDecodingTables(alphaSize, nGroups); } /** * Called by recvDecodingTables() exclusively. */ private void createHuffmanDecodingTables(final int alphaSize, final int nGroups) { final Data dataShadow = this.data; final char[][] len = dataShadow.tempCharArray2D; final int[] minLens = dataShadow.minLens; final int[][] limit = dataShadow.limit; final int[][] base = dataShadow.base; final int[][] perm = dataShadow.perm; for (int t = 0; t < nGroups; t++) { int minLen = 32; int maxLen = 0; final char[] lenT = len[t]; for (int i = alphaSize; --i >= 0; ) { final char lent = lenT[i]; if (lent > maxLen) { maxLen = lent; } if (lent < minLen) { minLen = lent; } } hbCreateDecodeTables(limit[t], base[t], perm[t], len[t], minLen, maxLen, alphaSize); minLens[t] = minLen; } } private void getAndMoveToFrontDecode() throws IOException { this.origPtr = (int) bsR(24); recvDecodingTables(); final InputStream inShadow = this.in; final Data dataShadow = this.data; final byte[] ll8 = dataShadow.ll8; final int[] unzftab = dataShadow.unzftab; final byte[] selector = dataShadow.selector; final byte[] seqToUnseq = dataShadow.seqToUnseq; final char[] yy = dataShadow.getAndMoveToFrontDecodeYy; final int[] minLens = dataShadow.minLens; final int[][] limit = dataShadow.limit; final int[][] base = dataShadow.base; final int[][] perm = dataShadow.perm; final int limitLast = this.blockSize100k * 100000; /* * Setting up the unzftab entries here is not strictly necessary, but it * does save having to do it later in a separate pass, and so saves a * block's worth of cache misses. */ for (int i = 256; --i >= 0; ) { yy[i] = (char) i; unzftab[i] = 0; } int groupNo = 0; int groupPos = G_SIZE - 1; final int eob = this.nInUse + 1; int nextSym = getAndMoveToFrontDecode0(0); int bsBuffShadow = (int) this.bsBuff; int bsLiveShadow = (int) this.bsLive; int lastShadow = -1; int zt = selector[groupNo] & 0xff; int[] baseZt = base[zt]; int[] limitZt = limit[zt]; int[] permZt = perm[zt]; int minLensZt = minLens[zt]; while (nextSym != eob) { if ((nextSym == RUN_A) || (nextSym == RUN_B)) { int s = -1; for (int n = 1; true; n <<= 1) { if (nextSym == RUN_A) { s += n; } else if (nextSym == RUN_B) { s += n << 1; } else { break; } if (groupPos == 0) { groupPos = G_SIZE - 1; zt = selector[++groupNo] & 0xff; baseZt = base[zt]; limitZt = limit[zt]; permZt = perm[zt]; minLensZt = minLens[zt]; } else { groupPos--; } int zn = minLensZt; while (bsLiveShadow < zn) { final int thech = readAByte(inShadow); if (thech >= 0) { bsBuffShadow = (bsBuffShadow << 8) | thech; bsLiveShadow += 8; } else { throw new IOException("unexpected end of stream"); } } long zvec = (bsBuffShadow >> (bsLiveShadow - zn)) & ((1L << zn) - 1); bsLiveShadow -= zn; while (zvec > limitZt[zn]) { zn++; while (bsLiveShadow < 1) { final int thech = readAByte(inShadow); if (thech >= 0) { bsBuffShadow = (bsBuffShadow << 8) | thech; bsLiveShadow += 8; } else { throw new IOException("unexpected end of stream"); } } bsLiveShadow--; zvec = (zvec << 1) | ((bsBuffShadow >> bsLiveShadow) & 1); } nextSym = permZt[(int) (zvec - baseZt[zn])]; } final byte ch = seqToUnseq[yy[0]]; unzftab[ch & 0xff] += s + 1; while (s-- >= 0) { ll8[++lastShadow] = ch; } if (lastShadow >= limitLast) { throw new IOException("block overrun"); } } else { if (++lastShadow >= limitLast) { throw new IOException("block overrun"); } final char tmp = yy[nextSym - 1]; unzftab[seqToUnseq[tmp] & 0xff]++; ll8[lastShadow] = seqToUnseq[tmp]; /* * This loop is hammered during decompression, hence avoid * native method call overhead of System.arraycopy for very * small ranges to copy. */ if (nextSym <= 16) { for (int j = nextSym - 1; j > 0; ) { yy[j] = yy[--j]; } } else { //noinspection SuspiciousSystemArraycopy System.arraycopy(yy, 0, yy, 1, nextSym - 1); } yy[0] = tmp; if (groupPos == 0) { groupPos = G_SIZE - 1; zt = selector[++groupNo] & 0xff; baseZt = base[zt]; limitZt = limit[zt]; permZt = perm[zt]; minLensZt = minLens[zt]; } else { groupPos--; } int zn = minLensZt; while (bsLiveShadow < zn) { final int thech = readAByte(inShadow); if (thech >= 0) { bsBuffShadow = (bsBuffShadow << 8) | thech; bsLiveShadow += 8; } else { throw new IOException("unexpected end of stream"); } } int zvec = (bsBuffShadow >> (bsLiveShadow - zn)) & ((1 << zn) - 1); bsLiveShadow -= zn; while (zvec > limitZt[zn]) { zn++; while (bsLiveShadow < 1) { final int thech = readAByte(inShadow); if (thech >= 0) { bsBuffShadow = (bsBuffShadow << 8) | thech; bsLiveShadow += 8; } else { throw new IOException("unexpected end of stream"); } } bsLiveShadow--; zvec = ((zvec << 1) | ((bsBuffShadow >> bsLiveShadow) & 1)); } nextSym = permZt[zvec - baseZt[zn]]; } } this.last = lastShadow; this.bsLive = bsLiveShadow; this.bsBuff = bsBuffShadow; } private int getAndMoveToFrontDecode0(final int groupNo) throws IOException { final InputStream inShadow = this.in; final Data dataShadow = this.data; final int zt = dataShadow.selector[groupNo] & 0xff; final int[] limitZt = dataShadow.limit[zt]; int zn = dataShadow.minLens[zt]; int zvec = (int) bsR(zn); int bsLiveShadow = (int) this.bsLive; int bsBuffShadow = (int) this.bsBuff; while (zvec > limitZt[zn]) { zn++; while (bsLiveShadow < 1) { final int thech = readAByte(inShadow); if (thech >= 0) { bsBuffShadow = (bsBuffShadow << 8) | thech; bsLiveShadow += 8; } else { throw new IOException("unexpected end of stream"); } } bsLiveShadow--; zvec = (zvec << 1) | ((bsBuffShadow >> bsLiveShadow) & 1); } this.bsLive = bsLiveShadow; this.bsBuff = bsBuffShadow; return dataShadow.perm[zt][zvec - dataShadow.base[zt][zn]]; } private void setupBlock() throws IOException { if (this.data == null) { return; } final int[] cftab = this.data.cftab; final int[] tt = this.data.initTT(this.last + 1); final byte[] ll8 = this.data.ll8; cftab[0] = 0; System.arraycopy(this.data.unzftab, 0, cftab, 1, 256); for (int i = 1, c = cftab[0]; i <= 256; i++) { c += cftab[i]; cftab[i] = c; } for (int i = 0, lastShadow = this.last; i <= lastShadow; i++) { tt[cftab[ll8[i] & 0xff]++] = i; } if ((this.origPtr < 0) || (this.origPtr >= tt.length)) { throw new IOException("stream corrupted"); } this.suTPos = tt[this.origPtr]; this.suCount = 0; this.suI2 = 0; this.suCh2 = 256; /* not a char and not EOF */ if (this.blockRandomised) { this.suRNToGo = 0; this.suRTPos = 0; setupRandPartA(); } else { setupNoRandPartA(); } } @SuppressWarnings("checkstyle:InnerAssignment") private void setupRandPartA() throws IOException { if (this.suI2 <= this.last) { this.suChPrev = this.suCh2; int suCh2Shadow = this.data.ll8[this.suTPos] & 0xff; this.suTPos = this.data.tt[this.suTPos]; if (this.suRNToGo == 0) { this.suRNToGo = R_NUMS[this.suRTPos] - 1; if (++this.suRTPos == 512) { this.suRTPos = 0; } } else { this.suRNToGo--; } this.suCh2 = suCh2Shadow ^= (this.suRNToGo == 1) ? 1 : 0; this.suI2++; this.currentChar = suCh2Shadow; this.currentState = STATE.RAND_PART_B_STATE; this.crc32.updateCRC(suCh2Shadow); } else { endBlock(); initBlock(); setupBlock(); } } private void setupNoRandPartA() throws IOException { if (this.suI2 <= this.last) { this.suChPrev = this.suCh2; int suCh2Shadow = this.data.ll8[this.suTPos] & 0xff; this.suCh2 = suCh2Shadow; this.suTPos = this.data.tt[this.suTPos]; this.suI2++; this.currentChar = suCh2Shadow; this.currentState = STATE.NO_RAND_PART_B_STATE; this.crc32.updateCRC(suCh2Shadow); } else { this.currentState = STATE.NO_RAND_PART_A_STATE; endBlock(); initBlock(); setupBlock(); } } private void setupRandPartB() throws IOException { if (this.suCh2 != this.suChPrev) { this.currentState = STATE.RAND_PART_A_STATE; this.suCount = 1; setupRandPartA(); } else if (++this.suCount >= 4) { this.suZ = (char) (this.data.ll8[this.suTPos] & 0xff); this.suTPos = this.data.tt[this.suTPos]; if (this.suRNToGo == 0) { this.suRNToGo = R_NUMS[this.suRTPos] - 1; if (++this.suRTPos == 512) { this.suRTPos = 0; } } else { this.suRNToGo--; } this.suJ2 = 0; this.currentState = STATE.RAND_PART_C_STATE; if (this.suRNToGo == 1) { this.suZ ^= 1; } setupRandPartC(); } else { this.currentState = STATE.RAND_PART_A_STATE; setupRandPartA(); } } private void setupRandPartC() throws IOException { if (this.suJ2 < this.suZ) { this.currentChar = this.suCh2; this.crc32.updateCRC(this.suCh2); this.suJ2++; } else { this.currentState = STATE.RAND_PART_A_STATE; this.suI2++; this.suCount = 0; setupRandPartA(); } } private void setupNoRandPartB() throws IOException { if (this.suCh2 != this.suChPrev) { this.suCount = 1; setupNoRandPartA(); } else if (++this.suCount >= 4) { this.suZ = (char) (this.data.ll8[this.suTPos] & 0xff); this.suTPos = this.data.tt[this.suTPos]; this.suJ2 = 0; setupNoRandPartC(); } else { setupNoRandPartA(); } } private void setupNoRandPartC() throws IOException { if (this.suJ2 < this.suZ) { int suCh2Shadow = this.suCh2; this.currentChar = suCh2Shadow; this.crc32.updateCRC(suCh2Shadow); this.suJ2++; this.currentState = STATE.NO_RAND_PART_C_STATE; } else { this.suI2++; this.suCount = 0; setupNoRandPartA(); } } private static final class Data { // (with blockSize 900k) final boolean[] inUse = new boolean[256]; // 256 byte final byte[] seqToUnseq = new byte[256]; // 256 byte final byte[] selector = new byte[MAX_SELECTORS]; // 18002 byte final byte[] selectorMtf = new byte[MAX_SELECTORS]; // 18002 byte /** * Freq table collected to save a pass over the data during * decompression. */ final int[] unzftab = new int[256]; // 1024 byte final int[][] limit = new int[N_GROUPS][MAX_ALPHA_SIZE]; // 6192 byte final int[][] base = new int[N_GROUPS][MAX_ALPHA_SIZE]; // 6192 byte final int[][] perm = new int[N_GROUPS][MAX_ALPHA_SIZE]; // 6192 byte final int[] minLens = new int[N_GROUPS]; // 24 byte final int[] cftab = new int[257]; // 1028 byte final char[] getAndMoveToFrontDecodeYy = new char[256]; // 512 byte final char[][] tempCharArray2D = new char[N_GROUPS][MAX_ALPHA_SIZE]; // 3096 // byte final byte[] recvDecodingTablesPos = new byte[N_GROUPS]; // 6 byte // --------------- // 60798 byte int[] tt; // 3600000 byte byte[] ll8; // 900000 byte // --------------- // 4560782 byte // =============== Data(int blockSize100k) { this.ll8 = new byte[blockSize100k * BZip2Constants.BASE_BLOCK_SIZE]; } /** * Initializes the {@link #tt} array. *
* This method is called when the required length of the array is known. * I don't initialize it at construction time to avoid unnecessary * memory allocation when compressing small files. */ int[] initTT(int length) { int[] ttShadow = this.tt; // tt.length should always be >= length, but theoretically // it can happen, if the compressor mixed small and large // blocks. Normally only the last block will be smaller // than others. if ((ttShadow == null) || (ttShadow.length < length)) { ttShadow = new int[length]; this.tt = ttShadow; } return ttShadow; } } private static final int[] R_NUMS = { 619, 720, 127, 481, 931, 816, 813, 233, 566, 247, 985, 724, 205, 454, 863, 491, 741, 242, 949, 214, 733, 859, 335, 708, 621, 574, 73, 654, 730, 472, 419, 436, 278, 496, 867, 210, 399, 680, 480, 51, 878, 465, 811, 169, 869, 675, 611, 697, 867, 561, 862, 687, 507, 283, 482, 129, 807, 591, 733, 623, 150, 238, 59, 379, 684, 877, 625, 169, 643, 105, 170, 607, 520, 932, 727, 476, 693, 425, 174, 647, 73, 122, 335, 530, 442, 853, 695, 249, 445, 515, 909, 545, 703, 919, 874, 474, 882, 500, 594, 612, 641, 801, 220, 162, 819, 984, 589, 513, 495, 799, 161, 604, 958, 533, 221, 400, 386, 867, 600, 782, 382, 596, 414, 171, 516, 375, 682, 485, 911, 276, 98, 553, 163, 354, 666, 933, 424, 341, 533, 870, 227, 730, 475, 186, 263, 647, 537, 686, 600, 224, 469, 68, 770, 919, 190, 373, 294, 822, 808, 206, 184, 943, 795, 384, 383, 461, 404, 758, 839, 887, 715, 67, 618, 276, 204, 918, 873, 777, 604, 560, 951, 160, 578, 722, 79, 804, 96, 409, 713, 940, 652, 934, 970, 447, 318, 353, 859, 672, 112, 785, 645, 863, 803, 350, 139, 93, 354, 99, 820, 908, 609, 772, 154, 274, 580, 184, 79, 626, 630, 742, 653, 282, 762, 623, 680, 81, 927, 626, 789, 125, 411, 521, 938, 300, 821, 78, 343, 175, 128, 250, 170, 774, 972, 275, 999, 639, 495, 78, 352, 126, 857, 956, 358, 619, 580, 124, 737, 594, 701, 612, 669, 112, 134, 694, 363, 992, 809, 743, 168, 974, 944, 375, 748, 52, 600, 747, 642, 182, 862, 81, 344, 805, 988, 739, 511, 655, 814, 334, 249, 515, 897, 955, 664, 981, 649, 113, 974, 459, 893, 228, 433, 837, 553, 268, 926, 240, 102, 654, 459, 51, 686, 754, 806, 760, 493, 403, 415, 394, 687, 700, 946, 670, 656, 610, 738, 392, 760, 799, 887, 653, 978, 321, 576, 617, 626, 502, 894, 679, 243, 440, 680, 879, 194, 572, 640, 724, 926, 56, 204, 700, 707, 151, 457, 449, 797, 195, 791, 558, 945, 679, 297, 59, 87, 824, 713, 663, 412, 693, 342, 606, 134, 108, 571, 364, 631, 212, 174, 643, 304, 329, 343, 97, 430, 751, 497, 314, 983, 374, 822, 928, 140, 206, 73, 263, 980, 736, 876, 478, 430, 305, 170, 514, 364, 692, 829, 82, 855, 953, 676, 246, 369, 970, 294, 750, 807, 827, 150, 790, 288, 923, 804, 378, 215, 828, 592, 281, 565, 555, 710, 82, 896, 831, 547, 261, 524, 462, 293, 465, 502, 56, 661, 821, 976, 991, 658, 869, 905, 758, 745, 193, 768, 550, 608, 933, 378, 286, 215, 979, 792, 961, 61, 688, 793, 644, 986, 403, 106, 366, 905, 644, 372, 567, 466, 434, 645, 210, 389, 550, 919, 135, 780, 773, 635, 389, 707, 100, 626, 958, 165, 504, 920, 176, 193, 713, 857, 265, 203, 50, 668, 108, 645, 990, 626, 197, 510, 357, 358, 850, 858, 364, 936, 638}; } ================================================ FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/bzip2/CBZip2OutputStream.java ================================================ /* * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. * You may obtain a copy of the License at * * http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 * * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and * limitations under the License. */ package io.airlift.compress.v3.bzip2; import java.io.IOException; import java.io.OutputStream; import static io.airlift.compress.v3.bzip2.BZip2Constants.G_SIZE; import static io.airlift.compress.v3.bzip2.BZip2Constants.MAX_ALPHA_SIZE; import static io.airlift.compress.v3.bzip2.BZip2Constants.MAX_SELECTORS; import static io.airlift.compress.v3.bzip2.BZip2Constants.N_GROUPS; import static io.airlift.compress.v3.bzip2.BZip2Constants.RUN_A; import static io.airlift.compress.v3.bzip2.BZip2Constants.RUN_B; /** * An output stream that compresses into the BZip2 format (without the file * header chars) into another stream. * *
* The compression requires large amounts of memory. Thus you should call the * {@link #close() close()} method as soon as possible, to force * CBZip2OutputStream to release the allocated memory. *
* ** You can shrink the amount of allocated memory and maybe raise the compression * speed by choosing a lower blocksize, which in turn may cause a lower * compression ratio. You can avoid unnecessary memory allocation by avoiding * using a blocksize which is bigger than the size of the input. *
* ** You can compute the memory usage for compressing by the following formula: *
* ** <code>400k + (9 * blocksize)</code>. ** *
* To get the memory required for decompression by {@link CBZip2InputStream * CBZip2InputStream} use *
* ** <code>65k + (5 * blocksize)</code>. ** *
| Memory usage by blocksize | *||
|---|---|---|
| Blocksize | Compression * memory usage | Decompression * memory usage |
*
| 100k | *1300k | *565k | *
| 200k | *2200k | *1065k | *
| 300k | *3100k | *1565k | *
| 400k | *4000k | *2065k | *
| 500k | *4900k | *2565k | *
| 600k | *5800k | *3065k | *
| 700k | *6700k | *3565k | *
| 800k | *7600k | *4065k | *
| 900k | *8500k | *4565k | *
* For decompression CBZip2InputStream allocates less memory if the * bzipped input is smaller than one block. *
* ** Instances of this class are not thread safe. *
* ** TODO: Update to BZip2 1.0.1 *
*/ // forked from Apache Hadoop class CBZip2OutputStream extends OutputStream { /** * The maximum supported block size == 9. */ private static final int MAX_BLOCK_SIZE = 9; private static final int[] R_NUMS = {619, 720, 127, 481, 931, 816, 813, 233, 566, 247, 985, 724, 205, 454, 863, 491, 741, 242, 949, 214, 733, 859, 335, 708, 621, 574, 73, 654, 730, 472, 419, 436, 278, 496, 867, 210, 399, 680, 480, 51, 878, 465, 811, 169, 869, 675, 611, 697, 867, 561, 862, 687, 507, 283, 482, 129, 807, 591, 733, 623, 150, 238, 59, 379, 684, 877, 625, 169, 643, 105, 170, 607, 520, 932, 727, 476, 693, 425, 174, 647, 73, 122, 335, 530, 442, 853, 695, 249, 445, 515, 909, 545, 703, 919, 874, 474, 882, 500, 594, 612, 641, 801, 220, 162, 819, 984, 589, 513, 495, 799, 161, 604, 958, 533, 221, 400, 386, 867, 600, 782, 382, 596, 414, 171, 516, 375, 682, 485, 911, 276, 98, 553, 163, 354, 666, 933, 424, 341, 533, 870, 227, 730, 475, 186, 263, 647, 537, 686, 600, 224, 469, 68, 770, 919, 190, 373, 294, 822, 808, 206, 184, 943, 795, 384, 383, 461, 404, 758, 839, 887, 715, 67, 618, 276, 204, 918, 873, 777, 604, 560, 951, 160, 578, 722, 79, 804, 96, 409, 713, 940, 652, 934, 970, 447, 318, 353, 859, 672, 112, 785, 645, 863, 803, 350, 139, 93, 354, 99, 820, 908, 609, 772, 154, 274, 580, 184, 79, 626, 630, 742, 653, 282, 762, 623, 680, 81, 927, 626, 789, 125, 411, 521, 938, 300, 821, 78, 343, 175, 128, 250, 170, 774, 972, 275, 999, 639, 495, 78, 352, 126, 857, 956, 358, 619, 580, 124, 737, 594, 701, 612, 669, 112, 134, 694, 363, 992, 809, 743, 168, 974, 944, 375, 748, 52, 600, 747, 642, 182, 862, 81, 344, 805, 988, 739, 511, 655, 814, 334, 249, 515, 897, 955, 664, 981, 649, 113, 974, 459, 893, 228, 433, 837, 553, 268, 926, 240, 102, 654, 459, 51, 686, 754, 806, 760, 493, 403, 415, 394, 687, 700, 946, 670, 656, 610, 738, 392, 760, 799, 887, 653, 978, 321, 576, 617, 626, 502, 894, 679, 243, 440, 680, 879, 194, 572, 640, 724, 926, 56, 204, 700, 707, 151, 457, 449, 797, 195, 791, 558, 945, 679, 297, 59, 87, 824, 713, 663, 412, 693, 342, 606, 134, 108, 571, 364, 631, 212, 174, 643, 304, 329, 343, 97, 430, 751, 497, 314, 983, 374, 822, 928, 140, 206, 73, 263, 980, 736, 876, 478, 430, 305, 170, 514, 364, 692, 829, 82, 855, 953, 676, 246, 369, 970, 294, 750, 807, 827, 150, 790, 288, 923, 804, 378, 215, 828, 592, 281, 565, 555, 710, 82, 896, 831, 547, 261, 524, 462, 293, 465, 502, 56, 661, 821, 976, 991, 658, 869, 905, 758, 745, 193, 768, 550, 608, 933, 378, 286, 215, 979, 792, 961, 61, 688, 793, 644, 986, 403, 106, 366, 905, 644, 372, 567, 466, 434, 645, 210, 389, 550, 919, 135, 780, 773, 635, 389, 707, 100, 626, 958, 165, 504, 920, 176, 193, 713, 857, 265, 203, 50, 668, 108, 645, 990, 626, 197, 510, 357, 358, 850, 858, 364, 936, 638}; private static final int N_ITERS = 4; private static final int NUM_OVERSHOOT_BYTES = 20; /** * This constant is accessible by subclasses for historical purposes. If you * don't know what it means then you don't need it. */ private static final int SET_MASK = (1 << 21); /** * This constant is accessible by subclasses for historical purposes. If you * don't know what it means then you don't need it. */ private static final int CLEAR_MASK = (~SET_MASK); /** * This constant is accessible by subclasses for historical purposes. If you * don't know what it means then you don't need it. */ private static final int GREATER_ICOST = 15; /** * This constant is accessible by subclasses for historical purposes. If you * don't know what it means then you don't need it. */ private static final int LESSER_ICOST = 0; /** * This constant is accessible by subclasses for historical purposes. If you * don't know what it means then you don't need it. */ private static final int SMALL_THRESH = 20; /** * This constant is accessible by subclasses for historical purposes. If you * don't know what it means then you don't need it. */ private static final int DEPTH_THRESH = 10; /** * This constant is accessible by subclasses for historical purposes. If you * don't know what it means then you don't need it. */ private static final int WORK_FACTOR = 30; /** * This constant is accessible by subclasses for historical purposes. If you * don't know what it means then you don't need it. ** If you are ever unlucky/improbable enough to get a stack overflow whilst * sorting, increase the following constant and try again. In practice I * have never seen the stack go above 27 elems, so the following limit seems * very generous. *
*/ private static final int QSORT_STACK_SIZE = 1000; /** * Knuth's increments seem to work better than Incerpi-Sedgewick here. * Possibly because the number of elems to sort is usually small, typically * <= 20. */ private static final int[] INCS = {1, 4, 13, 40, 121, 364, 1093, 3280, 9841, 29524, 88573, 265720, 797161, 2391484}; private static void hbMakeCodeLengths(final byte[] len, final int[] freq, final Data dat, final int alphaSize, final int maxLen) { /* * Nodes and heap entries run from 1. Entry 0 for both the heap and * nodes is a sentinel. */ final int[] heap = dat.heap; final int[] weight = dat.weight; final int[] parent = dat.parent; for (int i = alphaSize; --i >= 0; ) { weight[i + 1] = (freq[i] == 0 ? 1 : freq[i]) << 8; } for (boolean tooLong = true; tooLong; ) { tooLong = false; int nNodes = alphaSize; int nHeap = 0; heap[0] = 0; weight[0] = 0; parent[0] = -2; for (int i = 1; i <= alphaSize; i++) { parent[i] = -1; nHeap++; heap[nHeap] = i; int zz = nHeap; int tmp = heap[zz]; while (weight[tmp] < weight[heap[zz >> 1]]) { heap[zz] = heap[zz >> 1]; zz >>= 1; } heap[zz] = tmp; } while (nHeap > 1) { int n1 = heap[1]; heap[1] = heap[nHeap]; nHeap--; int yy; int zz = 1; int tmp = heap[1]; while (true) { yy = zz << 1; if (yy > nHeap) { break; } if ((yy < nHeap) && (weight[heap[yy + 1]] < weight[heap[yy]])) { yy++; } if (weight[tmp] < weight[heap[yy]]) { break; } heap[zz] = heap[yy]; zz = yy; } heap[zz] = tmp; int n2 = heap[1]; heap[1] = heap[nHeap]; nHeap--; zz = 1; tmp = heap[1]; while (true) { yy = zz << 1; if (yy > nHeap) { break; } if ((yy < nHeap) && (weight[heap[yy + 1]] < weight[heap[yy]])) { yy++; } if (weight[tmp] < weight[heap[yy]]) { break; } heap[zz] = heap[yy]; zz = yy; } heap[zz] = tmp; nNodes++; parent[n1] = nNodes; parent[n2] = nNodes; final int weightN1 = weight[n1]; final int weightN2 = weight[n2]; weight[nNodes] = ((weightN1 & 0xffffff00) + (weightN2 & 0xffffff00)) | (1 + (Math.max((weightN1 & 0x000000ff), (weightN2 & 0x000000ff)))); parent[nNodes] = -1; nHeap++; heap[nHeap] = nNodes; zz = nHeap; tmp = heap[zz]; final int weightTmp = weight[tmp]; while (weightTmp < weight[heap[zz >> 1]]) { heap[zz] = heap[zz >> 1]; zz >>= 1; } heap[zz] = tmp; } for (int i = 1; i <= alphaSize; i++) { int j = 0; int k = i; for (int parentK; (parentK = parent[k]) >= 0; ) { k = parentK; j++; } len[i - 1] = (byte) j; if (j > maxLen) { tooLong = true; } } if (tooLong) { for (int i = 1; i < alphaSize; i++) { int j = weight[i] >> 8; j = 1 + (j >> 1); weight[i] = j << 8; } } } } /** * Index of the last char in the block, so the block size == last + 1. */ private int last; /** * Index in fmap[] of original string after sorting. */ private int origPtr; /** * Always: in the range 0 .. 9. The current block size is 100000 * this * number. */ private final int blockSize100k; private boolean blockRandomised; private int bsBuff; private int bsLive; private final Crc32 crc32 = new Crc32(); private int nInUse; private int nMTF; /* * Used when sorting. If too many long comparisons happen, we stop sorting, * randomise the block slightly, and try again. */ private int workDone; private int workLimit; private boolean firstAttempt; private int currentChar = -1; private int runLength; private int combinedCRC; private int allowableBlockSize; /** * All memory intensive stuff. */ private Data data; private OutputStream out; /** * Constructs a new CBZip2OutputStream with a block size of 900k. * ** Attention: The caller is responsible to write the two BZip2 magic * bytes "BZ" to the specified stream prior to calling this * constructor. *
* * @param out * * the destination stream. * @throws IOException if an I/O error occurs in the specified stream. * @throws NullPointerException ifout == null.
*/
public CBZip2OutputStream(final OutputStream out)
throws IOException
{
this(out, MAX_BLOCK_SIZE);
}
/**
* Constructs a new CBZip2OutputStream with specified block size.
*
* * Attention: The caller is responsible to write the two BZip2 magic * bytes "BZ" to the specified stream prior to calling this * constructor. *
* * @param out the destination stream. * @param blockSize the blockSize as 100k units. * @throws IOException if an I/O error occurs in the specified stream. * @throws IllegalArgumentException if(blockSize < 1) || (blockSize > 9).
* @throws NullPointerException if out == null.
* @see #MAX_BLOCK_SIZE
*/
private CBZip2OutputStream(final OutputStream out, final int blockSize)
throws IOException
{
if (blockSize < 1) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("blockSize(" + blockSize
+ ") < 1");
}
if (blockSize > 9) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("blockSize(" + blockSize
+ ") > 9");
}
this.blockSize100k = blockSize;
this.out = out;
init();
}
@Override
public void write(final int b)
throws IOException
{
if (this.out != null) {
write0(b);
}
else {
throw new IOException("closed");
}
}
private void writeRun()
throws IOException
{
final int lastShadow = this.last;
if (lastShadow < this.allowableBlockSize) {
final int currentCharShadow = this.currentChar;
final Data dataShadow = this.data;
dataShadow.inUse[currentCharShadow] = true;
final byte ch = (byte) currentCharShadow;
int runLengthShadow = this.runLength;
this.crc32.updateCRC(currentCharShadow, runLengthShadow);
switch (runLengthShadow) {
case 1:
dataShadow.block[lastShadow + 2] = ch;
this.last = lastShadow + 1;
break;
case 2:
dataShadow.block[lastShadow + 2] = ch;
dataShadow.block[lastShadow + 3] = ch;
this.last = lastShadow + 2;
break;
case 3: {
final byte[] block = dataShadow.block;
block[lastShadow + 2] = ch;
block[lastShadow + 3] = ch;
block[lastShadow + 4] = ch;
this.last = lastShadow + 3;
}
break;
default: {
runLengthShadow -= 4;
dataShadow.inUse[runLengthShadow] = true;
final byte[] block = dataShadow.block;
block[lastShadow + 2] = ch;
block[lastShadow + 3] = ch;
block[lastShadow + 4] = ch;
block[lastShadow + 5] = ch;
block[lastShadow + 6] = (byte) runLengthShadow;
this.last = lastShadow + 5;
}
break;
}
}
else {
endBlock();
initBlock();
writeRun();
}
}
/**
* Overridden to close the stream.
*/
@Override
protected void finalize()
throws Throwable
{
finish();
super.finalize();
}
public void finish()
throws IOException
{
if (out != null) {
try {
if (this.runLength > 0) {
writeRun();
}
this.currentChar = -1;
endBlock();
endCompression();
}
finally {
this.out = null;
this.data = null;
}
}
}
@Override
public void close()
throws IOException
{
if (out != null) {
OutputStream outShadow = this.out;
try {
finish();
outShadow.close();
outShadow = null;
}
finally {
outShadow.close();
}
}
}
@Override
public void flush()
throws IOException
{
OutputStream outShadow = this.out;
if (outShadow != null) {
outShadow.flush();
}
}
private void init()
throws IOException
{
// write magic: done by caller who created this stream
// this.out.write('B');
// this.out.write('Z');
this.data = new Data(this.blockSize100k);
/*
* Write `magic' bytes h indicating file-format == huffmanised, followed
* by a digit indicating blockSize100k.
*/
bsPutUByte('h');
bsPutUByte((int) '0' + this.blockSize100k);
this.combinedCRC = 0;
initBlock();
}
private void initBlock()
{
// blockNo++;
this.crc32.initialiseCRC();
this.last = -1;
// ch = 0;
boolean[] inUse = this.data.inUse;
for (int i = 256; --i >= 0; ) {
inUse[i] = false;
}
/* 20 is just a paranoia constant */
this.allowableBlockSize = (this.blockSize100k * BZip2Constants.BASE_BLOCK_SIZE) - 20;
}
private void endBlock()
throws IOException
{
int blockCRC = this.crc32.getFinalCRC();
this.combinedCRC = (this.combinedCRC << 1) | (this.combinedCRC >>> 31);
this.combinedCRC ^= blockCRC;
// empty block at end of file
if (this.last == -1) {
return;
}
/* sort the block and establish posn of original string */
blockSort();
/*
* A 6-byte block header, the value chosen arbitrarily as 0x314159265359
* :-). A 32 bit value does not really give a strong enough guarantee
* that the value will not appear by chance in the compressed
* data stream. Worst-case probability of this event, for a 900k block,
* is about 2.0e-3 for 32 bits, 1.0e-5 for 40 bits and 4.0e-8 for 48
* bits. For a compressed file of size 100Gb -- about 100000 blocks --
* only a 48-bit marker will do. NB: normal compression/ decompression
* do not rely on these statistical properties. They are only important
* when trying to recover blocks from damaged files.
*/
bsPutUByte(0x31);
bsPutUByte(0x41);
bsPutUByte(0x59);
bsPutUByte(0x26);
bsPutUByte(0x53);
bsPutUByte(0x59);
/* Now the block's CRC, so it is in a known place. */
bsPutInt(blockCRC);
/* Now a single bit indicating randomisation. */
if (this.blockRandomised) {
bsW(1, 1);
}
else {
bsW(1, 0);
}
/* Finally, block's contents proper. */
moveToFrontCodeAndSend();
}
private void endCompression()
throws IOException
{
/*
* Now another magic 48-bit number, 0x177245385090, to indicate the end
* of the last block. (sqrt(pi), if you want to know. I did want to use
* e, but it contains too much repetition -- 27 18 28 18 28 46 -- for me
* to feel statistically comfortable. Call me paranoid.)
*/
bsPutUByte(0x17);
bsPutUByte(0x72);
bsPutUByte(0x45);
bsPutUByte(0x38);
bsPutUByte(0x50);
bsPutUByte(0x90);
bsPutInt(this.combinedCRC);
bsFinishedWithStream();
}
@Override
public void write(final byte[] buf, int offs, final int len)
throws IOException
{
if (offs < 0) {
throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("offs(" + offs + ") < 0.");
}
if (len < 0) {
throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("len(" + len + ") < 0.");
}
if (offs + len > buf.length) {
throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException("offs(" + offs + ") + len("
+ len + ") > buf.length(" + buf.length + ").");
}
if (this.out == null) {
throw new IOException("stream closed");
}
for (int hi = offs + len; offs < hi; ) {
write0(buf[offs++]);
}
}
private void write0(int b)
throws IOException
{
if (this.currentChar != -1) {
b &= 0xff;
if (this.currentChar == b) {
if (++this.runLength > 254) {
writeRun();
this.currentChar = -1;
this.runLength = 0;
}
// else nothing to do
}
else {
writeRun();
this.runLength = 1;
this.currentChar = b;
}
}
else {
this.currentChar = b & 0xff;
this.runLength++;
}
}
private static void hbAssignCodes(final int[] code, final byte[] length,
final int minLen, final int maxLen, final int alphaSize)
{
int vec = 0;
for (int n = minLen; n <= maxLen; n++) {
for (int i = 0; i < alphaSize; i++) {
if ((length[i] & 0xff) == n) {
code[i] = vec;
vec++;
}
}
vec <<= 1;
}
}
private void bsFinishedWithStream()
throws IOException
{
while (this.bsLive > 0) {
int ch = this.bsBuff >> 24;
this.out.write(ch); // write 8-bit
this.bsBuff <<= 8;
this.bsLive -= 8;
}
}
private void bsW(final int n, final int v)
throws IOException
{
final OutputStream outShadow = this.out;
int bsLiveShadow = this.bsLive;
int bsBuffShadow = this.bsBuff;
while (bsLiveShadow >= 8) {
outShadow.write(bsBuffShadow >> 24); // write 8-bit
bsBuffShadow <<= 8;
bsLiveShadow -= 8;
}
this.bsBuff = bsBuffShadow | (v << (32 - bsLiveShadow - n));
this.bsLive = bsLiveShadow + n;
}
private void bsPutUByte(final int c)
throws IOException
{
bsW(8, c);
}
private void bsPutInt(final int u)
throws IOException
{
bsW(8, (u >> 24) & 0xff);
bsW(8, (u >> 16) & 0xff);
bsW(8, (u >> 8) & 0xff);
bsW(8, u & 0xff);
}
private void sendMTFValues()
throws IOException
{
final byte[][] len = this.data.sendMTFValuesLen;
final int alphaSize = this.nInUse + 2;
for (int t = N_GROUPS; --t >= 0; ) {
byte[] lenT = len[t];
for (int v = alphaSize; --v >= 0; ) {
lenT[v] = GREATER_ICOST;
}
}
/* Decide how many coding tables to use */
// assert (this.nMTF > 0) : this.nMTF;
final int nGroups = (this.nMTF < 200) ? 2 : (this.nMTF < 600) ? 3
: (this.nMTF < 1200) ? 4 : (this.nMTF < 2400) ? 5 : 6;
/* Generate an initial set of coding tables */
sendMTFValues0(nGroups, alphaSize);
/*
* Iterate up to N_ITERS times to improve the tables.
*/
final int nSelectors = sendMTFValues1(nGroups, alphaSize);
/* Compute MTF values for the selectors. */
sendMTFValues2(nGroups, nSelectors);
/* Assign actual codes for the tables. */
sendMTFValues3(nGroups, alphaSize);
/* Transmit the mapping table. */
sendMTFValues4();
/* Now the selectors. */
sendMTFValues5(nGroups, nSelectors);
/* Now the coding tables. */
sendMTFValues6(nGroups, alphaSize);
/* And finally, the block data proper */
sendMTFValues7();
}
private void sendMTFValues0(final int nGroups, final int alphaSize)
{
final byte[][] len = this.data.sendMTFValuesLen;
final int[] mtfFreq = this.data.mtfFreq;
int remF = this.nMTF;
int gs = 0;
for (int nPart = nGroups; nPart > 0; nPart--) {
final int tFreq = remF / nPart;
int ge = gs - 1;
int aFreq = 0;
for (final int a = alphaSize - 1; (aFreq < tFreq) && (ge < a); ) {
aFreq += mtfFreq[++ge];
}
if ((ge > gs) && (nPart != nGroups) && (nPart != 1)
&& (((nGroups - nPart) & 1) != 0)) {
aFreq -= mtfFreq[ge--];
}
final byte[] lenNp = len[nPart - 1];
for (int v = alphaSize; --v >= 0; ) {
if ((v >= gs) && (v <= ge)) {
lenNp[v] = LESSER_ICOST;
}
else {
lenNp[v] = GREATER_ICOST;
}
}
gs = ge + 1;
remF -= aFreq;
}
}
private int sendMTFValues1(final int nGroups, final int alphaSize)
{
final Data dataShadow = this.data;
final int[][] rfreq = dataShadow.sendMTFValuesRfreq;
final int[] fave = dataShadow.sendMTFValuesFave;
final short[] cost = dataShadow.sendMTFValuesCost;
final char[] sfmap = dataShadow.sfmap;
final byte[] selector = dataShadow.selector;
final byte[][] len = dataShadow.sendMTFValuesLen;
final byte[] len0 = len[0];
final byte[] len1 = len[1];
final byte[] len2 = len[2];
final byte[] len3 = len[3];
final byte[] len4 = len[4];
final byte[] len5 = len[5];
final int nMTFShadow = this.nMTF;
int nSelectors = 0;
for (int iter = 0; iter < N_ITERS; iter++) {
for (int t = nGroups; --t >= 0; ) {
fave[t] = 0;
int[] rfreqt = rfreq[t];
for (int i = alphaSize; --i >= 0; ) {
rfreqt[i] = 0;
}
}
nSelectors = 0;
for (int gs = 0; gs < this.nMTF; ) {
/* Set group start & end marks. */
/*
* Calculate the cost of this group as coded by each of the
* coding tables.
*/
final int ge = Math.min(gs + G_SIZE - 1, nMTFShadow - 1);
if (nGroups == N_GROUPS) {
// unrolled version of the else-block
short cost0 = 0;
short cost1 = 0;
short cost2 = 0;
short cost3 = 0;
short cost4 = 0;
short cost5 = 0;
for (int i = gs; i <= ge; i++) {
final int icv = sfmap[i];
cost0 += len0[icv] & 0xff;
cost1 += len1[icv] & 0xff;
cost2 += len2[icv] & 0xff;
cost3 += len3[icv] & 0xff;
cost4 += len4[icv] & 0xff;
cost5 += len5[icv] & 0xff;
}
cost[0] = cost0;
cost[1] = cost1;
cost[2] = cost2;
cost[3] = cost3;
cost[4] = cost4;
cost[5] = cost5;
}
else {
for (int t = nGroups; --t >= 0; ) {
cost[t] = 0;
}
for (int i = gs; i <= ge; i++) {
final int icv = sfmap[i];
for (int t = nGroups; --t >= 0; ) {
cost[t] += len[t][icv] & 0xff;
}
}
}
/*
* Find the coding table which is best for this group, and
* record its identity in the selector table.
*/
int bt = -1;
for (int t = nGroups, bc = 999999999; --t >= 0; ) {
final int costT = cost[t];
if (costT < bc) {
bc = costT;
bt = t;
}
}
fave[bt]++;
selector[nSelectors] = (byte) bt;
nSelectors++;
/*
* Increment the symbol frequencies for the selected table.
*/
final int[] rfreqBt = rfreq[bt];
for (int i = gs; i <= ge; i++) {
rfreqBt[sfmap[i]]++;
}
gs = ge + 1;
}
/*
* Recompute the tables based on the accumulated frequencies.
*/
for (int t = 0; t < nGroups; t++) {
hbMakeCodeLengths(len[t], rfreq[t], this.data, alphaSize, 20);
}
}
return nSelectors;
}
private void sendMTFValues2(final int nGroups, final int nSelectors)
{
// assert (nGroups < 8) : nGroups;
final Data dataShadow = this.data;
byte[] pos = dataShadow.sendMTFValues2Pos;
for (int i = nGroups; --i >= 0; ) {
pos[i] = (byte) i;
}
for (int i = 0; i < nSelectors; i++) {
final byte llI = dataShadow.selector[i];
byte tmp = pos[0];
int j = 0;
while (llI != tmp) {
j++;
byte tmp2 = tmp;
tmp = pos[j];
pos[j] = tmp2;
}
pos[0] = tmp;
dataShadow.selectorMtf[i] = (byte) j;
}
}
private void sendMTFValues3(final int nGroups, final int alphaSize)
{
int[][] code = this.data.sendMTFValuesCode;
byte[][] len = this.data.sendMTFValuesLen;
for (int t = 0; t < nGroups; t++) {
int minLen = 32;
int maxLen = 0;
final byte[] lenT = len[t];
for (int i = alphaSize; --i >= 0; ) {
final int l = lenT[i] & 0xff;
if (l > maxLen) {
maxLen = l;
}
if (l < minLen) {
minLen = l;
}
}
// assert (maxLen <= 20) : maxLen;
// assert (minLen >= 1) : minLen;
hbAssignCodes(code[t], len[t], minLen, maxLen, alphaSize);
}
}
private void sendMTFValues4()
throws IOException
{
final boolean[] inUse = this.data.inUse;
final boolean[] inUse16 = this.data.sentMTFValues4InUse16;
for (int i = 16; --i >= 0; ) {
inUse16[i] = false;
final int i16 = i * 16;
for (int j = 16; --j >= 0; ) {
if (inUse[i16 + j]) {
inUse16[i] = true;
break;
}
}
}
for (int i = 0; i < 16; i++) {
bsW(1, inUse16[i] ? 1 : 0);
}
final OutputStream outShadow = this.out;
int bsLiveShadow = this.bsLive;
int bsBuffShadow = this.bsBuff;
for (int i = 0; i < 16; i++) {
if (inUse16[i]) {
final int i16 = i * 16;
for (int j = 0; j < 16; j++) {
// inlined: bsW(1, inUse[i16 + j] ? 1 : 0);
while (bsLiveShadow >= 8) {
outShadow.write(bsBuffShadow >> 24); // write 8-bit
bsBuffShadow <<= 8;
bsLiveShadow -= 8;
}
if (inUse[i16 + j]) {
bsBuffShadow |= 1 << (32 - bsLiveShadow - 1);
}
bsLiveShadow++;
}
}
}
this.bsBuff = bsBuffShadow;
this.bsLive = bsLiveShadow;
}
private void sendMTFValues5(final int nGroups, final int nSelectors)
throws IOException
{
bsW(3, nGroups);
bsW(15, nSelectors);
final OutputStream outShadow = this.out;
final byte[] selectorMtf = this.data.selectorMtf;
int bsLiveShadow = this.bsLive;
int bsBuffShadow = this.bsBuff;
for (int i = 0; i < nSelectors; i++) {
for (int j = 0, hj = selectorMtf[i] & 0xff; j < hj; j++) {
// inlined: bsW(1, 1);
while (bsLiveShadow >= 8) {
outShadow.write(bsBuffShadow >> 24);
bsBuffShadow <<= 8;
bsLiveShadow -= 8;
}
bsBuffShadow |= 1 << (32 - bsLiveShadow - 1);
bsLiveShadow++;
}
// inlined: bsW(1, 0);
while (bsLiveShadow >= 8) {
outShadow.write(bsBuffShadow >> 24);
bsBuffShadow <<= 8;
bsLiveShadow -= 8;
}
// bsBuffShadow |= 0 << (32 - bsLiveShadow - 1);
bsLiveShadow++;
}
this.bsBuff = bsBuffShadow;
this.bsLive = bsLiveShadow;
}
private void sendMTFValues6(final int nGroups, final int alphaSize)
throws IOException
{
final byte[][] len = this.data.sendMTFValuesLen;
final OutputStream outShadow = this.out;
int bsLiveShadow = this.bsLive;
int bsBuffShadow = this.bsBuff;
for (int t = 0; t < nGroups; t++) {
byte[] lenT = len[t];
int curr = lenT[0] & 0xff;
// inlined: bsW(5, curr);
while (bsLiveShadow >= 8) {
outShadow.write(bsBuffShadow >> 24); // write 8-bit
bsBuffShadow <<= 8;
bsLiveShadow -= 8;
}
bsBuffShadow |= curr << (32 - bsLiveShadow - 5);
bsLiveShadow += 5;
for (int i = 0; i < alphaSize; i++) {
int lti = lenT[i] & 0xff;
while (curr < lti) {
// inlined: bsW(2, 2);
while (bsLiveShadow >= 8) {
outShadow.write(bsBuffShadow >> 24); // write 8-bit
bsBuffShadow <<= 8;
bsLiveShadow -= 8;
}
bsBuffShadow |= 2 << (32 - bsLiveShadow - 2);
bsLiveShadow += 2;
curr++; /* 10 */
}
while (curr > lti) {
// inlined: bsW(2, 3);
while (bsLiveShadow >= 8) {
outShadow.write(bsBuffShadow >> 24); // write 8-bit
bsBuffShadow <<= 8;
bsLiveShadow -= 8;
}
bsBuffShadow |= 3 << (32 - bsLiveShadow - 2);
bsLiveShadow += 2;
curr--; /* 11 */
}
// inlined: bsW(1, 0);
while (bsLiveShadow >= 8) {
outShadow.write(bsBuffShadow >> 24); // write 8-bit
bsBuffShadow <<= 8;
bsLiveShadow -= 8;
}
// bsBuffShadow |= 0 << (32 - bsLiveShadow - 1);
bsLiveShadow++;
}
}
this.bsBuff = bsBuffShadow;
this.bsLive = bsLiveShadow;
}
private void sendMTFValues7()
throws IOException
{
final Data dataShadow = this.data;
final byte[][] len = dataShadow.sendMTFValuesLen;
final int[][] code = dataShadow.sendMTFValuesCode;
final OutputStream outShadow = this.out;
final byte[] selector = dataShadow.selector;
final char[] sfmap = dataShadow.sfmap;
final int nMTFShadow = this.nMTF;
int selCtr = 0;
int bsLiveShadow = this.bsLive;
int bsBuffShadow = this.bsBuff;
for (int gs = 0; gs < nMTFShadow; ) {
final int ge = Math.min(gs + G_SIZE - 1, nMTFShadow - 1);
final int selectorSelCtr = selector[selCtr] & 0xff;
final int[] codeSelCtr = code[selectorSelCtr];
final byte[] lenSelCtr = len[selectorSelCtr];
while (gs <= ge) {
final int sfmapI = sfmap[gs];
// inlined: bsW(lenSelCtr[sfmapI] & 0xff,
// codeSelCtr[sfmapI]);
while (bsLiveShadow >= 8) {
outShadow.write(bsBuffShadow >> 24);
bsBuffShadow <<= 8;
bsLiveShadow -= 8;
}
final int n = lenSelCtr[sfmapI] & 0xFF;
bsBuffShadow |= codeSelCtr[sfmapI] << (32 - bsLiveShadow - n);
bsLiveShadow += n;
gs++;
}
gs = ge + 1;
selCtr++;
}
this.bsBuff = bsBuffShadow;
this.bsLive = bsLiveShadow;
}
private void moveToFrontCodeAndSend()
throws IOException
{
bsW(24, this.origPtr);
generateMTFValues();
sendMTFValues();
}
/**
* This is the most hammered method of this class.
*
* * This is the version using unrolled loops. Normally I never use such ones * in Java code. The unrolling has shown a noticeable performance improvement * on JRE 1.4.2 (Linux i586 / HotSpot Client). Of course it depends on the * JIT compiler of the vm. *
*/ @SuppressWarnings("checkstyle:InnerAssignment") private boolean mainSimpleSort(final Data dataShadow, final int lo, final int hi, final int d) { final int bigN = hi - lo + 1; if (bigN < 2) { return this.firstAttempt && (this.workDone > this.workLimit); } int hp = 0; while (INCS[hp] < bigN) { hp++; } final int[] fmap = dataShadow.fmap; final char[] quadrant = dataShadow.quadrant; final byte[] block = dataShadow.block; final int lastShadow = this.last; final int lastPlus1 = lastShadow + 1; final boolean firstAttemptShadow = this.firstAttempt; final int workLimitShadow = this.workLimit; int workDoneShadow = this.workDone; // Following block contains unrolled code which could be shortened by // coding it in additional loops. HP: while (--hp >= 0) { final int h = INCS[hp]; final int mj = lo + h - 1; for (int i = lo + h; i <= hi; ) { // copy for (int k = 3; (i <= hi) && (--k >= 0); i++) { final int v = fmap[i]; final int vd = v + d; int j = i; // for (int a; // (j > mj) && mainGtU((a = fmap[j - h]) + d, vd, // block, quadrant, lastShadow); // j -= h) { // fmap[j] = a; // } // // unrolled version: // start inline mainGTU boolean onceRunned = false; int a = 0; HAMMER: while (true) { if (onceRunned) { fmap[j] = a; if ((j -= h) <= mj) { break; } } else { onceRunned = true; } a = fmap[j - h]; int i1 = a + d; int i2 = vd; // following could be done in a loop, but // unrolled it for performance: if (block[i1 + 1] == block[i2 + 1]) { if (block[i1 + 2] == block[i2 + 2]) { if (block[i1 + 3] == block[i2 + 3]) { if (block[i1 + 4] == block[i2 + 4]) { if (block[i1 + 5] == block[i2 + 5]) { if (block[(i1 += 6)] == block[(i2 += 6)]) { int x = lastShadow; while (x > 0) { x -= 4; if (block[i1 + 1] == block[i2 + 1]) { if (quadrant[i1] == quadrant[i2]) { if (block[i1 + 2] == block[i2 + 2]) { if (quadrant[i1 + 1] == quadrant[i2 + 1]) { if (block[i1 + 3] == block[i2 + 3]) { if (quadrant[i1 + 2] == quadrant[i2 + 2]) { if (block[i1 + 4] == block[i2 + 4]) { if (quadrant[i1 + 3] == quadrant[i2 + 3]) { if ((i1 += 4) >= lastPlus1) { i1 -= lastPlus1; } if ((i2 += 4) >= lastPlus1) { i2 -= lastPlus1; } workDoneShadow++; } else if ((quadrant[i1 + 3] > quadrant[i2 + 3])) { continue HAMMER; } else { break HAMMER; } } else if ((block[i1 + 4] & 0xff) > (block[i2 + 4] & 0xff)) { continue HAMMER; } else { break HAMMER; } } else if ((quadrant[i1 + 2] > quadrant[i2 + 2])) { continue HAMMER; } else { break HAMMER; } } else if ((block[i1 + 3] & 0xff) > (block[i2 + 3] & 0xff)) { continue HAMMER; } else { break HAMMER; } } else if ((quadrant[i1 + 1] > quadrant[i2 + 1])) { continue HAMMER; } else { break HAMMER; } } else if ((block[i1 + 2] & 0xff) > (block[i2 + 2] & 0xff)) { continue HAMMER; } else { break HAMMER; } } else if ((quadrant[i1] > quadrant[i2])) { continue HAMMER; } else { break HAMMER; } } else if ((block[i1 + 1] & 0xff) > (block[i2 + 1] & 0xff)) { continue HAMMER; } else { break HAMMER; } } break; } // while x > 0 else { if ((block[i1] & 0xff) <= (block[i2] & 0xff)) { break; } } } else if ((block[i1 + 5] & 0xff) > (block[i2 + 5] & 0xff)) { // ignored } else { break; } } else if ((block[i1 + 4] & 0xff) > (block[i2 + 4] & 0xff)) { // ignored } else { break; } } else if ((block[i1 + 3] & 0xff) > (block[i2 + 3] & 0xff)) { // ignored } else { break; } } else if ((block[i1 + 2] & 0xff) > (block[i2 + 2] & 0xff)) { // ignored } else { break; } } else if ((block[i1 + 1] & 0xff) > (block[i2 + 1] & 0xff)) { // ignored } else { break; } } fmap[j] = v; } if (firstAttemptShadow && (i <= hi) && (workDoneShadow > workLimitShadow)) { break HP; } } } this.workDone = workDoneShadow; return firstAttemptShadow && (workDoneShadow > workLimitShadow); } private static void vswap(int[] fmap, int p1, int p2, int n) { n += p1; while (p1 < n) { int t = fmap[p1]; fmap[p1++] = fmap[p2]; fmap[p2++] = t; } } private static byte med3(byte a, byte b, byte c) { return (a < b) ? (b < c ? b : a < c ? c : a) : (b > c ? b : a > c ? c : a); } private void blockSort() { this.workLimit = WORK_FACTOR * this.last; this.workDone = 0; this.blockRandomised = false; this.firstAttempt = true; mainSort(); if (this.firstAttempt && (this.workDone > this.workLimit)) { randomiseBlock(); this.workLimit = 0; this.workDone = 0; this.firstAttempt = false; mainSort(); } int[] fmap = this.data.fmap; this.origPtr = -1; for (int i = 0, lastShadow = this.last; i <= lastShadow; i++) { if (fmap[i] == 0) { this.origPtr = i; break; } } } /** * Method "mainQSort3", file "blocksort.c", BZip2 1.0.2 */ private void mainQSort3(final Data dataShadow, final int loSt, final int hiSt, final int dSt) { final int[] stackLl = dataShadow.stackLl; final int[] stackHh = dataShadow.stackHh; final int[] stackDd = dataShadow.stackDd; final int[] fmap = dataShadow.fmap; final byte[] block = dataShadow.block; stackLl[0] = loSt; stackHh[0] = hiSt; stackDd[0] = dSt; for (int sp = 1; --sp >= 0; ) { final int lo = stackLl[sp]; final int hi = stackHh[sp]; final int d = stackDd[sp]; if ((hi - lo < SMALL_THRESH) || (d > DEPTH_THRESH)) { if (mainSimpleSort(dataShadow, lo, hi, d)) { return; } } else { final int d1 = d + 1; final int med = med3(block[fmap[lo] + d1], block[fmap[hi] + d1], block[fmap[(lo + hi) >>> 1] + d1]) & 0xff; int unLo = lo; int unHi = hi; int ltLo = lo; int gtHi = hi; while (true) { while (unLo <= unHi) { final int n = ((int) block[fmap[unLo] + d1] & 0xff) - med; if (n == 0) { final int temp = fmap[unLo]; fmap[unLo++] = fmap[ltLo]; fmap[ltLo++] = temp; } else if (n < 0) { unLo++; } else { break; } } while (unLo <= unHi) { final int n = ((int) block[fmap[unHi] + d1] & 0xff) - med; if (n == 0) { final int temp = fmap[unHi]; fmap[unHi--] = fmap[gtHi]; fmap[gtHi--] = temp; } else if (n > 0) { unHi--; } else { break; } } if (unLo <= unHi) { final int temp = fmap[unLo]; fmap[unLo++] = fmap[unHi]; fmap[unHi--] = temp; } else { break; } } if (gtHi < ltLo) { stackLl[sp] = lo; stackHh[sp] = hi; stackDd[sp] = d1; sp++; } else { int n = Math.min((ltLo - lo), (unLo - ltLo)); vswap(fmap, lo, unLo - n, n); int m = Math.min((hi - gtHi), (gtHi - unHi)); vswap(fmap, unLo, hi - m + 1, m); n = lo + unLo - ltLo - 1; m = hi - (gtHi - unHi) + 1; stackLl[sp] = lo; stackHh[sp] = n; stackDd[sp] = d; sp++; stackLl[sp] = n + 1; stackHh[sp] = m - 1; stackDd[sp] = d1; sp++; stackLl[sp] = m; stackHh[sp] = hi; stackDd[sp] = d; sp++; } } } } private void mainSort() { final Data dataShadow = this.data; final int[] runningOrder = dataShadow.mainSortRunningOrder; final int[] copy = dataShadow.mainSortCopy; final boolean[] bigDone = dataShadow.mainSortBigDone; final int[] ftab = dataShadow.ftab; final byte[] block = dataShadow.block; final int[] fmap = dataShadow.fmap; final char[] quadrant = dataShadow.quadrant; final int lastShadow = this.last; final int workLimitShadow = this.workLimit; final boolean firstAttemptShadow = this.firstAttempt; // Set up the 2-byte frequency table for (int i = 65537; --i >= 0; ) { ftab[i] = 0; } /* * In the various block-sized structures, live data runs from 0 to * last+NUM_OVERSHOOT_BYTES inclusive. First, set up the overshoot area * for block. */ for (int i = 0; i < NUM_OVERSHOOT_BYTES; i++) { block[lastShadow + i + 2] = block[(i % (lastShadow + 1)) + 1]; } for (int i = lastShadow + NUM_OVERSHOOT_BYTES + 1; --i >= 0; ) { quadrant[i] = 0; } block[0] = block[lastShadow + 1]; // Complete the initial radix sort: int c1 = block[0] & 0xff; for (int i = 0; i <= lastShadow; i++) { final int c2 = block[i + 1] & 0xff; ftab[(c1 << 8) + c2]++; c1 = c2; } for (int i = 1; i <= 65536; i++) { ftab[i] += ftab[i - 1]; } c1 = block[1] & 0xff; for (int i = 0; i < lastShadow; i++) { final int c2 = block[i + 2] & 0xff; fmap[--ftab[(c1 << 8) + c2]] = i; c1 = c2; } fmap[--ftab[((block[lastShadow + 1] & 0xff) << 8) + (block[1] & 0xff)]] = lastShadow; /* * Now ftab contains the first loc of every small bucket. Calculate the * running order, from smallest to largest big bucket. */ for (int i = 256; --i >= 0; ) { bigDone[i] = false; runningOrder[i] = i; } for (int h = 364; h != 1; ) { h /= 3; for (int i = h; i <= 255; i++) { final int vv = runningOrder[i]; final int a = ftab[(vv + 1) << 8] - ftab[vv << 8]; final int b = h - 1; int j = i; for (int ro = runningOrder[j - h]; (ftab[(ro + 1) << 8] - ftab[ro << 8]) > a; ro = runningOrder[j - h]) { runningOrder[j] = ro; j -= h; if (j <= b) { break; } } runningOrder[j] = vv; } } /* * The main sorting loop. */ for (int i = 0; i <= 255; i++) { /* * Process big buckets, starting with the least full. */ final int ss = runningOrder[i]; // Step 1: /* * Complete the big bucket [ss] by quick sorting any unsorted small * buckets [ss, j]. Hopefully previous pointer-scanning phases have * already completed many of the small buckets [ss, j], so we don't * have to sort them at all. */ for (int j = 0; j <= 255; j++) { final int sb = (ss << 8) + j; final int ftabSb = ftab[sb]; if ((ftabSb & SET_MASK) != SET_MASK) { final int lo = ftabSb & CLEAR_MASK; final int hi = (ftab[sb + 1] & CLEAR_MASK) - 1; if (hi > lo) { mainQSort3(dataShadow, lo, hi, 2); if (firstAttemptShadow && (this.workDone > workLimitShadow)) { return; } } ftab[sb] = ftabSb | SET_MASK; } } // Step 2: // Now scan this big bucket to synthesise the // sorted order for small buckets [t, ss] for all t != ss. for (int j = 0; j <= 255; j++) { copy[j] = ftab[(j << 8) + ss] & CLEAR_MASK; } for (int j = ftab[ss << 8] & CLEAR_MASK, hj = (ftab[(ss + 1) << 8] & CLEAR_MASK); j < hj; j++) { final int fmapJ = fmap[j]; c1 = block[fmapJ] & 0xff; if (!bigDone[c1]) { fmap[copy[c1]] = (fmapJ == 0) ? lastShadow : (fmapJ - 1); copy[c1]++; } } for (int j = 256; --j >= 0; ) { ftab[(j << 8) + ss] |= SET_MASK; } // Step 3: /* * The ss big bucket is now done. Record this fact, and update the * quadrant descriptors. Remember to update quadrants in the * overshoot area too, if necessary. The "if (i < 255)" test merely * skips this updating for the last bucket processed, since updating * for the last bucket is pointless. */ bigDone[ss] = true; if (i < 255) { final int bbStart = ftab[ss << 8] & CLEAR_MASK; final int bbSize = (ftab[(ss + 1) << 8] & CLEAR_MASK) - bbStart; int shifts = 0; while ((bbSize >> shifts) > 65534) { shifts++; } for (int j = 0; j < bbSize; j++) { final int a2update = fmap[bbStart + j]; final char qVal = (char) (j >> shifts); quadrant[a2update] = qVal; if (a2update < NUM_OVERSHOOT_BYTES) { quadrant[a2update + lastShadow + 1] = qVal; } } } } } private void randomiseBlock() { final boolean[] inUse = this.data.inUse; final byte[] block = this.data.block; final int lastShadow = this.last; for (int i = 256; --i >= 0; ) { inUse[i] = false; } int rNToGo = 0; int rTPos = 0; for (int i = 0, j = 1; i <= lastShadow; i = j, j++) { if (rNToGo == 0) { rNToGo = (char) R_NUMS[rTPos]; if (++rTPos == 512) { rTPos = 0; } } rNToGo--; block[j] ^= ((rNToGo == 1) ? 1 : 0); // handle 16 bit signed numbers inUse[block[j] & 0xff] = true; } this.blockRandomised = true; } private void generateMTFValues() { final int lastShadow = this.last; final Data dataShadow = this.data; final boolean[] inUse = dataShadow.inUse; final byte[] block = dataShadow.block; final int[] fmap = dataShadow.fmap; final char[] sfmap = dataShadow.sfmap; final int[] mtfFreq = dataShadow.mtfFreq; final byte[] unseqToSeq = dataShadow.unseqToSeq; final byte[] yy = dataShadow.generateMTFValuesYy; // make maps int nInUseShadow = 0; for (int i = 0; i < 256; i++) { if (inUse[i]) { unseqToSeq[i] = (byte) nInUseShadow; nInUseShadow++; } } this.nInUse = nInUseShadow; final int eob = nInUseShadow + 1; for (int i = eob; i >= 0; i--) { mtfFreq[i] = 0; } for (int i = nInUseShadow; --i >= 0; ) { yy[i] = (byte) i; } int wr = 0; int zPend = 0; for (int i = 0; i <= lastShadow; i++) { final byte llI = unseqToSeq[block[fmap[i]] & 0xff]; byte tmp = yy[0]; int j = 0; while (llI != tmp) { j++; byte tmp2 = tmp; tmp = yy[j]; yy[j] = tmp2; } yy[0] = tmp; if (j == 0) { zPend++; } else { if (zPend > 0) { zPend--; while (true) { if ((zPend & 1) == 0) { sfmap[wr] = RUN_A; wr++; mtfFreq[RUN_A]++; } else { sfmap[wr] = RUN_B; wr++; mtfFreq[RUN_B]++; } if (zPend >= 2) { zPend = (zPend - 2) >> 1; } else { break; } } zPend = 0; } sfmap[wr] = (char) (j + 1); wr++; mtfFreq[j + 1]++; } } if (zPend > 0) { zPend--; while (true) { if ((zPend & 1) == 0) { sfmap[wr] = RUN_A; wr++; mtfFreq[RUN_A]++; } else { sfmap[wr] = RUN_B; wr++; mtfFreq[RUN_B]++; } if (zPend >= 2) { zPend = (zPend - 2) >> 1; } else { break; } } } sfmap[wr] = (char) eob; mtfFreq[eob]++; this.nMTF = wr + 1; } private static final class Data { // with blockSize 900k final boolean[] inUse = new boolean[256]; // 256 byte final byte[] unseqToSeq = new byte[256]; // 256 byte final int[] mtfFreq = new int[MAX_ALPHA_SIZE]; // 1032 byte final byte[] selector = new byte[MAX_SELECTORS]; // 18002 byte final byte[] selectorMtf = new byte[MAX_SELECTORS]; // 18002 byte final byte[] generateMTFValuesYy = new byte[256]; // 256 byte final byte[][] sendMTFValuesLen = new byte[N_GROUPS][MAX_ALPHA_SIZE]; // 1548 // byte final int[][] sendMTFValuesRfreq = new int[N_GROUPS][MAX_ALPHA_SIZE]; // 6192 // byte final int[] sendMTFValuesFave = new int[N_GROUPS]; // 24 byte final short[] sendMTFValuesCost = new short[N_GROUPS]; // 12 byte final int[][] sendMTFValuesCode = new int[N_GROUPS][MAX_ALPHA_SIZE]; // 6192 // byte final byte[] sendMTFValues2Pos = new byte[N_GROUPS]; // 6 byte final boolean[] sentMTFValues4InUse16 = new boolean[16]; // 16 byte final int[] stackLl = new int[QSORT_STACK_SIZE]; // 4000 byte final int[] stackHh = new int[QSORT_STACK_SIZE]; // 4000 byte final int[] stackDd = new int[QSORT_STACK_SIZE]; // 4000 byte final int[] mainSortRunningOrder = new int[256]; // 1024 byte final int[] mainSortCopy = new int[256]; // 1024 byte final boolean[] mainSortBigDone = new boolean[256]; // 256 byte final int[] heap = new int[MAX_ALPHA_SIZE + 2]; // 1040 byte final int[] weight = new int[MAX_ALPHA_SIZE * 2]; // 2064 byte final int[] parent = new int[MAX_ALPHA_SIZE * 2]; // 2064 byte final int[] ftab = new int[65537]; // 262148 byte // ------------ // 333408 byte final byte[] block; // 900021 byte final int[] fmap; // 3600000 byte final char[] sfmap; // 3600000 byte // ------------ // 8433529 byte // ============ /** * Array instance identical to sfmap, both are used only temporarily and * independently, so we do not need to allocate additional memory. */ final char[] quadrant; Data(int blockSize100k) { final int n = blockSize100k * BZip2Constants.BASE_BLOCK_SIZE; this.block = new byte[(n + 1 + NUM_OVERSHOOT_BYTES)]; this.fmap = new int[n]; this.sfmap = new char[2 * n]; this.quadrant = this.sfmap; } } } ================================================ FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/bzip2/Crc32.java ================================================ /* * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. * You may obtain a copy of the License at * * http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 * * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and * limitations under the License. */ package io.airlift.compress.v3.bzip2; // forked from Apache Hadoop final class Crc32 { private static final int[] CRC_32_TABLE = {0x00000000, 0x04c11db7, 0x09823b6e, 0x0d4326d9, 0x130476dc, 0x17c56b6b, 0x1a864db2, 0x1e475005, 0x2608edb8, 0x22c9f00f, 0x2f8ad6d6, 0x2b4bcb61, 0x350c9b64, 0x31cd86d3, 0x3c8ea00a, 0x384fbdbd, 0x4c11db70, 0x48d0c6c7, 0x4593e01e, 0x4152fda9, 0x5f15adac, 0x5bd4b01b, 0x569796c2, 0x52568b75, 0x6a1936c8, 0x6ed82b7f, 0x639b0da6, 0x675a1011, 0x791d4014, 0x7ddc5da3, 0x709f7b7a, 0x745e66cd, 0x9823b6e0, 0x9ce2ab57, 0x91a18d8e, 0x95609039, 0x8b27c03c, 0x8fe6dd8b, 0x82a5fb52, 0x8664e6e5, 0xbe2b5b58, 0xbaea46ef, 0xb7a96036, 0xb3687d81, 0xad2f2d84, 0xa9ee3033, 0xa4ad16ea, 0xa06c0b5d, 0xd4326d90, 0xd0f37027, 0xddb056fe, 0xd9714b49, 0xc7361b4c, 0xc3f706fb, 0xceb42022, 0xca753d95, 0xf23a8028, 0xf6fb9d9f, 0xfbb8bb46, 0xff79a6f1, 0xe13ef6f4, 0xe5ffeb43, 0xe8bccd9a, 0xec7dd02d, 0x34867077, 0x30476dc0, 0x3d044b19, 0x39c556ae, 0x278206ab, 0x23431b1c, 0x2e003dc5, 0x2ac12072, 0x128e9dcf, 0x164f8078, 0x1b0ca6a1, 0x1fcdbb16, 0x018aeb13, 0x054bf6a4, 0x0808d07d, 0x0cc9cdca, 0x7897ab07, 0x7c56b6b0, 0x71159069, 0x75d48dde, 0x6b93dddb, 0x6f52c06c, 0x6211e6b5, 0x66d0fb02, 0x5e9f46bf, 0x5a5e5b08, 0x571d7dd1, 0x53dc6066, 0x4d9b3063, 0x495a2dd4, 0x44190b0d, 0x40d816ba, 0xaca5c697, 0xa864db20, 0xa527fdf9, 0xa1e6e04e, 0xbfa1b04b, 0xbb60adfc, 0xb6238b25, 0xb2e29692, 0x8aad2b2f, 0x8e6c3698, 0x832f1041, 0x87ee0df6, 0x99a95df3, 0x9d684044, 0x902b669d, 0x94ea7b2a, 0xe0b41de7, 0xe4750050, 0xe9362689, 0xedf73b3e, 0xf3b06b3b, 0xf771768c, 0xfa325055, 0xfef34de2, 0xc6bcf05f, 0xc27dede8, 0xcf3ecb31, 0xcbffd686, 0xd5b88683, 0xd1799b34, 0xdc3abded, 0xd8fba05a, 0x690ce0ee, 0x6dcdfd59, 0x608edb80, 0x644fc637, 0x7a089632, 0x7ec98b85, 0x738aad5c, 0x774bb0eb, 0x4f040d56, 0x4bc510e1, 0x46863638, 0x42472b8f, 0x5c007b8a, 0x58c1663d, 0x558240e4, 0x51435d53, 0x251d3b9e, 0x21dc2629, 0x2c9f00f0, 0x285e1d47, 0x36194d42, 0x32d850f5, 0x3f9b762c, 0x3b5a6b9b, 0x0315d626, 0x07d4cb91, 0x0a97ed48, 0x0e56f0ff, 0x1011a0fa, 0x14d0bd4d, 0x19939b94, 0x1d528623, 0xf12f560e, 0xf5ee4bb9, 0xf8ad6d60, 0xfc6c70d7, 0xe22b20d2, 0xe6ea3d65, 0xeba91bbc, 0xef68060b, 0xd727bbb6, 0xd3e6a601, 0xdea580d8, 0xda649d6f, 0xc423cd6a, 0xc0e2d0dd, 0xcda1f604, 0xc960ebb3, 0xbd3e8d7e, 0xb9ff90c9, 0xb4bcb610, 0xb07daba7, 0xae3afba2, 0xaafbe615, 0xa7b8c0cc, 0xa379dd7b, 0x9b3660c6, 0x9ff77d71, 0x92b45ba8, 0x9675461f, 0x8832161a, 0x8cf30bad, 0x81b02d74, 0x857130c3, 0x5d8a9099, 0x594b8d2e, 0x5408abf7, 0x50c9b640, 0x4e8ee645, 0x4a4ffbf2, 0x470cdd2b, 0x43cdc09c, 0x7b827d21, 0x7f436096, 0x7200464f, 0x76c15bf8, 0x68860bfd, 0x6c47164a, 0x61043093, 0x65c52d24, 0x119b4be9, 0x155a565e, 0x18197087, 0x1cd86d30, 0x029f3d35, 0x065e2082, 0x0b1d065b, 0x0fdc1bec, 0x3793a651, 0x3352bbe6, 0x3e119d3f, 0x3ad08088, 0x2497d08d, 0x2056cd3a, 0x2d15ebe3, 0x29d4f654, 0xc5a92679, 0xc1683bce, 0xcc2b1d17, 0xc8ea00a0, 0xd6ad50a5, 0xd26c4d12, 0xdf2f6bcb, 0xdbee767c, 0xe3a1cbc1, 0xe760d676, 0xea23f0af, 0xeee2ed18, 0xf0a5bd1d, 0xf464a0aa, 0xf9278673, 0xfde69bc4, 0x89b8fd09, 0x8d79e0be, 0x803ac667, 0x84fbdbd0, 0x9abc8bd5, 0x9e7d9662, 0x933eb0bb, 0x97ffad0c, 0xafb010b1, 0xab710d06, 0xa6322bdf, 0xa2f33668, 0xbcb4666d, 0xb8757bda, 0xb5365d03, 0xb1f740b4}; private int globalCrc; Crc32() { initialiseCRC(); } void initialiseCRC() { globalCrc = 0xffffffff; } int getFinalCRC() { return ~globalCrc; } void updateCRC(int value) { int temp = (globalCrc >> 24) ^ value; if (temp < 0) { temp = 256 + temp; } globalCrc = (globalCrc << 8) ^ CRC_32_TABLE[temp]; } void updateCRC(int value, int repeat) { int globalCrcShadow = this.globalCrc; while (repeat-- > 0) { int temp = (globalCrcShadow >> 24) ^ value; globalCrcShadow = (globalCrcShadow << 8) ^ CRC_32_TABLE[(temp >= 0) ? temp : (temp + 256)]; } this.globalCrc = globalCrcShadow; } } ================================================ FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/deflate/DeflateCompressor.java ================================================ /* * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. * You may obtain a copy of the License at * * http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 * * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and * limitations under the License. */ package io.airlift.compress.v3.deflate; import io.airlift.compress.v3.Compressor; public interface DeflateCompressor extends Compressor { static DeflateCompressor create() { if (DeflateNativeCompressor.isEnabled()) { return new DeflateNativeCompressor(); } return new DeflateJavaCompressor(); } static DeflateCompressor create(int compressionLevel) { if (DeflateNativeCompressor.isEnabled()) { return new DeflateNativeCompressor(compressionLevel); } return new DeflateJavaCompressor(compressionLevel); } } ================================================ FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/deflate/DeflateDecompressor.java ================================================ /* * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. * You may obtain a copy of the License at * * http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 * * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and * limitations under the License. */ package io.airlift.compress.v3.deflate; import io.airlift.compress.v3.Decompressor; public interface DeflateDecompressor extends Decompressor { static DeflateDecompressor create() { if (DeflateNativeDecompressor.isEnabled()) { return new DeflateNativeDecompressor(); } return new DeflateJavaDecompressor(); } } ================================================ FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/deflate/DeflateJavaCompressor.java ================================================ /* * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. * You may obtain a copy of the License at * * http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 * * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and * limitations under the License. */ package io.airlift.compress.v3.deflate; import java.lang.foreign.MemorySegment; import java.util.zip.Deflater; import static java.lang.Math.toIntExact; import static java.util.Objects.requireNonNull; import static java.util.zip.Deflater.FULL_FLUSH; public class DeflateJavaCompressor implements DeflateCompressor { private static final int EXTRA_COMPRESSION_SPACE = 16; private static final int COMPRESSION_LEVEL = 4; private final int compressionLevel; public DeflateJavaCompressor() { this(COMPRESSION_LEVEL); } public DeflateJavaCompressor(int compressionLevel) { if (compressionLevel < 0 || compressionLevel > 9) { throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid compression level: %d (must be 0-9)".formatted(compressionLevel)); } this.compressionLevel = compressionLevel; } @Override public int maxCompressedLength(int uncompressedSize) { // From Mark Adler's post http://stackoverflow.com/questions/1207877/java-size-of-compression-output-bytearray return uncompressedSize + ((uncompressedSize + 7) >> 3) + ((uncompressedSize + 63) >> 6) + 5 + EXTRA_COMPRESSION_SPACE; } @Override public int compress(byte[] input, int inputOffset, int inputLength, byte[] output, int outputOffset, int maxOutputLength) { verifyRange(input, inputOffset, inputLength); verifyRange(output, outputOffset, maxOutputLength); try (Deflater deflater = new Deflater(compressionLevel, true)) { deflater.setInput(input, inputOffset, inputLength); deflater.finish(); int compressedDataLength = deflater.deflate(output, outputOffset, maxOutputLength, FULL_FLUSH); if (!deflater.finished()) { throw new IllegalStateException("Output buffer too small"); } return compressedDataLength; } } @Override public int compress(MemorySegment input, MemorySegment output) { int maxCompressedLength = maxCompressedLength(toIntExact(input.byteSize())); if (output.byteSize() < maxCompressedLength) { throw new IllegalArgumentException("Output buffer must be at least " + maxCompressedLength + " bytes"); } try (Deflater deflater = new Deflater(compressionLevel, true)) { deflater.setInput(input.asByteBuffer()); deflater.finish(); int compressedDataLength = deflater.deflate(output.asByteBuffer(), FULL_FLUSH); if (!deflater.finished()) { throw new IllegalStateException("maxCompressedLength formula is incorrect, because deflate produced more data"); } return compressedDataLength; } } private static void verifyRange(byte[] data, int offset, int length) { requireNonNull(data, "data is null"); if (offset < 0 || length < 0 || offset + length > data.length) { throw new IllegalArgumentException("Invalid offset or length (%s, %s) in array of length %s".formatted(offset, length, data.length)); } } } ================================================ FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/deflate/DeflateJavaDecompressor.java ================================================ /* * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. * You may obtain a copy of the License at * * http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 * * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and * limitations under the License. */ package io.airlift.compress.v3.deflate; import io.airlift.compress.v3.MalformedInputException; import java.lang.foreign.MemorySegment; import java.nio.ByteBuffer; import java.util.zip.DataFormatException; import java.util.zip.Inflater; import static java.lang.String.format; import static java.util.Objects.requireNonNull; public class DeflateJavaDecompressor implements DeflateDecompressor { @Override public int decompress(byte[] input, int inputOffset, int inputLength, byte[] output, int outputOffset, int maxOutputLength) throws MalformedInputException { verifyRange(input, inputOffset, inputLength); verifyRange(output, outputOffset, maxOutputLength); try (Inflater inflater = new Inflater(true)) { inflater.setInput(input, inputOffset, inputLength); int uncompressedLength = 0; while (true) { uncompressedLength += inflater.inflate(output, outputOffset + uncompressedLength, maxOutputLength - uncompressedLength); if (inflater.finished() || uncompressedLength >= maxOutputLength) { break; } if (inflater.needsInput()) { throw new MalformedInputException(0, format("Premature end of input stream. Input length = %s, uncompressed length = %d", inputLength, uncompressedLength)); } } if (!inflater.finished()) { throw new MalformedInputException(0, "Output buffer too small"); } return uncompressedLength; } catch (DataFormatException e) { throw new RuntimeException("Invalid compressed stream", e); } } @Override public int decompress(MemorySegment input, MemorySegment output) throws MalformedInputException { ByteBuffer inputByteBuffer = input.asByteBuffer(); try (Inflater inflater = new Inflater(true)) { inflater.setInput(inputByteBuffer); ByteBuffer outputByteBuffer = output.asByteBuffer(); int uncompressedLength = 0; while (true) { uncompressedLength += inflater.inflate(outputByteBuffer); if (inflater.finished() || uncompressedLength >= output.byteSize()) { break; } if (inflater.needsInput()) { throw new MalformedInputException(inputByteBuffer.position(), "Premature end of input stream. Input length = " + input.byteSize() + ", uncompressed length = " + uncompressedLength); } } if (!inflater.finished()) { throw new MalformedInputException(inputByteBuffer.position(), "Could not decompress all input (output buffer too small?)"); } return uncompressedLength; } catch (DataFormatException e) { throw new RuntimeException("Invalid compressed stream", e); } } private static void verifyRange(byte[] data, int offset, int length) { requireNonNull(data, "data is null"); if (offset < 0 || length < 0 || offset + length > data.length) { throw new IllegalArgumentException(format("Invalid offset or length (%s, %s) in array of length %s", offset, length, data.length)); } } } ================================================ FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/deflate/DeflateNative.java ================================================ /* * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License"); * you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. * You may obtain a copy of the License at * * http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0 * * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software * distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS, * WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. * See the License for the specific language governing permissions and * limitations under the License. */ package io.airlift.compress.v3.deflate; import io.airlift.compress.v3.internal.NativeLoader; import io.airlift.compress.v3.internal.NativeSignature; import java.lang.foreign.MemorySegment; import java.lang.invoke.MethodHandle; import java.util.Optional; import static java.lang.invoke.MethodHandles.lookup; final class DeflateNative { private record MethodHandles( @NativeSignature(name = "libdeflate_alloc_compressor", returnType = MemorySegment.class, argumentTypes = int.class) MethodHandle allocCompressor, @NativeSignature(name = "libdeflate_free_compressor", returnType = void.class, argumentTypes = MemorySegment.class) MethodHandle freeCompressor, @NativeSignature(name = "libdeflate_deflate_compress", returnType = long.class, argumentTypes = {MemorySegment.class, MemorySegment.class, long.class, MemorySegment.class, long.class}) MethodHandle compress, @NativeSignature(name = "libdeflate_deflate_compress_bound", returnType = long.class, argumentTypes = {MemorySegment.class, long.class}) MethodHandle compressBound, @NativeSignature(name = "libdeflate_alloc_decompressor", returnType = MemorySegment.class, argumentTypes = {}) MethodHandle allocDecompressor, @NativeSignature(name = "libdeflate_free_decompressor", returnType = void.class, argumentTypes = MemorySegment.class) MethodHandle freeDecompressor, @NativeSignature(name = "libdeflate_deflate_decompress", returnType = int.class, argumentTypes = {MemorySegment.class, MemorySegment.class, long.class, MemorySegment.class, long.class, MemorySegment.class}) MethodHandle decompress) {} private DeflateNative() {} private static final Optionalnull.
* @param dest The byte[] to read bytes into. Must not be null.
* @param offset The index in dest to start filling.
* @param length The number of bytes to read.
* @return Total number of bytes actually read.
* @throws IndexOutOfBoundsException if offset or length are invalid.
*/
static int readBytes(InputStream source, byte[] dest, int offset, int length)
throws IOException
{
checkNotNull(source, "source is null");
checkNotNull(dest, "dest is null");
// how many bytes were read.
int lastRead = source.read(dest, offset, length);
int totalRead = lastRead;
// if we did not read as many bytes as we had hoped, try reading again.
if (lastRead < length) {
// as long the buffer is not full (remaining() == 0) and we have not reached EOF (lastRead == -1) keep reading.
while (totalRead < length && lastRead != -1) {
lastRead = source.read(dest, offset + totalRead, length - totalRead);
// if we got EOF, do not add to total read.
if (lastRead != -1) {
totalRead += lastRead;
}
}
}
return totalRead;
}
static int skip(InputStream source, int skip)
throws IOException
{
// optimization also avoids potential for error with some implementation of
// InputStream.skip() which throw exceptions with negative numbers (ie. ZipInputStream).
if (skip <= 0) {
return 0;
}
int toSkip = skip - (int) source.skip(skip);
boolean more = true;
while (toSkip > 0 && more) {
// check to see if we reached EOF
int read = source.read();
if (read == -1) {
more = false;
}
else {
--toSkip;
toSkip -= source.skip(toSkip);
}
}
int skipped = skip - toSkip;
return skipped;
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/snappy/SnappyJavaCompressor.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.snappy;
import java.lang.foreign.MemorySegment;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.snappy.UnsafeUtil.getAddress;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.snappy.UnsafeUtil.getBase;
import static java.lang.Math.addExact;
import static java.lang.String.format;
import static java.lang.ref.Reference.reachabilityFence;
import static java.util.Objects.requireNonNull;
import static sun.misc.Unsafe.ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET;
public final class SnappyJavaCompressor
implements SnappyCompressor
{
private final short[] table = new short[SnappyRawCompressor.MAX_HASH_TABLE_SIZE];
@Override
public int maxCompressedLength(int uncompressedSize)
{
return SnappyRawCompressor.maxCompressedLength(uncompressedSize);
}
@Override
public int compress(byte[] input, int inputOffset, int inputLength, byte[] output, int outputOffset, int maxOutputLength)
{
verifyRange(input, inputOffset, inputLength);
verifyRange(output, outputOffset, maxOutputLength);
long inputAddress = ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET + inputOffset;
long inputLimit = inputAddress + inputLength;
long outputAddress = ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET + outputOffset;
long outputLimit = outputAddress + maxOutputLength;
return SnappyRawCompressor.compress(input, inputAddress, inputLimit, output, outputAddress, outputLimit, table);
}
@Override
public int compress(MemorySegment input, MemorySegment output)
{
try {
byte[] inputBase = getBase(input);
long inputAddress = getAddress(input);
long inputLimit = addExact(inputAddress, input.byteSize());
byte[] outputBase = getBase(output);
long outputAddress = getAddress(output);
long outputLimit = addExact(outputAddress, output.byteSize());
return SnappyRawCompressor.compress(
inputBase,
inputAddress,
inputLimit,
outputBase,
outputAddress,
outputLimit,
table);
}
finally {
reachabilityFence(input);
reachabilityFence(output);
}
}
@Override
public int getRetainedSizeInBytes(int inputLength)
{
return SnappyRawCompressor.getHashTableSize(inputLength);
}
private static void verifyRange(byte[] data, int offset, int length)
{
requireNonNull(data, "data is null");
if (offset < 0 || length < 0 || offset + length > data.length) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException(format("Invalid offset or length (%s, %s) in array of length %s", offset, length, data.length));
}
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/snappy/SnappyJavaDecompressor.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.snappy;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.MalformedInputException;
import java.lang.foreign.MemorySegment;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.snappy.UnsafeUtil.getAddress;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.snappy.UnsafeUtil.getBase;
import static java.lang.Math.addExact;
import static java.lang.String.format;
import static java.lang.ref.Reference.reachabilityFence;
import static java.util.Objects.requireNonNull;
import static sun.misc.Unsafe.ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET;
public final class SnappyJavaDecompressor
implements SnappyDecompressor
{
@Override
public int getUncompressedLength(byte[] compressed, int compressedOffset)
{
long compressedAddress = ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET + compressedOffset;
long compressedLimit = ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET + compressed.length;
return SnappyRawDecompressor.getUncompressedLength(compressed, compressedAddress, compressedLimit);
}
@Override
public int decompress(byte[] input, int inputOffset, int inputLength, byte[] output, int outputOffset, int maxOutputLength)
throws MalformedInputException
{
verifyRange(input, inputOffset, inputLength);
verifyRange(output, outputOffset, maxOutputLength);
long inputAddress = ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET + inputOffset;
long inputLimit = inputAddress + inputLength;
long outputAddress = ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET + outputOffset;
long outputLimit = outputAddress + maxOutputLength;
return SnappyRawDecompressor.decompress(input, inputAddress, inputLimit, output, outputAddress, outputLimit);
}
@Override
public int decompress(MemorySegment input, MemorySegment output)
throws MalformedInputException
{
try {
byte[] inputBase = getBase(input);
long inputAddress = getAddress(input);
long inputLimit = addExact(inputAddress, input.byteSize());
byte[] outputBase = getBase(output);
long outputAddress = getAddress(output);
long outputLimit = addExact(outputAddress, output.byteSize());
return SnappyRawDecompressor.decompress(
inputBase,
inputAddress,
inputLimit,
outputBase,
outputAddress,
outputLimit);
}
finally {
reachabilityFence(input);
reachabilityFence(output);
}
}
private static void verifyRange(byte[] data, int offset, int length)
{
requireNonNull(data, "data is null");
if (offset < 0 || length < 0 || offset + length > data.length) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException(format("Invalid offset or length (%s, %s) in array of length %s", offset, length, data.length));
}
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/snappy/SnappyNative.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.snappy;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.MalformedInputException;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.internal.NativeLoader.Symbols;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.internal.NativeSignature;
import java.lang.foreign.MemorySegment;
import java.lang.invoke.MethodHandle;
import java.util.Optional;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.internal.NativeLoader.loadSymbols;
import static java.lang.foreign.ValueLayout.JAVA_LONG;
import static java.lang.invoke.MethodHandles.lookup;
final class SnappyNative
{
private final MemorySegment lengthBuffer = MemorySegment.ofArray(new long[1]);
public static long maxCompressedLength(long inputLength)
{
return maxCompressedLengthInternal(inputLength);
}
public long compress(MemorySegment input, long inputLength, MemorySegment compressed, long compressedLength)
{
lengthBuffer.set(JAVA_LONG, 0, compressedLength);
compressInternal(input, inputLength, compressed, lengthBuffer);
return lengthBuffer.get(JAVA_LONG, 0);
}
public long decompress(MemorySegment compressed, long compressedLength, MemorySegment uncompressed, long uncompressedLength)
{
lengthBuffer.set(JAVA_LONG, 0, uncompressedLength);
decompressInternal(compressed, compressedLength, uncompressed, lengthBuffer);
return lengthBuffer.get(JAVA_LONG, 0);
}
public long decompressedLength(MemorySegment compressed, long compressedLength)
{
lengthBuffer.set(JAVA_LONG, 0, 0);
decompressedLengthInternal(compressed, compressedLength, lengthBuffer);
return lengthBuffer.get(JAVA_LONG, 0);
}
//
// FFI stuff
//
// Defined in snappy-c.h: https://github.com/google/snappy/blob/1.2.1/snappy-c.h#L47
private static final int SNAPPY_OK = 0;
private static final int SNAPPY_INVALID_INPUT = 1;
private static final int SNAPPY_BUFFER_TOO_SMALL = 2;
private record MethodHandles(
@NativeSignature(name = "snappy_compress", returnType = int.class, argumentTypes = {MemorySegment.class, long.class, MemorySegment.class, MemorySegment.class})
MethodHandle compress,
@NativeSignature(name = "snappy_uncompress", returnType = int.class, argumentTypes = {MemorySegment.class, long.class, MemorySegment.class, MemorySegment.class})
MethodHandle uncompress,
@NativeSignature(name = "snappy_max_compressed_length", returnType = long.class, argumentTypes = long.class)
MethodHandle maxCompressedLength,
@NativeSignature(name = "snappy_uncompressed_length", returnType = int.class, argumentTypes = {MemorySegment.class, long.class, MemorySegment.class})
MethodHandle uncompressedLength) {}
private static final Optional* Example usage: *
* try (XxHash3Hasher hasher = XxHash3.newHasher()) {
* hasher.update(chunk1);
* hasher.update(chunk2);
* long hash = hasher.digest();
* }
*
*/
public interface XxHash3Hasher
extends AutoCloseable
{
/**
* Updates the hash state with the given input data.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash3Hasher update(byte[] input);
/**
* Updates the hash state with the given input data.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash3Hasher update(byte[] input, int offset, int length);
/**
* Updates the hash state with the given input data.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash3Hasher update(MemorySegment input);
/**
* Updates the hash state with the given long value in little-endian byte order.
* This is useful for hashing length-prefixed data without manual byte conversion.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash3Hasher updateLE(long value);
/**
* Updates the hash state with the given int value in little-endian byte order.
* This is useful for hashing length-prefixed data without manual byte conversion.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash3Hasher updateLE(int value);
/**
* Computes and returns the 64-bit hash of all data passed to update().
* The state is not modified, so you can continue to call update() and digest().
*/
long digest();
/**
* Resets the hasher to its initial state (no seed).
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash3Hasher reset();
/**
* Resets the hasher with the given seed.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash3Hasher reset(long seed);
/**
* Closes this hasher and releases native resources.
*/
@Override
void close();
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/xxhash/XxHash3Hasher128.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.xxhash;
import java.lang.foreign.MemorySegment;
/**
* Streaming hasher for computing 128-bit XXHash3 hashes incrementally.
* * Example usage: *
* try (XxHash3Hasher128 hasher = XxHash3.newHasher128()) {
* hasher.update(chunk1);
* hasher.update(chunk2);
* XxHash128 hash = hasher.digest();
* }
*
*/
public interface XxHash3Hasher128
extends AutoCloseable
{
/**
* Updates the hash state with the given input data.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash3Hasher128 update(byte[] input);
/**
* Updates the hash state with the given input data.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash3Hasher128 update(byte[] input, int offset, int length);
/**
* Updates the hash state with the given input data.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash3Hasher128 update(MemorySegment input);
/**
* Updates the hash state with the given long value in little-endian byte order.
* This is useful for hashing length-prefixed data without manual byte conversion.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash3Hasher128 updateLE(long value);
/**
* Updates the hash state with the given int value in little-endian byte order.
* This is useful for hashing length-prefixed data without manual byte conversion.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash3Hasher128 updateLE(int value);
/**
* Computes and returns the 128-bit hash of all data passed to update().
* The state is not modified, so you can continue to call update() and digest().
*/
XxHash128 digest();
/**
* Resets the hasher to its initial state (no seed).
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash3Hasher128 reset();
/**
* Resets the hasher with the given seed.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash3Hasher128 reset(long seed);
/**
* Closes this hasher and releases native resources.
*/
@Override
void close();
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/xxhash/XxHash3Native.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.xxhash;
import java.lang.foreign.Arena;
import java.lang.foreign.MemorySegment;
import java.lang.foreign.ValueLayout;
import java.lang.ref.Cleaner;
import java.nio.ByteOrder;
import static java.util.Objects.checkFromIndexSize;
/**
* XXHash3 hash function with support for both one-shot and streaming hashing.
* * For one-shot hashing, use the static methods: *
* long hash = XxHash3Native.hash(data); * XxHash128 hash128 = XxHash3Native.hash128(data); **
* For streaming (incremental) hashing, use the factory methods: *
* try (XxHash3Hasher hasher = XxHash3Native.newHasher()) {
* hasher.update(chunk1);
* hasher.update(chunk2);
* long hash = hasher.digest();
* }
*
* try (XxHash3Hasher128 hasher = XxHash3Native.newHasher128()) {
* hasher.update(chunk1);
* hasher.update(chunk2);
* XxHash128 hash = hasher.digest();
* }
*
*
* * XXHash3 is significantly faster than XXHash64 for large inputs (~2.5x at 16KB+). *
* The 64-bit hash ({@link #hash}) has minimal overhead and is fast at all input sizes. *
* The 128-bit hash ({@link #hash128}) has additional overhead due to FFM struct-return
* handling. For small inputs (<512 bytes), this overhead is noticeable. At larger sizes
* (8KB+), the 64-bit and 128-bit variants have similar throughput as hash computation
* dominates.
*/
public final class XxHash3Native
{
private static final Cleaner CLEANER = Cleaner.create();
private static final ValueLayout.OfLong JAVA_LONG_LE_UNALIGNED = ValueLayout.JAVA_LONG_UNALIGNED.withOrder(ByteOrder.LITTLE_ENDIAN);
private static final ValueLayout.OfInt JAVA_INT_LE_UNALIGNED = ValueLayout.JAVA_INT_UNALIGNED.withOrder(ByteOrder.LITTLE_ENDIAN);
// XXHash3 constants for 8-byte hashing (XXH3_64_4to8 algorithm)
private static final long PRIME_MX2 = 0x9FB21C651E98DF25L;
private static final long SECRET_0 = 0x1cad21f72c81017cL; // kSecret bytes 8-15 as LE long
private static final long SECRET_1 = 0xdb979083e96dd4deL; // kSecret bytes 16-23 as LE long
private XxHash3Native() {}
// ========== Factory methods for streaming ==========
/**
* Creates a new streaming hasher for 64-bit hashes with no seed.
*/
public static XxHash3Hasher newHasher()
{
return new Hasher64Impl();
}
/**
* Creates a new streaming hasher for 64-bit hashes with the specified seed.
*/
public static XxHash3Hasher newHasher(long seed)
{
return new Hasher64Impl(seed);
}
/**
* Creates a new streaming hasher for 128-bit hashes with no seed.
*/
public static XxHash3Hasher128 newHasher128()
{
return new Hasher128Impl();
}
/**
* Creates a new streaming hasher for 128-bit hashes with the specified seed.
*/
public static XxHash3Hasher128 newHasher128(long seed)
{
return new Hasher128Impl(seed);
}
// ========== Static one-shot methods ==========
public static boolean isEnabled()
{
return XxHash3Bindings.isEnabled();
}
// 64-bit hash variants
public static long hash(long value)
{
return hash(value, 0);
}
public static long hash(long input, long seed)
{
// Pure Java implementation of XXH3_64_4to8 algorithm for exactly 8 bytes
int inputLo = (int) input;
int inputHi = (int) (input >>> 32);
long modifiedSeed = seed ^ ((Integer.reverseBytes((int) seed) & 0xFFFFFFFFL) << 32);
long combined = (inputHi & 0xFFFFFFFFL) | ((inputLo & 0xFFFFFFFFL) << 32);
long value = ((SECRET_0 ^ SECRET_1) - modifiedSeed) ^ combined;
value ^= Long.rotateLeft(value, 49) ^ Long.rotateLeft(value, 24);
value *= PRIME_MX2;
value ^= (value >>> 35) + 8;
value *= PRIME_MX2;
return value ^ (value >>> 28);
}
public static long hash(byte[] input)
{
return hash(input, 0, input.length);
}
public static long hash(byte[] input, int offset, int length)
{
checkFromIndexSize(offset, length, input.length);
XxHash3Bindings.verifyEnabled();
MemorySegment segment = MemorySegment.ofArray(input).asSlice(offset, length);
return XxHash3Bindings.hash64(segment, length);
}
public static long hash(MemorySegment input)
{
XxHash3Bindings.verifyEnabled();
return XxHash3Bindings.hash64(input, input.byteSize());
}
public static long hash(byte[] input, long seed)
{
return hash(input, 0, input.length, seed);
}
public static long hash(byte[] input, int offset, int length, long seed)
{
checkFromIndexSize(offset, length, input.length);
XxHash3Bindings.verifyEnabled();
MemorySegment segment = MemorySegment.ofArray(input).asSlice(offset, length);
return XxHash3Bindings.hash64(segment, length, seed);
}
public static long hash(MemorySegment input, long seed)
{
XxHash3Bindings.verifyEnabled();
return XxHash3Bindings.hash64(input, input.byteSize(), seed);
}
// 128-bit hash variants
public static XxHash128 hash128(byte[] input)
{
return hash128(input, 0, input.length);
}
public static XxHash128 hash128(byte[] input, int offset, int length)
{
checkFromIndexSize(offset, length, input.length);
XxHash3Bindings.verifyEnabled();
MemorySegment segment = MemorySegment.ofArray(input).asSlice(offset, length);
return XxHash3Bindings.hash128(segment, length);
}
public static XxHash128 hash128(MemorySegment input)
{
XxHash3Bindings.verifyEnabled();
return XxHash3Bindings.hash128(input, input.byteSize());
}
public static XxHash128 hash128(byte[] input, long seed)
{
return hash128(input, 0, input.length, seed);
}
public static XxHash128 hash128(byte[] input, int offset, int length, long seed)
{
checkFromIndexSize(offset, length, input.length);
XxHash3Bindings.verifyEnabled();
MemorySegment segment = MemorySegment.ofArray(input).asSlice(offset, length);
return XxHash3Bindings.hash128(segment, length, seed);
}
public static XxHash128 hash128(MemorySegment input, long seed)
{
XxHash3Bindings.verifyEnabled();
return XxHash3Bindings.hash128(input, input.byteSize(), seed);
}
// ========== Implementation classes ==========
/**
* 64-bit streaming hasher implementation.
*/
private static final class Hasher64Impl
implements XxHash3Hasher
{
private final MemorySegment state;
private final Cleaner.Cleanable cleanable;
private final byte[] scratch = new byte[8];
private boolean closed;
Hasher64Impl()
{
XxHash3Bindings.verifyEnabled();
NativeResources resources = new NativeResources();
this.cleanable = CLEANER.register(this, resources);
Arena arena = resources.arena();
MemorySegment rawState = XxHash3Bindings.createState();
if (rawState.equals(MemorySegment.NULL)) {
cleanable.clean();
throw new IllegalStateException("Failed to create XXH3 state");
}
this.state = rawState.reinterpret(arena, XxHash3Bindings::freeState);
XxHash3Bindings.reset64(state);
}
Hasher64Impl(long seed)
{
XxHash3Bindings.verifyEnabled();
NativeResources resources = new NativeResources();
this.cleanable = CLEANER.register(this, resources);
Arena arena = resources.arena();
MemorySegment rawState = XxHash3Bindings.createState();
if (rawState.equals(MemorySegment.NULL)) {
cleanable.clean();
throw new IllegalStateException("Failed to create XXH3 state");
}
this.state = rawState.reinterpret(arena, XxHash3Bindings::freeState);
XxHash3Bindings.reset64(state, seed);
}
@Override
public XxHash3Hasher update(byte[] input)
{
return update(input, 0, input.length);
}
@Override
public XxHash3Hasher update(byte[] input, int offset, int length)
{
checkFromIndexSize(offset, length, input.length);
checkNotClosed();
MemorySegment segment = MemorySegment.ofArray(input).asSlice(offset, length);
XxHash3Bindings.update64(state, segment, length);
return this;
}
@Override
public XxHash3Hasher update(MemorySegment input)
{
checkNotClosed();
XxHash3Bindings.update64(state, input, input.byteSize());
return this;
}
@Override
public XxHash3Hasher updateLE(long value)
{
checkNotClosed();
MemorySegment segment = MemorySegment.ofArray(scratch);
segment.set(JAVA_LONG_LE_UNALIGNED, 0, value);
XxHash3Bindings.update64(state, segment, 8);
return this;
}
@Override
public XxHash3Hasher updateLE(int value)
{
checkNotClosed();
MemorySegment segment = MemorySegment.ofArray(scratch);
segment.set(JAVA_INT_LE_UNALIGNED, 0, value);
XxHash3Bindings.update64(state, segment, 4);
return this;
}
@Override
public long digest()
{
checkNotClosed();
return XxHash3Bindings.digest64(state);
}
@Override
public XxHash3Hasher reset()
{
checkNotClosed();
XxHash3Bindings.reset64(state);
return this;
}
@Override
public XxHash3Hasher reset(long seed)
{
checkNotClosed();
XxHash3Bindings.reset64(state, seed);
return this;
}
private void checkNotClosed()
{
if (closed) {
throw new IllegalStateException("Hasher has been closed");
}
}
@Override
public void close()
{
if (!closed) {
closed = true;
cleanable.clean();
}
}
}
/**
* 128-bit streaming hasher implementation.
*/
private static final class Hasher128Impl
implements XxHash3Hasher128
{
private final MemorySegment state;
private final Cleaner.Cleanable cleanable;
private final byte[] scratch = new byte[8];
private boolean closed;
Hasher128Impl()
{
XxHash3Bindings.verifyEnabled();
NativeResources resources = new NativeResources();
this.cleanable = CLEANER.register(this, resources);
Arena arena = resources.arena();
MemorySegment rawState = XxHash3Bindings.createState();
if (rawState.equals(MemorySegment.NULL)) {
cleanable.clean();
throw new IllegalStateException("Failed to create XXH3 state");
}
this.state = rawState.reinterpret(arena, XxHash3Bindings::freeState);
XxHash3Bindings.reset128(state);
}
Hasher128Impl(long seed)
{
XxHash3Bindings.verifyEnabled();
NativeResources resources = new NativeResources();
this.cleanable = CLEANER.register(this, resources);
Arena arena = resources.arena();
MemorySegment rawState = XxHash3Bindings.createState();
if (rawState.equals(MemorySegment.NULL)) {
cleanable.clean();
throw new IllegalStateException("Failed to create XXH3 state");
}
this.state = rawState.reinterpret(arena, XxHash3Bindings::freeState);
XxHash3Bindings.reset128(state, seed);
}
@Override
public XxHash3Hasher128 update(byte[] input)
{
return update(input, 0, input.length);
}
@Override
public XxHash3Hasher128 update(byte[] input, int offset, int length)
{
checkFromIndexSize(offset, length, input.length);
checkNotClosed();
MemorySegment segment = MemorySegment.ofArray(input).asSlice(offset, length);
XxHash3Bindings.update128(state, segment, length);
return this;
}
@Override
public XxHash3Hasher128 update(MemorySegment input)
{
checkNotClosed();
XxHash3Bindings.update128(state, input, input.byteSize());
return this;
}
@Override
public XxHash3Hasher128 updateLE(long value)
{
checkNotClosed();
MemorySegment segment = MemorySegment.ofArray(scratch);
segment.set(JAVA_LONG_LE_UNALIGNED, 0, value);
XxHash3Bindings.update128(state, segment, 8);
return this;
}
@Override
public XxHash3Hasher128 updateLE(int value)
{
checkNotClosed();
MemorySegment segment = MemorySegment.ofArray(scratch);
segment.set(JAVA_INT_LE_UNALIGNED, 0, value);
XxHash3Bindings.update128(state, segment, 4);
return this;
}
@Override
public XxHash128 digest()
{
checkNotClosed();
return XxHash3Bindings.digest128(state);
}
@Override
public XxHash3Hasher128 reset()
{
checkNotClosed();
XxHash3Bindings.reset128(state);
return this;
}
@Override
public XxHash3Hasher128 reset(long seed)
{
checkNotClosed();
XxHash3Bindings.reset128(state, seed);
return this;
}
private void checkNotClosed()
{
if (closed) {
throw new IllegalStateException("Hasher has been closed");
}
}
@Override
public void close()
{
if (!closed) {
closed = true;
cleanable.clean();
}
}
}
/**
* Holds native resources that must be freed.
* Implements Runnable so it can be used with Cleaner.
*/
private record NativeResources(Arena arena)
implements Runnable
{
NativeResources()
{
this(Arena.ofShared());
}
@Override
public void run()
{
arena.close();
}
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/xxhash/XxHash64Bindings.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.xxhash;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.internal.NativeLoader;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.internal.NativeLoader.Symbols;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.internal.NativeSignature;
import java.lang.foreign.MemorySegment;
import java.lang.invoke.MethodHandle;
import java.util.Optional;
import static java.lang.invoke.MethodHandles.lookup;
final class XxHash64Bindings
{
private XxHash64Bindings() {}
private record MethodHandles(
// One-shot hash
@NativeSignature(name = "XXH64", returnType = long.class, argumentTypes = {MemorySegment.class, long.class, long.class})
MethodHandle hash,
// State management
@NativeSignature(name = "XXH64_createState", returnType = MemorySegment.class, argumentTypes = {})
MethodHandle createState,
@NativeSignature(name = "XXH64_freeState", returnType = int.class, argumentTypes = MemorySegment.class)
MethodHandle freeState,
// Streaming
@NativeSignature(name = "XXH64_reset", returnType = int.class, argumentTypes = {MemorySegment.class, long.class})
MethodHandle reset,
@NativeSignature(name = "XXH64_update", returnType = int.class, argumentTypes = {MemorySegment.class, MemorySegment.class, long.class})
MethodHandle update,
@NativeSignature(name = "XXH64_digest", returnType = long.class, argumentTypes = MemorySegment.class)
MethodHandle digest) {}
private static final Optional
* For one-shot hashing, use the static methods:
*
* For streaming (incremental) hashing, use the factory methods:
*
*
* ... [16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23] [8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15] [0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7]
*/
final class BitInputStream
{
private BitInputStream()
{
}
public static boolean isEndOfStream(long startAddress, long currentAddress, int bitsConsumed)
{
return startAddress == currentAddress && bitsConsumed == Long.SIZE;
}
private static long readTail(Object inputBase, long inputAddress, int inputSize)
{
long bits = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, inputAddress) & 0xFF;
switch (inputSize) {
case 7:
bits |= (UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, inputAddress + 6) & 0xFFL) << 48;
case 6:
bits |= (UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, inputAddress + 5) & 0xFFL) << 40;
case 5:
bits |= (UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, inputAddress + 4) & 0xFFL) << 32;
case 4:
bits |= (UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, inputAddress + 3) & 0xFFL) << 24;
case 3:
bits |= (UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, inputAddress + 2) & 0xFFL) << 16;
case 2:
bits |= (UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, inputAddress + 1) & 0xFFL) << 8;
}
return bits;
}
/**
* @return numberOfBits in the low-order bits of a long
*/
public static long peekBits(int bitsConsumed, long bitContainer, int numberOfBits)
{
return (((bitContainer << bitsConsumed) >>> 1) >>> (63 - numberOfBits));
}
/**
* numberOfBits must be > 0
*
* @return numberOfBits in the low-order bits of a long
*/
public static long peekBitsFast(int bitsConsumed, long bitContainer, int numberOfBits)
{
return ((bitContainer << bitsConsumed) >>> (64 - numberOfBits));
}
static class Initializer
{
private final Object inputBase;
private final long startAddress;
private final long endAddress;
private long bits;
private long currentAddress;
private int bitsConsumed;
public Initializer(Object inputBase, long startAddress, long endAddress)
{
this.inputBase = inputBase;
this.startAddress = startAddress;
this.endAddress = endAddress;
}
public long getBits()
{
return bits;
}
public long getCurrentAddress()
{
return currentAddress;
}
public int getBitsConsumed()
{
return bitsConsumed;
}
public void initialize()
{
verify(endAddress - startAddress >= 1, startAddress, "Bitstream is empty");
int lastByte = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, endAddress - 1) & 0xFF;
verify(lastByte != 0, endAddress, "Bitstream end mark not present");
bitsConsumed = SIZE_OF_LONG - highestBit(lastByte);
int inputSize = (int) (endAddress - startAddress);
if (inputSize >= SIZE_OF_LONG) { /* normal case */
currentAddress = endAddress - SIZE_OF_LONG;
bits = UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, currentAddress);
}
else {
currentAddress = startAddress;
bits = readTail(inputBase, startAddress, inputSize);
bitsConsumed += (SIZE_OF_LONG - inputSize) * 8;
}
}
}
static final class Loader
{
private final Object inputBase;
private final long startAddress;
private long bits;
private long currentAddress;
private int bitsConsumed;
private boolean overflow;
public Loader(Object inputBase, long startAddress, long currentAddress, long bits, int bitsConsumed)
{
this.inputBase = inputBase;
this.startAddress = startAddress;
this.bits = bits;
this.currentAddress = currentAddress;
this.bitsConsumed = bitsConsumed;
}
public long getBits()
{
return bits;
}
public long getCurrentAddress()
{
return currentAddress;
}
public int getBitsConsumed()
{
return bitsConsumed;
}
public boolean isOverflow()
{
return overflow;
}
public boolean load()
{
if (bitsConsumed > 64) {
overflow = true;
return true;
}
else if (currentAddress == startAddress) {
return true;
}
int bytes = bitsConsumed >>> 3; // divide by 8
if (currentAddress >= startAddress + SIZE_OF_LONG) {
if (bytes > 0) {
currentAddress -= bytes;
bits = UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, currentAddress);
}
bitsConsumed &= 0b111;
}
else if (currentAddress - bytes < startAddress) {
bytes = (int) (currentAddress - startAddress);
currentAddress = startAddress;
bitsConsumed -= bytes * SIZE_OF_LONG;
bits = UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, startAddress);
return true;
}
else {
currentAddress -= bytes;
bitsConsumed -= bytes * SIZE_OF_LONG;
bits = UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, currentAddress);
}
return false;
}
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/BitOutputStream.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_LONG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.UnsafeUtil.UNSAFE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.checkArgument;
class BitOutputStream
{
private static final long[] BIT_MASK = {
0x0, 0x1, 0x3, 0x7, 0xF, 0x1F,
0x3F, 0x7F, 0xFF, 0x1FF, 0x3FF, 0x7FF,
0xFFF, 0x1FFF, 0x3FFF, 0x7FFF, 0xFFFF, 0x1FFFF,
0x3FFFF, 0x7FFFF, 0xFFFFF, 0x1FFFFF, 0x3FFFFF, 0x7FFFFF,
0xFFFFFF, 0x1FFFFFF, 0x3FFFFFF, 0x7FFFFFF, 0xFFFFFFF, 0x1FFFFFFF,
0x3FFFFFFF, 0x7FFFFFFF}; // up to 31 bits
private final Object outputBase;
private final long outputAddress;
private final long outputLimit;
private long container;
private int bitCount;
private long currentAddress;
public BitOutputStream(Object outputBase, long outputAddress, int outputSize)
{
checkArgument(outputSize >= SIZE_OF_LONG, "Output buffer too small");
this.outputBase = outputBase;
this.outputAddress = outputAddress;
outputLimit = this.outputAddress + outputSize - SIZE_OF_LONG;
currentAddress = this.outputAddress;
}
public void addBits(int value, int bits)
{
container |= (value & BIT_MASK[bits]) << bitCount;
bitCount += bits;
}
/**
* Note: leading bits of value must be 0
*/
public void addBitsFast(int value, int bits)
{
container |= ((long) value) << bitCount;
bitCount += bits;
}
public void flush()
{
int bytes = bitCount >>> 3;
UNSAFE.putLong(outputBase, currentAddress, container);
currentAddress += bytes;
if (currentAddress > outputLimit) {
currentAddress = outputLimit;
}
bitCount &= 7;
container >>>= bytes * 8;
}
public int close()
{
addBitsFast(1, 1); // end mark
flush();
if (currentAddress >= outputLimit) {
return 0;
}
return (int) ((currentAddress - outputAddress) + (bitCount > 0 ? 1 : 0));
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/BlockCompressionState.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import java.util.Arrays;
class BlockCompressionState
{
public final int[] hashTable;
public final int[] chainTable;
private final long baseAddress;
// starting point of the window with respect to baseAddress
private int windowBaseOffset;
public BlockCompressionState(CompressionParameters parameters, long baseAddress)
{
this.baseAddress = baseAddress;
hashTable = new int[1 << parameters.getHashLog()];
chainTable = new int[1 << parameters.getChainLog()]; // TODO: chain table not used by Strategy.FAST
}
public void slideWindow(int slideWindowSize)
{
for (int i = 0; i < hashTable.length; i++) {
int newValue = hashTable[i] - slideWindowSize;
// if new value is negative, set it to zero branchless
newValue = newValue & (~(newValue >> 31));
hashTable[i] = newValue;
}
for (int i = 0; i < chainTable.length; i++) {
int newValue = chainTable[i] - slideWindowSize;
// if new value is negative, set it to zero branchless
newValue = newValue & (~(newValue >> 31));
chainTable[i] = newValue;
}
}
public void reset()
{
Arrays.fill(hashTable, 0);
Arrays.fill(chainTable, 0);
}
public void enforceMaxDistance(long inputLimit, int maxDistance)
{
int distance = (int) (inputLimit - baseAddress);
int newOffset = distance - maxDistance;
if (windowBaseOffset < newOffset) {
windowBaseOffset = newOffset;
}
}
public long getBaseAddress()
{
return baseAddress;
}
public int getWindowBaseOffset()
{
return windowBaseOffset;
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/BlockCompressor.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
interface BlockCompressor
{
BlockCompressor UNSUPPORTED = (inputBase, inputAddress, inputSize, sequenceStore, blockCompressionState, offsets, parameters) -> { throw new UnsupportedOperationException(); };
int compressBlock(Object inputBase, long inputAddress, int inputSize, SequenceStore output, BlockCompressionState state, RepeatedOffsets offsets, CompressionParameters parameters);
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/CompressionContext.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MAX_BLOCK_SIZE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.checkArgument;
import static java.lang.Math.clamp;
class CompressionContext
{
public final CompressionParameters parameters;
public final RepeatedOffsets offsets = new RepeatedOffsets();
public final BlockCompressionState blockCompressionState;
public final SequenceStore sequenceStore;
public final SequenceEncodingContext sequenceEncodingContext = new SequenceEncodingContext();
public final HuffmanCompressionContext huffmanContext = new HuffmanCompressionContext();
public CompressionContext(CompressionParameters parameters, long baseAddress, int inputSize)
{
this.parameters = parameters;
int windowSize = clamp(inputSize, 1, parameters.getWindowSize());
int blockSize = Math.min(MAX_BLOCK_SIZE, windowSize);
int divider = (parameters.getSearchLength() == 3) ? 3 : 4;
int maxSequences = blockSize / divider;
sequenceStore = new SequenceStore(blockSize, maxSequences);
blockCompressionState = new BlockCompressionState(parameters, baseAddress);
}
public void slideWindow(int slideWindowSize)
{
checkArgument(slideWindowSize > 0, "slideWindowSize must be positive");
blockCompressionState.slideWindow(slideWindowSize);
}
public void commit()
{
offsets.commit();
huffmanContext.saveChanges();
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/CompressionParameters.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MAX_BLOCK_SIZE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MAX_WINDOW_LOG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MIN_WINDOW_LOG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.cycleLog;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.highestBit;
import static java.lang.Math.clamp;
class CompressionParameters
{
private static final int MIN_HASH_LOG = 6;
public static final int DEFAULT_COMPRESSION_LEVEL = 3;
private static final int MAX_COMPRESSION_LEVEL = 22;
private final int windowLog; // largest match distance : larger == more compression, more memory needed during decompression
private final int windowSize; // computed: 1 << windowLog
private final int blockSize; // computed: min(MAX_BLOCK_SIZE, windowSize)
private final int chainLog; // fully searched segment : larger == more compression, slower, more memory (useless for fast)
private final int hashLog; // dispatch table : larger == faster, more memory
private final int searchLog; // nb of searches : larger == more compression, slower
private final int searchLength; // match length searched : larger == faster decompression, sometimes less compression
private final int targetLength; // acceptable match size for optimal parser (only) : larger == more compression, slower
private final Strategy strategy;
private static final CompressionParameters[][] DEFAULT_COMPRESSION_PARAMETERS = new CompressionParameters[][] {
{
// default
new CompressionParameters(19, 12, 13, 1, 6, 1, Strategy.FAST), /* base for negative levels */
new CompressionParameters(19, 13, 14, 1, 7, 0, Strategy.FAST), /* level 1 */
new CompressionParameters(19, 15, 16, 1, 6, 0, Strategy.FAST), /* level 2 */
new CompressionParameters(20, 16, 17, 1, 5, 1, Strategy.DFAST), /* level 3 */
new CompressionParameters(20, 18, 18, 1, 5, 1, Strategy.DFAST), /* level 4 */
new CompressionParameters(20, 18, 18, 2, 5, 2, Strategy.GREEDY), /* level 5 */
new CompressionParameters(21, 18, 19, 2, 5, 4, Strategy.LAZY), /* level 6 */
new CompressionParameters(21, 18, 19, 3, 5, 8, Strategy.LAZY2), /* level 7 */
new CompressionParameters(21, 19, 19, 3, 5, 16, Strategy.LAZY2), /* level 8 */
new CompressionParameters(21, 19, 20, 4, 5, 16, Strategy.LAZY2), /* level 9 */
new CompressionParameters(21, 20, 21, 4, 5, 16, Strategy.LAZY2), /* level 10 */
new CompressionParameters(21, 21, 22, 4, 5, 16, Strategy.LAZY2), /* level 11 */
new CompressionParameters(22, 20, 22, 5, 5, 16, Strategy.LAZY2), /* level 12 */
new CompressionParameters(22, 21, 22, 4, 5, 32, Strategy.BTLAZY2), /* level 13 */
new CompressionParameters(22, 21, 22, 5, 5, 32, Strategy.BTLAZY2), /* level 14 */
new CompressionParameters(22, 22, 22, 6, 5, 32, Strategy.BTLAZY2), /* level 15 */
new CompressionParameters(22, 21, 22, 4, 5, 48, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 16 */
new CompressionParameters(23, 22, 22, 4, 4, 64, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 17 */
new CompressionParameters(23, 23, 22, 6, 3, 256, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 18 */
new CompressionParameters(23, 24, 22, 7, 3, 256, Strategy.BTULTRA), /* level 19 */
new CompressionParameters(25, 25, 23, 7, 3, 256, Strategy.BTULTRA), /* level 20 */
new CompressionParameters(26, 26, 24, 7, 3, 512, Strategy.BTULTRA), /* level 21 */
new CompressionParameters(27, 27, 25, 9, 3, 999, Strategy.BTULTRA) /* level 22 */
},
{
// for size <= 256 KB
new CompressionParameters(18, 12, 13, 1, 5, 1, Strategy.FAST), /* base for negative levels */
new CompressionParameters(18, 13, 14, 1, 6, 0, Strategy.FAST), /* level 1 */
new CompressionParameters(18, 14, 14, 1, 5, 1, Strategy.DFAST), /* level 2 */
new CompressionParameters(18, 16, 16, 1, 4, 1, Strategy.DFAST), /* level 3 */
new CompressionParameters(18, 16, 17, 2, 5, 2, Strategy.GREEDY), /* level 4.*/
new CompressionParameters(18, 18, 18, 3, 5, 2, Strategy.GREEDY), /* level 5.*/
new CompressionParameters(18, 18, 19, 3, 5, 4, Strategy.LAZY), /* level 6.*/
new CompressionParameters(18, 18, 19, 4, 4, 4, Strategy.LAZY), /* level 7 */
new CompressionParameters(18, 18, 19, 4, 4, 8, Strategy.LAZY2), /* level 8 */
new CompressionParameters(18, 18, 19, 5, 4, 8, Strategy.LAZY2), /* level 9 */
new CompressionParameters(18, 18, 19, 6, 4, 8, Strategy.LAZY2), /* level 10 */
new CompressionParameters(18, 18, 19, 5, 4, 16, Strategy.BTLAZY2), /* level 11.*/
new CompressionParameters(18, 19, 19, 6, 4, 16, Strategy.BTLAZY2), /* level 12.*/
new CompressionParameters(18, 19, 19, 8, 4, 16, Strategy.BTLAZY2), /* level 13 */
new CompressionParameters(18, 18, 19, 4, 4, 24, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 14.*/
new CompressionParameters(18, 18, 19, 4, 3, 24, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 15.*/
new CompressionParameters(18, 19, 19, 6, 3, 64, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 16.*/
new CompressionParameters(18, 19, 19, 8, 3, 128, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 17.*/
new CompressionParameters(18, 19, 19, 10, 3, 256, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 18.*/
new CompressionParameters(18, 19, 19, 10, 3, 256, Strategy.BTULTRA), /* level 19.*/
new CompressionParameters(18, 19, 19, 11, 3, 512, Strategy.BTULTRA), /* level 20.*/
new CompressionParameters(18, 19, 19, 12, 3, 512, Strategy.BTULTRA), /* level 21.*/
new CompressionParameters(18, 19, 19, 13, 3, 999, Strategy.BTULTRA) /* level 22.*/
},
{
// for size <= 128 KB
new CompressionParameters(17, 12, 12, 1, 5, 1, Strategy.FAST), /* base for negative levels */
new CompressionParameters(17, 12, 13, 1, 6, 0, Strategy.FAST), /* level 1 */
new CompressionParameters(17, 13, 15, 1, 5, 0, Strategy.FAST), /* level 2 */
new CompressionParameters(17, 15, 16, 2, 5, 1, Strategy.DFAST), /* level 3 */
new CompressionParameters(17, 17, 17, 2, 4, 1, Strategy.DFAST), /* level 4 */
new CompressionParameters(17, 16, 17, 3, 4, 2, Strategy.GREEDY), /* level 5 */
new CompressionParameters(17, 17, 17, 3, 4, 4, Strategy.LAZY), /* level 6 */
new CompressionParameters(17, 17, 17, 3, 4, 8, Strategy.LAZY2), /* level 7 */
new CompressionParameters(17, 17, 17, 4, 4, 8, Strategy.LAZY2), /* level 8 */
new CompressionParameters(17, 17, 17, 5, 4, 8, Strategy.LAZY2), /* level 9 */
new CompressionParameters(17, 17, 17, 6, 4, 8, Strategy.LAZY2), /* level 10 */
new CompressionParameters(17, 17, 17, 7, 4, 8, Strategy.LAZY2), /* level 11 */
new CompressionParameters(17, 18, 17, 6, 4, 16, Strategy.BTLAZY2), /* level 12 */
new CompressionParameters(17, 18, 17, 8, 4, 16, Strategy.BTLAZY2), /* level 13.*/
new CompressionParameters(17, 18, 17, 4, 4, 32, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 14.*/
new CompressionParameters(17, 18, 17, 6, 3, 64, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 15.*/
new CompressionParameters(17, 18, 17, 7, 3, 128, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 16.*/
new CompressionParameters(17, 18, 17, 7, 3, 256, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 17.*/
new CompressionParameters(17, 18, 17, 8, 3, 256, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 18.*/
new CompressionParameters(17, 18, 17, 8, 3, 256, Strategy.BTULTRA), /* level 19.*/
new CompressionParameters(17, 18, 17, 9, 3, 256, Strategy.BTULTRA), /* level 20.*/
new CompressionParameters(17, 18, 17, 10, 3, 256, Strategy.BTULTRA), /* level 21.*/
new CompressionParameters(17, 18, 17, 11, 3, 512, Strategy.BTULTRA) /* level 22.*/
},
{
// for size <= 16 KB
new CompressionParameters(14, 12, 13, 1, 5, 1, Strategy.FAST), /* base for negative levels */
new CompressionParameters(14, 14, 15, 1, 5, 0, Strategy.FAST), /* level 1 */
new CompressionParameters(14, 14, 15, 1, 4, 0, Strategy.FAST), /* level 2 */
new CompressionParameters(14, 14, 14, 2, 4, 1, Strategy.DFAST), /* level 3.*/
new CompressionParameters(14, 14, 14, 4, 4, 2, Strategy.GREEDY), /* level 4.*/
new CompressionParameters(14, 14, 14, 3, 4, 4, Strategy.LAZY), /* level 5.*/
new CompressionParameters(14, 14, 14, 4, 4, 8, Strategy.LAZY2), /* level 6 */
new CompressionParameters(14, 14, 14, 6, 4, 8, Strategy.LAZY2), /* level 7 */
new CompressionParameters(14, 14, 14, 8, 4, 8, Strategy.LAZY2), /* level 8.*/
new CompressionParameters(14, 15, 14, 5, 4, 8, Strategy.BTLAZY2), /* level 9.*/
new CompressionParameters(14, 15, 14, 9, 4, 8, Strategy.BTLAZY2), /* level 10.*/
new CompressionParameters(14, 15, 14, 3, 4, 12, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 11.*/
new CompressionParameters(14, 15, 14, 6, 3, 16, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 12.*/
new CompressionParameters(14, 15, 14, 6, 3, 24, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 13.*/
new CompressionParameters(14, 15, 15, 6, 3, 48, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 14.*/
new CompressionParameters(14, 15, 15, 6, 3, 64, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 15.*/
new CompressionParameters(14, 15, 15, 6, 3, 96, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 16.*/
new CompressionParameters(14, 15, 15, 6, 3, 128, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 17.*/
new CompressionParameters(14, 15, 15, 8, 3, 256, Strategy.BTOPT), /* level 18.*/
new CompressionParameters(14, 15, 15, 6, 3, 256, Strategy.BTULTRA), /* level 19.*/
new CompressionParameters(14, 15, 15, 8, 3, 256, Strategy.BTULTRA), /* level 20.*/
new CompressionParameters(14, 15, 15, 9, 3, 256, Strategy.BTULTRA), /* level 21.*/
new CompressionParameters(14, 15, 15, 10, 3, 512, Strategy.BTULTRA) /* level 22.*/
}
};
public enum Strategy
{
// from faster to stronger
// YC: fast is a "single probe" strategy : at every position, we attempt to find a match, and give up if we don't find any. similar to lz4.
FAST(BlockCompressor.UNSUPPORTED),
// YC: double_fast is a 2 attempts strategies. They are not symmetrical by the way. One attempt is "normal" while the second one looks for "long matches". It was
// empirically found that this was the best trade off. As can be guessed, it's slower than single-attempt, but find more and better matches, so compresses better.
DFAST(new DoubleFastBlockCompressor()),
// YC: greedy uses a hash chain strategy. Every position is hashed, and all positions with same hash are chained. The algorithm goes through all candidates. There are
// diminishing returns in going deeper and deeper, so after a nb of attempts (which can be selected), it abandons the search. The best (longest) match wins. If there is
// one winner, it's immediately encoded.
GREEDY(BlockCompressor.UNSUPPORTED),
// YC: lazy will do something similar to greedy, but will not encode immediately. It will search again at next position, in case it would find something better.
// It's actually fairly common to have a small match at position p hiding a more worthy one at position p+1. This obviously increases the search workload. But the
// resulting compressed stream generally contains larger matches, hence compresses better.
LAZY(BlockCompressor.UNSUPPORTED),
// YC: lazy2 is same as lazy, but deeper. It will search at P, P+1 and then P+2 in case it would find something even better. More workload. Better matches.
LAZY2(BlockCompressor.UNSUPPORTED),
// YC: btlazy2 is like lazy2, but trades the hash chain for a binary tree. This becomes necessary, as the nb of attempts becomes prohibitively expensive. The binary tree
// complexity increases with log of search depth, instead of proportionally with search depth. So searching deeper in history quickly becomes the dominant operation.
// btlazy2 cuts into that. But it costs 2x more memory. It's also relatively "slow", even when trying to cut its parameters to make it perform faster. So it's really
// a high compression strategy.
BTLAZY2(BlockCompressor.UNSUPPORTED),
// YC: btopt is, well, a hell of lot more complex.
// It will compute and find multiple matches per position, will dynamically compare every path from point P to P+N, reverse the graph to find cheapest path, iterate on
// batches of overlapping matches, etc. It's much more expensive. But the compression ratio is also much better.
BTOPT(BlockCompressor.UNSUPPORTED),
// YC: btultra is about the same, but doesn't cut as many corners (btopt "abandons" more quickly unpromising little gains). Slower, stronger.
BTULTRA(BlockCompressor.UNSUPPORTED);
private final BlockCompressor compressor;
Strategy(BlockCompressor compressor)
{
this.compressor = compressor;
}
public BlockCompressor getCompressor()
{
return compressor;
}
}
public CompressionParameters(int windowLog, int chainLog, int hashLog, int searchLog, int searchLength, int targetLength, Strategy strategy)
{
this.windowLog = windowLog;
this.windowSize = 1 << windowLog;
this.blockSize = Math.min(MAX_BLOCK_SIZE, windowSize);
this.chainLog = chainLog;
this.hashLog = hashLog;
this.searchLog = searchLog;
this.searchLength = searchLength;
this.targetLength = targetLength;
this.strategy = strategy;
}
public int getWindowLog()
{
return windowLog;
}
public int getWindowSize()
{
return windowSize;
}
public int getBlockSize()
{
return blockSize;
}
public int getSearchLength()
{
return searchLength;
}
public int getChainLog()
{
return chainLog;
}
public int getHashLog()
{
return hashLog;
}
public int getSearchLog()
{
return searchLog;
}
public int getTargetLength()
{
return targetLength;
}
public Strategy getStrategy()
{
return strategy;
}
public static CompressionParameters compute(int compressionLevel, int estimatedInputSize)
{
CompressionParameters defaultParameters = getDefaultParameters(compressionLevel, estimatedInputSize);
if (estimatedInputSize < 0) {
return defaultParameters;
}
int targetLength = defaultParameters.targetLength;
int windowLog = defaultParameters.windowLog;
int chainLog = defaultParameters.chainLog;
int hashLog = defaultParameters.hashLog;
int searchLog = defaultParameters.searchLog;
int searchLength = defaultParameters.searchLength;
Strategy strategy = defaultParameters.strategy;
if (compressionLevel < 0) {
targetLength = -compressionLevel; // acceleration factor
}
// resize windowLog if input is small enough, to use less memory
long maxWindowResize = 1L << (MAX_WINDOW_LOG - 1);
if (estimatedInputSize < maxWindowResize) {
int hashSizeMin = 1 << MIN_HASH_LOG;
int inputSizeLog = (estimatedInputSize < hashSizeMin) ? MIN_HASH_LOG : highestBit(estimatedInputSize - 1) + 1;
if (windowLog > inputSizeLog) {
windowLog = inputSizeLog;
}
}
if (hashLog > windowLog + 1) {
hashLog = windowLog + 1;
}
int cycleLog = cycleLog(chainLog, strategy);
if (cycleLog > windowLog) {
chainLog -= (cycleLog - windowLog);
}
if (windowLog < MIN_WINDOW_LOG) {
windowLog = MIN_WINDOW_LOG;
}
return new CompressionParameters(windowLog, chainLog, hashLog, searchLog, searchLength, targetLength, strategy);
}
private static CompressionParameters getDefaultParameters(int compressionLevel, long estimatedInputSize)
{
int table = 0;
if (estimatedInputSize >= 0) {
if (estimatedInputSize <= 16 * 1024) {
table = 3;
}
else if (estimatedInputSize <= 128 * 1024) {
table = 2;
}
else if (estimatedInputSize <= 256 * 1024) {
table = 1;
}
}
int row = DEFAULT_COMPRESSION_LEVEL;
if (compressionLevel != 0) { // TODO: figure out better way to indicate default compression level
row = clamp(compressionLevel, 0, MAX_COMPRESSION_LEVEL);
}
return DEFAULT_COMPRESSION_PARAMETERS[table][row];
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/Constants.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
final class Constants
{
public static final int SIZE_OF_BYTE = 1;
public static final int SIZE_OF_SHORT = 2;
public static final int SIZE_OF_INT = 4;
public static final int SIZE_OF_LONG = 8;
public static final int MAGIC_NUMBER = 0xFD2FB528;
public static final int MIN_WINDOW_LOG = 10;
public static final int MAX_WINDOW_LOG = 31;
public static final int SIZE_OF_BLOCK_HEADER = 3;
public static final int MIN_SEQUENCES_SIZE = 1;
public static final int MIN_BLOCK_SIZE = 1 // block type tag
+ 1 // min size of raw or rle length header
+ MIN_SEQUENCES_SIZE;
public static final int MAX_BLOCK_SIZE = 128 * 1024;
public static final int REPEATED_OFFSET_COUNT = 3;
// block types
public static final int RAW_BLOCK = 0;
public static final int RLE_BLOCK = 1;
public static final int COMPRESSED_BLOCK = 2;
// sequence encoding types
public static final int SEQUENCE_ENCODING_BASIC = 0;
public static final int SEQUENCE_ENCODING_RLE = 1;
public static final int SEQUENCE_ENCODING_COMPRESSED = 2;
public static final int SEQUENCE_ENCODING_REPEAT = 3;
public static final int MAX_LITERALS_LENGTH_SYMBOL = 35;
public static final int MAX_MATCH_LENGTH_SYMBOL = 52;
public static final int MAX_OFFSET_CODE_SYMBOL = 31;
public static final int DEFAULT_MAX_OFFSET_CODE_SYMBOL = 28;
public static final int LITERAL_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG = 9;
public static final int MATCH_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG = 9;
public static final int OFFSET_TABLE_LOG = 8;
// literal block types
public static final int RAW_LITERALS_BLOCK = 0;
public static final int RLE_LITERALS_BLOCK = 1;
public static final int COMPRESSED_LITERALS_BLOCK = 2;
public static final int TREELESS_LITERALS_BLOCK = 3;
public static final int LONG_NUMBER_OF_SEQUENCES = 0x7F00;
public static final int[] LITERALS_LENGTH_BITS = {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3,
4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,
13, 14, 15, 16};
public static final int[] MATCH_LENGTH_BITS = {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3,
4, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
12, 13, 14, 15, 16};
private Constants()
{
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/DoubleFastBlockCompressor.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_INT;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_LONG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.UnsafeUtil.UNSAFE;
class DoubleFastBlockCompressor
implements BlockCompressor
{
private static final int MIN_MATCH = 3;
private static final int SEARCH_STRENGTH = 8;
private static final int REP_MOVE = Constants.REPEATED_OFFSET_COUNT - 1;
@Override
public int compressBlock(Object inputBase, final long inputAddress, int inputSize, SequenceStore output, BlockCompressionState state, RepeatedOffsets offsets, CompressionParameters parameters)
{
int matchSearchLength = Math.max(parameters.getSearchLength(), 4);
// Offsets in hash tables are relative to baseAddress. Hash tables can be reused across calls to compressBlock as long as
// baseAddress is kept constant.
// We don't want to generate sequences that point before the current window limit, so we "filter" out all results from looking up in the hash tables
// beyond that point.
final long baseAddress = state.getBaseAddress();
final long windowBaseAddress = baseAddress + state.getWindowBaseOffset();
int[] longHashTable = state.hashTable;
int longHashBits = parameters.getHashLog();
int[] shortHashTable = state.chainTable;
int shortHashBits = parameters.getChainLog();
final long inputEnd = inputAddress + inputSize;
final long inputLimit = inputEnd - SIZE_OF_LONG; // We read a long at a time for computing the hashes
long input = inputAddress;
long anchor = inputAddress;
int offset1 = offsets.getOffset0();
int offset2 = offsets.getOffset1();
int savedOffset = 0;
if (input - windowBaseAddress == 0) {
input++;
}
int maxRep = (int) (input - windowBaseAddress);
if (offset2 > maxRep) {
savedOffset = offset2;
offset2 = 0;
}
if (offset1 > maxRep) {
savedOffset = offset1;
offset1 = 0;
}
while (input < inputLimit) { // < instead of <=, because repcode check at (input+1)
int shortHash = hash(inputBase, input, shortHashBits, matchSearchLength);
long shortMatchAddress = baseAddress + shortHashTable[shortHash];
int longHash = hash8(UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, input), longHashBits);
long longMatchAddress = baseAddress + longHashTable[longHash];
// update hash tables
int current = (int) (input - baseAddress);
longHashTable[longHash] = current;
shortHashTable[shortHash] = current;
int matchLength;
int offset;
if (offset1 > 0 && UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, input + 1 - offset1) == UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, input + 1)) {
// found a repeated sequence of at least 4 bytes, separated by offset1
matchLength = count(inputBase, input + 1 + SIZE_OF_INT, inputEnd, input + 1 + SIZE_OF_INT - offset1) + SIZE_OF_INT;
input++;
output.storeSequence(inputBase, anchor, (int) (input - anchor), 0, matchLength - MIN_MATCH);
}
else {
// check prefix long match
if (longMatchAddress > windowBaseAddress && UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, longMatchAddress) == UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, input)) {
matchLength = count(inputBase, input + SIZE_OF_LONG, inputEnd, longMatchAddress + SIZE_OF_LONG) + SIZE_OF_LONG;
offset = (int) (input - longMatchAddress);
while (input > anchor && longMatchAddress > windowBaseAddress && UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input - 1) == UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, longMatchAddress - 1)) {
input--;
longMatchAddress--;
matchLength++;
}
}
else {
// check prefix short match
if (shortMatchAddress > windowBaseAddress && UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, shortMatchAddress) == UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, input)) {
int nextOffsetHash = hash8(UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, input + 1), longHashBits);
long nextOffsetMatchAddress = baseAddress + longHashTable[nextOffsetHash];
longHashTable[nextOffsetHash] = current + 1;
// check prefix long +1 match
if (nextOffsetMatchAddress > windowBaseAddress && UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, nextOffsetMatchAddress) == UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, input + 1)) {
matchLength = count(inputBase, input + 1 + SIZE_OF_LONG, inputEnd, nextOffsetMatchAddress + SIZE_OF_LONG) + SIZE_OF_LONG;
input++;
offset = (int) (input - nextOffsetMatchAddress);
while (input > anchor && nextOffsetMatchAddress > windowBaseAddress && UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input - 1) == UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, nextOffsetMatchAddress - 1)) {
input--;
nextOffsetMatchAddress--;
matchLength++;
}
}
else {
// if no long +1 match, explore the short match we found
matchLength = count(inputBase, input + SIZE_OF_INT, inputEnd, shortMatchAddress + SIZE_OF_INT) + SIZE_OF_INT;
offset = (int) (input - shortMatchAddress);
while (input > anchor && shortMatchAddress > windowBaseAddress && UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input - 1) == UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, shortMatchAddress - 1)) {
input--;
shortMatchAddress--;
matchLength++;
}
}
}
else {
input += ((input - anchor) >> SEARCH_STRENGTH) + 1;
continue;
}
}
offset2 = offset1;
offset1 = offset;
output.storeSequence(inputBase, anchor, (int) (input - anchor), offset + REP_MOVE, matchLength - MIN_MATCH);
}
input += matchLength;
anchor = input;
if (input <= inputLimit) {
// Fill Table
longHashTable[hash8(UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, baseAddress + current + 2), longHashBits)] = current + 2;
shortHashTable[hash(inputBase, baseAddress + current + 2, shortHashBits, matchSearchLength)] = current + 2;
longHashTable[hash8(UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, input - 2), longHashBits)] = (int) (input - 2 - baseAddress);
shortHashTable[hash(inputBase, input - 2, shortHashBits, matchSearchLength)] = (int) (input - 2 - baseAddress);
while (input <= inputLimit && offset2 > 0 && UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, input) == UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, input - offset2)) {
int repetitionLength = count(inputBase, input + SIZE_OF_INT, inputEnd, input + SIZE_OF_INT - offset2) + SIZE_OF_INT;
// swap offset2 <=> offset1
int temp = offset2;
offset2 = offset1;
offset1 = temp;
shortHashTable[hash(inputBase, input, shortHashBits, matchSearchLength)] = (int) (input - baseAddress);
longHashTable[hash8(UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, input), longHashBits)] = (int) (input - baseAddress);
output.storeSequence(inputBase, anchor, 0, 0, repetitionLength - MIN_MATCH);
input += repetitionLength;
anchor = input;
}
}
}
// save reps for next block
offsets.saveOffset0(offset1 != 0 ? offset1 : savedOffset);
offsets.saveOffset1(offset2 != 0 ? offset2 : savedOffset);
// return the last literals size
return (int) (inputEnd - anchor);
}
// TODO: same as LZ4RawCompressor.count
/**
* matchAddress must be < inputAddress
*/
public static int count(Object inputBase, final long inputAddress, final long inputLimit, final long matchAddress)
{
long input = inputAddress;
long match = matchAddress;
int remaining = (int) (inputLimit - inputAddress);
// first, compare long at a time
int count = 0;
while (count < remaining - (SIZE_OF_LONG - 1)) {
long diff = UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, match) ^ UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, input);
if (diff != 0) {
return count + (Long.numberOfTrailingZeros(diff) >> 3);
}
count += SIZE_OF_LONG;
input += SIZE_OF_LONG;
match += SIZE_OF_LONG;
}
while (count < remaining && UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, match) == UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input)) {
count++;
input++;
match++;
}
return count;
}
private static int hash(Object inputBase, long inputAddress, int bits, int matchSearchLength)
{
switch (matchSearchLength) {
case 8:
return hash8(UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, inputAddress), bits);
case 7:
return hash7(UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, inputAddress), bits);
case 6:
return hash6(UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, inputAddress), bits);
case 5:
return hash5(UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, inputAddress), bits);
default:
return hash4(UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, inputAddress), bits);
}
}
private static final int PRIME_4_BYTES = 0x9E3779B1;
private static final long PRIME_5_BYTES = 0xCF1BBCDCBBL;
private static final long PRIME_6_BYTES = 0xCF1BBCDCBF9BL;
private static final long PRIME_7_BYTES = 0xCF1BBCDCBFA563L;
private static final long PRIME_8_BYTES = 0xCF1BBCDCB7A56463L;
private static int hash4(int value, int bits)
{
return (value * PRIME_4_BYTES) >>> (Integer.SIZE - bits);
}
private static int hash5(long value, int bits)
{
return (int) (((value << (Long.SIZE - 40)) * PRIME_5_BYTES) >>> (Long.SIZE - bits));
}
private static int hash6(long value, int bits)
{
return (int) (((value << (Long.SIZE - 48)) * PRIME_6_BYTES) >>> (Long.SIZE - bits));
}
private static int hash7(long value, int bits)
{
return (int) (((value << (Long.SIZE - 56)) * PRIME_7_BYTES) >>> (Long.SIZE - bits));
}
private static int hash8(long value, int bits)
{
return (int) ((value * PRIME_8_BYTES) >>> (Long.SIZE - bits));
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/FiniteStateEntropy.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.BitInputStream.peekBits;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_INT;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_LONG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_SHORT;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.UnsafeUtil.UNSAFE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.checkArgument;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.verify;
import static sun.misc.Unsafe.ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET;
final class FiniteStateEntropy
{
public static final int MAX_SYMBOL = 255;
public static final int MAX_TABLE_LOG = 12;
public static final int MIN_TABLE_LOG = 5;
private static final int[] REST_TO_BEAT = new int[] {0, 473195, 504333, 520860, 550000, 700000, 750000, 830000};
private static final short UNASSIGNED = -2;
private FiniteStateEntropy()
{
}
public static int decompress(FiniteStateEntropy.Table table, final Object inputBase, final long inputAddress, final long inputLimit, byte[] outputBuffer)
{
final Object outputBase = outputBuffer;
final long outputAddress = ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET;
final long outputLimit = outputAddress + outputBuffer.length;
long input = inputAddress;
long output = outputAddress;
// initialize bit stream
BitInputStream.Initializer initializer = new BitInputStream.Initializer(inputBase, input, inputLimit);
initializer.initialize();
int bitsConsumed = initializer.getBitsConsumed();
long currentAddress = initializer.getCurrentAddress();
long bits = initializer.getBits();
// initialize first FSE stream
int state1 = (int) peekBits(bitsConsumed, bits, table.log2Size);
bitsConsumed += table.log2Size;
BitInputStream.Loader loader = new BitInputStream.Loader(inputBase, input, currentAddress, bits, bitsConsumed);
loader.load();
bits = loader.getBits();
bitsConsumed = loader.getBitsConsumed();
currentAddress = loader.getCurrentAddress();
// initialize second FSE stream
int state2 = (int) peekBits(bitsConsumed, bits, table.log2Size);
bitsConsumed += table.log2Size;
loader = new BitInputStream.Loader(inputBase, input, currentAddress, bits, bitsConsumed);
loader.load();
bits = loader.getBits();
bitsConsumed = loader.getBitsConsumed();
currentAddress = loader.getCurrentAddress();
byte[] symbols = table.symbol;
byte[] numbersOfBits = table.numberOfBits;
int[] newStates = table.newState;
// decode 4 symbols per loop
while (output <= outputLimit - 4) {
int numberOfBits;
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output, symbols[state1]);
numberOfBits = numbersOfBits[state1];
state1 = (int) (newStates[state1] + peekBits(bitsConsumed, bits, numberOfBits));
bitsConsumed += numberOfBits;
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output + 1, symbols[state2]);
numberOfBits = numbersOfBits[state2];
state2 = (int) (newStates[state2] + peekBits(bitsConsumed, bits, numberOfBits));
bitsConsumed += numberOfBits;
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output + 2, symbols[state1]);
numberOfBits = numbersOfBits[state1];
state1 = (int) (newStates[state1] + peekBits(bitsConsumed, bits, numberOfBits));
bitsConsumed += numberOfBits;
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output + 3, symbols[state2]);
numberOfBits = numbersOfBits[state2];
state2 = (int) (newStates[state2] + peekBits(bitsConsumed, bits, numberOfBits));
bitsConsumed += numberOfBits;
output += SIZE_OF_INT;
loader = new BitInputStream.Loader(inputBase, input, currentAddress, bits, bitsConsumed);
boolean done = loader.load();
bitsConsumed = loader.getBitsConsumed();
bits = loader.getBits();
currentAddress = loader.getCurrentAddress();
if (done) {
break;
}
}
while (true) {
verify(output <= outputLimit - 2, input, "Output buffer is too small");
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output++, symbols[state1]);
int numberOfBits = numbersOfBits[state1];
state1 = (int) (newStates[state1] + peekBits(bitsConsumed, bits, numberOfBits));
bitsConsumed += numberOfBits;
loader = new BitInputStream.Loader(inputBase, input, currentAddress, bits, bitsConsumed);
loader.load();
bitsConsumed = loader.getBitsConsumed();
bits = loader.getBits();
currentAddress = loader.getCurrentAddress();
if (loader.isOverflow()) {
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output++, symbols[state2]);
break;
}
verify(output <= outputLimit - 2, input, "Output buffer is too small");
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output++, symbols[state2]);
int numberOfBits1 = numbersOfBits[state2];
state2 = (int) (newStates[state2] + peekBits(bitsConsumed, bits, numberOfBits1));
bitsConsumed += numberOfBits1;
loader = new BitInputStream.Loader(inputBase, input, currentAddress, bits, bitsConsumed);
loader.load();
bitsConsumed = loader.getBitsConsumed();
bits = loader.getBits();
currentAddress = loader.getCurrentAddress();
if (loader.isOverflow()) {
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output++, symbols[state1]);
break;
}
}
return (int) (output - outputAddress);
}
public static int compress(Object outputBase, long outputAddress, int outputSize, byte[] input, int inputSize, FseCompressionTable table)
{
return compress(outputBase, outputAddress, outputSize, input, ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET, inputSize, table);
}
public static int compress(Object outputBase, long outputAddress, int outputSize, Object inputBase, long inputAddress, int inputSize, FseCompressionTable table)
{
checkArgument(outputSize >= SIZE_OF_LONG, "Output buffer too small");
final long start = inputAddress;
final long inputLimit = start + inputSize;
long input = inputLimit;
if (inputSize <= 2) {
return 0;
}
BitOutputStream stream = new BitOutputStream(outputBase, outputAddress, outputSize);
int state1;
int state2;
if ((inputSize & 1) != 0) {
input--;
state1 = table.begin(UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input));
input--;
state2 = table.begin(UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input));
input--;
state1 = table.encode(stream, state1, UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input));
stream.flush();
}
else {
input--;
state2 = table.begin(UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input));
input--;
state1 = table.begin(UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input));
}
// join to mod 4
inputSize -= 2;
if ((SIZE_OF_LONG * 8 > MAX_TABLE_LOG * 4 + 7) && (inputSize & 2) != 0) { /* test bit 2 */
input--;
state2 = table.encode(stream, state2, UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input));
input--;
state1 = table.encode(stream, state1, UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input));
stream.flush();
}
// 2 or 4 encoding per loop
while (input > start) {
input--;
state2 = table.encode(stream, state2, UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input));
if (SIZE_OF_LONG * 8 < MAX_TABLE_LOG * 2 + 7) {
stream.flush();
}
input--;
state1 = table.encode(stream, state1, UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input));
if (SIZE_OF_LONG * 8 > MAX_TABLE_LOG * 4 + 7) {
input--;
state2 = table.encode(stream, state2, UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input));
input--;
state1 = table.encode(stream, state1, UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input));
}
stream.flush();
}
table.finish(stream, state2);
table.finish(stream, state1);
return stream.close();
}
public static int optimalTableLog(int maxTableLog, int inputSize, int maxSymbol)
{
if (inputSize <= 1) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException(); // not supported. Use RLE instead
}
int result = maxTableLog;
result = Math.min(result, Util.highestBit((inputSize - 1)) - 2); // we may be able to reduce accuracy if input is small
// Need a minimum to safely represent all symbol values
result = Math.max(result, Util.minTableLog(inputSize, maxSymbol));
result = Math.max(result, MIN_TABLE_LOG);
result = Math.min(result, MAX_TABLE_LOG);
return result;
}
public static int normalizeCounts(short[] normalizedCounts, int tableLog, int[] counts, int total, int maxSymbol)
{
checkArgument(tableLog >= MIN_TABLE_LOG, "Unsupported FSE table size");
checkArgument(tableLog <= MAX_TABLE_LOG, "FSE table size too large");
checkArgument(tableLog >= Util.minTableLog(total, maxSymbol), "FSE table size too small");
long scale = 62 - tableLog;
long step = (1L << 62) / total;
long vstep = 1L << (scale - 20);
int stillToDistribute = 1 << tableLog;
int largest = 0;
short largestProbability = 0;
int lowThreshold = total >>> tableLog;
for (int symbol = 0; symbol <= maxSymbol; symbol++) {
if (counts[symbol] == total) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException(); // TODO: should have been RLE-compressed by upper layers
}
if (counts[symbol] == 0) {
normalizedCounts[symbol] = 0;
continue;
}
if (counts[symbol] <= lowThreshold) {
normalizedCounts[symbol] = -1;
stillToDistribute--;
}
else {
short probability = (short) ((counts[symbol] * step) >>> scale);
if (probability < 8) {
long restToBeat = vstep * REST_TO_BEAT[probability];
long delta = counts[symbol] * step - (((long) probability) << scale);
if (delta > restToBeat) {
probability++;
}
}
if (probability > largestProbability) {
largestProbability = probability;
largest = symbol;
}
normalizedCounts[symbol] = probability;
stillToDistribute -= probability;
}
}
if (-stillToDistribute >= (normalizedCounts[largest] >>> 1)) {
// corner case. Need another normalization method
// TODO size_t const errorCode = FSE_normalizeM2(normalizedCounter, tableLog, count, total, maxSymbolValue);
normalizeCounts2(normalizedCounts, tableLog, counts, total, maxSymbol);
}
else {
normalizedCounts[largest] += (short) stillToDistribute;
}
return tableLog;
}
private static int normalizeCounts2(short[] normalizedCounts, int tableLog, int[] counts, int total, int maxSymbol)
{
int distributed = 0;
int lowThreshold = total >>> tableLog; // minimum count below which frequency in the normalized table is "too small" (~ < 1)
int lowOne = (total * 3) >>> (tableLog + 1); // 1.5 * lowThreshold. If count in (lowThreshold, lowOne] => assign frequency 1
for (int i = 0; i <= maxSymbol; i++) {
if (counts[i] == 0) {
normalizedCounts[i] = 0;
}
else if (counts[i] <= lowThreshold) {
normalizedCounts[i] = -1;
distributed++;
total -= counts[i];
}
else if (counts[i] <= lowOne) {
normalizedCounts[i] = 1;
distributed++;
total -= counts[i];
}
else {
normalizedCounts[i] = UNASSIGNED;
}
}
int normalizationFactor = 1 << tableLog;
int toDistribute = normalizationFactor - distributed;
if ((total / toDistribute) > lowOne) {
/* risk of rounding to zero */
lowOne = ((total * 3) / (toDistribute * 2));
for (int i = 0; i <= maxSymbol; i++) {
if ((normalizedCounts[i] == UNASSIGNED) && (counts[i] <= lowOne)) {
normalizedCounts[i] = 1;
distributed++;
total -= counts[i];
}
}
toDistribute = normalizationFactor - distributed;
}
if (distributed == maxSymbol + 1) {
// all values are pretty poor;
// probably incompressible data (should have already been detected);
// find max, then give all remaining points to max
int maxValue = 0;
int maxCount = 0;
for (int i = 0; i <= maxSymbol; i++) {
if (counts[i] > maxCount) {
maxValue = i;
maxCount = counts[i];
}
}
normalizedCounts[maxValue] += (short) toDistribute;
return 0;
}
if (total == 0) {
// all of the symbols were low enough for the lowOne or lowThreshold
for (int i = 0; toDistribute > 0; i = (i + 1) % (maxSymbol + 1)) {
if (normalizedCounts[i] > 0) {
toDistribute--;
normalizedCounts[i]++;
}
}
return 0;
}
// TODO: simplify/document this code
long vStepLog = 62 - tableLog;
long mid = (1L << (vStepLog - 1)) - 1;
long rStep = (((1L << vStepLog) * toDistribute) + mid) / total; /* scale on remaining */
long tmpTotal = mid;
for (int i = 0; i <= maxSymbol; i++) {
if (normalizedCounts[i] == UNASSIGNED) {
long end = tmpTotal + (counts[i] * rStep);
int sStart = (int) (tmpTotal >>> vStepLog);
int sEnd = (int) (end >>> vStepLog);
int weight = sEnd - sStart;
if (weight < 1) {
throw new AssertionError();
}
normalizedCounts[i] = (short) weight;
tmpTotal = end;
}
}
return 0;
}
public static int writeNormalizedCounts(Object outputBase, long outputAddress, int outputSize, short[] normalizedCounts, int maxSymbol, int tableLog)
{
checkArgument(tableLog <= MAX_TABLE_LOG, "FSE table too large");
checkArgument(tableLog >= MIN_TABLE_LOG, "FSE table too small");
long output = outputAddress;
long outputLimit = outputAddress + outputSize;
int tableSize = 1 << tableLog;
int bitCount = 0;
// encode table size
int bitStream = (tableLog - MIN_TABLE_LOG);
bitCount += 4;
int remaining = tableSize + 1; // +1 for extra accuracy
int threshold = tableSize;
int tableBitCount = tableLog + 1;
int symbol = 0;
boolean previousIs0 = false;
while (remaining > 1) {
if (previousIs0) {
// From RFC 8478, section 4.1.1:
// When a symbol has a probability of zero, it is followed by a 2-bit
// repeat flag. This repeat flag tells how many probabilities of zeroes
// follow the current one. It provides a number ranging from 0 to 3.
// If it is a 3, another 2-bit repeat flag follows, and so on.
int start = symbol;
// find run of symbols with count 0
while (normalizedCounts[symbol] == 0) {
symbol++;
}
// encode in batches if 8 repeat sequences in one shot (representing 24 symbols total)
while (symbol >= start + 24) {
start += 24;
bitStream |= (0b11_11_11_11_11_11_11_11 << bitCount);
checkArgument(output + SIZE_OF_SHORT <= outputLimit, "Output buffer too small");
UNSAFE.putShort(outputBase, output, (short) bitStream);
output += SIZE_OF_SHORT;
// flush now, so no need to increase bitCount by 16
bitStream >>>= Short.SIZE;
}
// encode remaining in batches of 3 symbols
while (symbol >= start + 3) {
start += 3;
bitStream |= 0b11 << bitCount;
bitCount += 2;
}
// encode tail
bitStream |= (symbol - start) << bitCount;
bitCount += 2;
// flush bitstream if necessary
if (bitCount > 16) {
checkArgument(output + SIZE_OF_SHORT <= outputLimit, "Output buffer too small");
UNSAFE.putShort(outputBase, output, (short) bitStream);
output += SIZE_OF_SHORT;
bitStream >>>= Short.SIZE;
bitCount -= Short.SIZE;
}
}
int count = normalizedCounts[symbol++];
int max = (2 * threshold - 1) - remaining;
remaining -= count < 0 ? -count : count;
count++; /* +1 for extra accuracy */
if (count >= threshold) {
count += max;
}
bitStream |= count << bitCount;
bitCount += tableBitCount;
bitCount -= (count < max ? 1 : 0);
previousIs0 = (count == 1);
if (remaining < 1) {
throw new AssertionError();
}
while (remaining < threshold) {
tableBitCount--;
threshold >>= 1;
}
// flush bitstream if necessary
if (bitCount > 16) {
checkArgument(output + SIZE_OF_SHORT <= outputLimit, "Output buffer too small");
UNSAFE.putShort(outputBase, output, (short) bitStream);
output += SIZE_OF_SHORT;
bitStream >>>= Short.SIZE;
bitCount -= Short.SIZE;
}
}
// flush remaining bitstream
checkArgument(output + SIZE_OF_SHORT <= outputLimit, "Output buffer too small");
UNSAFE.putShort(outputBase, output, (short) bitStream);
output += (bitCount + 7) / 8;
checkArgument(symbol <= maxSymbol + 1, "Error"); // TODO
return (int) (output - outputAddress);
}
public static final class Table
{
int log2Size;
final int[] newState;
final byte[] symbol;
final byte[] numberOfBits;
public Table(int log2Capacity)
{
int capacity = 1 << log2Capacity;
newState = new int[capacity];
symbol = new byte[capacity];
numberOfBits = new byte[capacity];
}
public Table(int log2Size, int[] newState, byte[] symbol, byte[] numberOfBits)
{
int size = 1 << log2Size;
if (newState.length != size || symbol.length != size || numberOfBits.length != size) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Expected arrays to match provided size");
}
this.log2Size = log2Size;
this.newState = newState;
this.symbol = symbol;
this.numberOfBits = numberOfBits;
}
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/FrameHeader.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import java.util.Objects;
import java.util.StringJoiner;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.checkState;
import static java.lang.Math.min;
import static java.lang.Math.toIntExact;
class FrameHeader
{
final long headerSize;
final int windowSize;
final long contentSize;
final long dictionaryId;
final boolean hasChecksum;
public FrameHeader(long headerSize, int windowSize, long contentSize, long dictionaryId, boolean hasChecksum)
{
checkState(windowSize >= 0 || contentSize >= 0, "Invalid frame header: contentSize or windowSize must be set");
this.headerSize = headerSize;
this.windowSize = windowSize;
this.contentSize = contentSize;
this.dictionaryId = dictionaryId;
this.hasChecksum = hasChecksum;
}
public int computeRequiredOutputBufferLookBackSize()
{
if (contentSize < 0) {
return windowSize;
}
if (windowSize < 0) {
return toIntExact(contentSize);
}
return toIntExact(min(windowSize, contentSize));
}
@Override
public boolean equals(Object o)
{
if (this == o) {
return true;
}
if (o == null || getClass() != o.getClass()) {
return false;
}
FrameHeader that = (FrameHeader) o;
return headerSize == that.headerSize &&
windowSize == that.windowSize &&
contentSize == that.contentSize &&
dictionaryId == that.dictionaryId &&
hasChecksum == that.hasChecksum;
}
@Override
public int hashCode()
{
return Objects.hash(headerSize, windowSize, contentSize, dictionaryId, hasChecksum);
}
@Override
public String toString()
{
return new StringJoiner(", ", FrameHeader.class.getSimpleName() + "[", "]")
.add("headerSize=" + headerSize)
.add("windowSize=" + windowSize)
.add("contentSize=" + contentSize)
.add("dictionaryId=" + dictionaryId)
.add("hasChecksum=" + hasChecksum)
.toString();
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/FseCompressionTable.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.FiniteStateEntropy.MAX_SYMBOL;
class FseCompressionTable
{
private final short[] nextState;
private final int[] deltaNumberOfBits;
private final int[] deltaFindState;
private int log2Size;
public FseCompressionTable(int maxTableLog, int maxSymbol)
{
nextState = new short[1 << maxTableLog];
deltaNumberOfBits = new int[maxSymbol + 1];
deltaFindState = new int[maxSymbol + 1];
}
public static FseCompressionTable newInstance(short[] normalizedCounts, int maxSymbol, int tableLog)
{
FseCompressionTable result = new FseCompressionTable(tableLog, maxSymbol);
result.initialize(normalizedCounts, maxSymbol, tableLog);
return result;
}
public void initializeRleTable(int symbol)
{
log2Size = 0;
nextState[0] = 0;
nextState[1] = 0;
deltaFindState[symbol] = 0;
deltaNumberOfBits[symbol] = 0;
}
public void initialize(short[] normalizedCounts, int maxSymbol, int tableLog)
{
int tableSize = 1 << tableLog;
byte[] table = new byte[tableSize]; // TODO: allocate in workspace
int highThreshold = tableSize - 1;
// TODO: make sure FseCompressionTable has enough size
log2Size = tableLog;
// For explanations on how to distribute symbol values over the table:
// http://fastcompression.blogspot.fr/2014/02/fse-distributing-symbol-values.html
// symbol start positions
int[] cumulative = new int[MAX_SYMBOL + 2]; // TODO: allocate in workspace
cumulative[0] = 0;
for (int i = 1; i <= maxSymbol + 1; i++) {
if (normalizedCounts[i - 1] == -1) { // Low probability symbol
cumulative[i] = cumulative[i - 1] + 1;
table[highThreshold--] = (byte) (i - 1);
}
else {
cumulative[i] = cumulative[i - 1] + normalizedCounts[i - 1];
}
}
cumulative[maxSymbol + 1] = tableSize + 1;
// Spread symbols
int position = spreadSymbols(normalizedCounts, maxSymbol, tableSize, highThreshold, table);
if (position != 0) {
throw new AssertionError("Spread symbols failed");
}
// Build table
for (int i = 0; i < tableSize; i++) {
byte symbol = table[i];
nextState[cumulative[symbol]++] = (short) (tableSize + i); /* TableU16 : sorted by symbol order; gives next state value */
}
// Build symbol transformation table
int total = 0;
for (int symbol = 0; symbol <= maxSymbol; symbol++) {
switch (normalizedCounts[symbol]) {
case 0:
deltaNumberOfBits[symbol] = ((tableLog + 1) << 16) - tableSize;
break;
case -1:
case 1:
deltaNumberOfBits[symbol] = (tableLog << 16) - tableSize;
deltaFindState[symbol] = total - 1;
total++;
break;
default:
int maxBitsOut = tableLog - Util.highestBit(normalizedCounts[symbol] - 1);
int minStatePlus = normalizedCounts[symbol] << maxBitsOut;
deltaNumberOfBits[symbol] = (maxBitsOut << 16) - minStatePlus;
deltaFindState[symbol] = total - normalizedCounts[symbol];
total += normalizedCounts[symbol];
break;
}
}
}
public int begin(byte symbol)
{
int outputBits = (deltaNumberOfBits[symbol] + (1 << 15)) >>> 16;
int base = ((outputBits << 16) - deltaNumberOfBits[symbol]) >>> outputBits;
return nextState[base + deltaFindState[symbol]];
}
public int encode(BitOutputStream stream, int state, int symbol)
{
int outputBits = (state + deltaNumberOfBits[symbol]) >>> 16;
stream.addBits(state, outputBits);
return nextState[(state >>> outputBits) + deltaFindState[symbol]];
}
public void finish(BitOutputStream stream, int state)
{
stream.addBits(state, log2Size);
stream.flush();
}
private static int calculateStep(int tableSize)
{
return (tableSize >>> 1) + (tableSize >>> 3) + 3;
}
public static int spreadSymbols(short[] normalizedCounters, int maxSymbolValue, int tableSize, int highThreshold, byte[] symbols)
{
int mask = tableSize - 1;
int step = calculateStep(tableSize);
int position = 0;
for (byte symbol = 0; symbol <= maxSymbolValue; symbol++) {
for (int i = 0; i < normalizedCounters[symbol]; i++) {
symbols[position] = symbol;
do {
position = (position + step) & mask;
}
while (position > highThreshold);
}
}
return position;
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/FseTableReader.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.FiniteStateEntropy.MAX_SYMBOL;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.FiniteStateEntropy.MIN_TABLE_LOG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.UnsafeUtil.UNSAFE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.highestBit;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.verify;
class FseTableReader
{
private final short[] nextSymbol = new short[MAX_SYMBOL + 1];
private final short[] normalizedCounters = new short[MAX_SYMBOL + 1];
public int readFseTable(FiniteStateEntropy.Table table, Object inputBase, long inputAddress, long inputLimit, int maxSymbol, int maxTableLog)
{
// read table headers
long input = inputAddress;
verify(inputLimit - inputAddress >= 4, input, "Not enough input bytes");
int threshold;
int symbolNumber = 0;
boolean previousIsZero = false;
int bitStream = UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, input);
int tableLog = (bitStream & 0xF) + MIN_TABLE_LOG;
int numberOfBits = tableLog + 1;
bitStream >>>= 4;
int bitCount = 4;
verify(tableLog <= maxTableLog, input, "FSE table size exceeds maximum allowed size");
int remaining = (1 << tableLog) + 1;
threshold = 1 << tableLog;
while (remaining > 1 && symbolNumber <= maxSymbol) {
if (previousIsZero) {
int n0 = symbolNumber;
while ((bitStream & 0xFFFF) == 0xFFFF) {
n0 += 24;
if (input < inputLimit - 5) {
input += 2;
bitStream = (UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, input) >>> bitCount);
}
else {
// end of bit stream
bitStream >>>= 16;
bitCount += 16;
}
}
while ((bitStream & 3) == 3) {
n0 += 3;
bitStream >>>= 2;
bitCount += 2;
}
n0 += bitStream & 3;
bitCount += 2;
verify(n0 <= maxSymbol, input, "Symbol larger than max value");
while (symbolNumber < n0) {
normalizedCounters[symbolNumber++] = 0;
}
if ((input <= inputLimit - 7) || (input + (bitCount >>> 3) <= inputLimit - 4)) {
input += bitCount >>> 3;
bitCount &= 7;
bitStream = UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, input) >>> bitCount;
}
else {
bitStream >>>= 2;
}
}
short max = (short) ((2 * threshold - 1) - remaining);
short count;
if ((bitStream & (threshold - 1)) < max) {
count = (short) (bitStream & (threshold - 1));
bitCount += numberOfBits - 1;
}
else {
count = (short) (bitStream & (2 * threshold - 1));
if (count >= threshold) {
count -= max;
}
bitCount += numberOfBits;
}
count--; // extra accuracy
remaining -= Math.abs(count);
normalizedCounters[symbolNumber++] = count;
previousIsZero = count == 0;
while (remaining < threshold) {
numberOfBits--;
threshold >>>= 1;
}
if ((input <= inputLimit - 7) || (input + (bitCount >> 3) <= inputLimit - 4)) {
input += bitCount >>> 3;
bitCount &= 7;
}
else {
bitCount -= (int) (8 * (inputLimit - 4 - input));
input = inputLimit - 4;
}
bitStream = UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, input) >>> (bitCount & 31);
}
verify(remaining == 1 && bitCount <= 32, input, "Input is corrupted");
maxSymbol = symbolNumber - 1;
verify(maxSymbol <= MAX_SYMBOL, input, "Max symbol value too large (too many symbols for FSE)");
input += (bitCount + 7) >> 3;
// populate decoding table
int symbolCount = maxSymbol + 1;
int tableSize = 1 << tableLog;
int highThreshold = tableSize - 1;
table.log2Size = tableLog;
for (byte symbol = 0; symbol < symbolCount; symbol++) {
if (normalizedCounters[symbol] == -1) {
table.symbol[highThreshold--] = symbol;
nextSymbol[symbol] = 1;
}
else {
nextSymbol[symbol] = normalizedCounters[symbol];
}
}
int position = FseCompressionTable.spreadSymbols(normalizedCounters, maxSymbol, tableSize, highThreshold, table.symbol);
// position must reach all cells once, otherwise normalizedCounter is incorrect
verify(position == 0, input, "Input is corrupted");
for (int i = 0; i < tableSize; i++) {
byte symbol = table.symbol[i];
short nextState = nextSymbol[symbol]++;
table.numberOfBits[i] = (byte) (tableLog - highestBit(nextState));
table.newState[i] = (short) ((nextState << table.numberOfBits[i]) - tableSize);
}
return (int) (input - inputAddress);
}
public static void initializeRleTable(FiniteStateEntropy.Table table, byte value)
{
table.log2Size = 0;
table.symbol[0] = value;
table.newState[0] = 0;
table.numberOfBits[0] = 0;
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/Histogram.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import java.util.Arrays;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.UnsafeUtil.UNSAFE;
import static sun.misc.Unsafe.ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET;
final class Histogram
{
private Histogram()
{
}
// TODO: count parallel heuristic for large inputs
private static void count(Object inputBase, long inputAddress, int inputSize, int[] counts)
{
long input = inputAddress;
Arrays.fill(counts, 0);
for (int i = 0; i < inputSize; i++) {
int symbol = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input) & 0xFF;
input++;
counts[symbol]++;
}
}
public static int findLargestCount(int[] counts, int maxSymbol)
{
int max = 0;
for (int i = 0; i <= maxSymbol; i++) {
if (counts[i] > max) {
max = counts[i];
}
}
return max;
}
public static int findMaxSymbol(int[] counts, int maxSymbol)
{
while (counts[maxSymbol] == 0) {
maxSymbol--;
}
return maxSymbol;
}
public static void count(byte[] input, int length, int[] counts)
{
count(input, ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET, length, counts);
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/Huffman.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import java.util.Arrays;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.BitInputStream.isEndOfStream;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.BitInputStream.peekBitsFast;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_INT;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_SHORT;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.UnsafeUtil.UNSAFE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.isPowerOf2;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.verify;
class Huffman
{
public static final int MAX_SYMBOL = 255;
public static final int MAX_SYMBOL_COUNT = MAX_SYMBOL + 1;
public static final int MAX_TABLE_LOG = 12;
public static final int MIN_TABLE_LOG = 5;
public static final int MAX_FSE_TABLE_LOG = 6;
// stats
private final byte[] weights = new byte[MAX_SYMBOL + 1];
private final int[] ranks = new int[MAX_TABLE_LOG + 1];
// table
private int tableLog = -1;
private final byte[] symbols = new byte[1 << MAX_TABLE_LOG];
private final byte[] numbersOfBits = new byte[1 << MAX_TABLE_LOG];
private final FseTableReader reader = new FseTableReader();
private final FiniteStateEntropy.Table fseTable = new FiniteStateEntropy.Table(MAX_FSE_TABLE_LOG);
public boolean isLoaded()
{
return tableLog != -1;
}
public int readTable(final Object inputBase, final long inputAddress, final int size)
{
Arrays.fill(ranks, 0);
long input = inputAddress;
// read table header
verify(size > 0, input, "Not enough input bytes");
int inputSize = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input++) & 0xFF;
int outputSize;
if (inputSize >= 128) {
outputSize = inputSize - 127;
inputSize = ((outputSize + 1) / 2);
verify(inputSize + 1 <= size, input, "Not enough input bytes");
verify(outputSize <= MAX_SYMBOL + 1, input, "Input is corrupted");
for (int i = 0; i < outputSize; i += 2) {
int value = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input + i / 2) & 0xFF;
weights[i] = (byte) (value >>> 4);
weights[i + 1] = (byte) (value & 0b1111);
}
}
else {
verify(inputSize + 1 <= size, input, "Not enough input bytes");
long inputLimit = input + inputSize;
input += reader.readFseTable(fseTable, inputBase, input, inputLimit, FiniteStateEntropy.MAX_SYMBOL, MAX_FSE_TABLE_LOG);
outputSize = FiniteStateEntropy.decompress(fseTable, inputBase, input, inputLimit, weights);
}
int totalWeight = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < outputSize; i++) {
ranks[weights[i]]++;
totalWeight += (1 << weights[i]) >> 1; // TODO same as 1 << (weights[n] - 1)?
}
verify(totalWeight != 0, input, "Input is corrupted");
tableLog = Util.highestBit(totalWeight) + 1;
verify(tableLog <= MAX_TABLE_LOG, input, "Input is corrupted");
int total = 1 << tableLog;
int rest = total - totalWeight;
verify(isPowerOf2(rest), input, "Input is corrupted");
int lastWeight = Util.highestBit(rest) + 1;
weights[outputSize] = (byte) lastWeight;
ranks[lastWeight]++;
int numberOfSymbols = outputSize + 1;
// populate table
int nextRankStart = 0;
for (int i = 1; i < tableLog + 1; ++i) {
int current = nextRankStart;
nextRankStart += ranks[i] << (i - 1);
ranks[i] = current;
}
for (int n = 0; n < numberOfSymbols; n++) {
int weight = weights[n];
int length = (1 << weight) >> 1; // TODO: 1 << (weight - 1) ??
byte symbol = (byte) n;
byte numberOfBits = (byte) (tableLog + 1 - weight);
for (int i = ranks[weight]; i < ranks[weight] + length; i++) {
symbols[i] = symbol;
numbersOfBits[i] = numberOfBits;
}
ranks[weight] += length;
}
verify(ranks[1] >= 2 && (ranks[1] & 1) == 0, input, "Input is corrupted");
return inputSize + 1;
}
public void decodeSingleStream(final Object inputBase, final long inputAddress, final long inputLimit, final Object outputBase, final long outputAddress, final long outputLimit)
{
BitInputStream.Initializer initializer = new BitInputStream.Initializer(inputBase, inputAddress, inputLimit);
initializer.initialize();
long bits = initializer.getBits();
int bitsConsumed = initializer.getBitsConsumed();
long currentAddress = initializer.getCurrentAddress();
int tableLog = this.tableLog;
byte[] numbersOfBits = this.numbersOfBits;
byte[] symbols = this.symbols;
// 4 symbols at a time
long output = outputAddress;
long fastOutputLimit = outputLimit - 4;
while (output < fastOutputLimit) {
BitInputStream.Loader loader = new BitInputStream.Loader(inputBase, inputAddress, currentAddress, bits, bitsConsumed);
boolean done = loader.load();
bits = loader.getBits();
bitsConsumed = loader.getBitsConsumed();
currentAddress = loader.getCurrentAddress();
if (done) {
break;
}
bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output, bits, bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output + 1, bits, bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output + 2, bits, bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output + 3, bits, bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
output += SIZE_OF_INT;
}
decodeTail(inputBase, inputAddress, currentAddress, bitsConsumed, bits, outputBase, output, outputLimit);
}
public void decode4Streams(final Object inputBase, final long inputAddress, final long inputLimit, final Object outputBase, final long outputAddress, final long outputLimit)
{
verify(inputLimit - inputAddress >= 10, inputAddress, "Input is corrupted"); // jump table + 1 byte per stream
long start1 = inputAddress + 3 * SIZE_OF_SHORT; // for the shorts we read below
long start2 = start1 + (UNSAFE.getShort(inputBase, inputAddress) & 0xFFFF);
long start3 = start2 + (UNSAFE.getShort(inputBase, inputAddress + 2) & 0xFFFF);
long start4 = start3 + (UNSAFE.getShort(inputBase, inputAddress + 4) & 0xFFFF);
verify(start2 < start3 && start3 < start4 && start4 < inputLimit, inputAddress, "Input is corrupted");
BitInputStream.Initializer initializer = new BitInputStream.Initializer(inputBase, start1, start2);
initializer.initialize();
int stream1bitsConsumed = initializer.getBitsConsumed();
long stream1currentAddress = initializer.getCurrentAddress();
long stream1bits = initializer.getBits();
initializer = new BitInputStream.Initializer(inputBase, start2, start3);
initializer.initialize();
int stream2bitsConsumed = initializer.getBitsConsumed();
long stream2currentAddress = initializer.getCurrentAddress();
long stream2bits = initializer.getBits();
initializer = new BitInputStream.Initializer(inputBase, start3, start4);
initializer.initialize();
int stream3bitsConsumed = initializer.getBitsConsumed();
long stream3currentAddress = initializer.getCurrentAddress();
long stream3bits = initializer.getBits();
initializer = new BitInputStream.Initializer(inputBase, start4, inputLimit);
initializer.initialize();
int stream4bitsConsumed = initializer.getBitsConsumed();
long stream4currentAddress = initializer.getCurrentAddress();
long stream4bits = initializer.getBits();
int segmentSize = (int) ((outputLimit - outputAddress + 3) / 4);
long outputStart2 = outputAddress + segmentSize;
long outputStart3 = outputStart2 + segmentSize;
long outputStart4 = outputStart3 + segmentSize;
long output1 = outputAddress;
long output2 = outputStart2;
long output3 = outputStart3;
long output4 = outputStart4;
long fastOutputLimit = outputLimit - 7;
int tableLog = this.tableLog;
byte[] numbersOfBits = this.numbersOfBits;
byte[] symbols = this.symbols;
while (output4 < fastOutputLimit) {
stream1bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output1, stream1bits, stream1bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
stream2bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output2, stream2bits, stream2bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
stream3bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output3, stream3bits, stream3bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
stream4bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output4, stream4bits, stream4bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
stream1bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output1 + 1, stream1bits, stream1bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
stream2bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output2 + 1, stream2bits, stream2bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
stream3bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output3 + 1, stream3bits, stream3bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
stream4bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output4 + 1, stream4bits, stream4bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
stream1bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output1 + 2, stream1bits, stream1bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
stream2bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output2 + 2, stream2bits, stream2bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
stream3bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output3 + 2, stream3bits, stream3bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
stream4bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output4 + 2, stream4bits, stream4bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
stream1bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output1 + 3, stream1bits, stream1bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
stream2bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output2 + 3, stream2bits, stream2bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
stream3bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output3 + 3, stream3bits, stream3bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
stream4bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, output4 + 3, stream4bits, stream4bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
output1 += SIZE_OF_INT;
output2 += SIZE_OF_INT;
output3 += SIZE_OF_INT;
output4 += SIZE_OF_INT;
BitInputStream.Loader loader = new BitInputStream.Loader(inputBase, start1, stream1currentAddress, stream1bits, stream1bitsConsumed);
boolean done = loader.load();
stream1bitsConsumed = loader.getBitsConsumed();
stream1bits = loader.getBits();
stream1currentAddress = loader.getCurrentAddress();
if (done) {
break;
}
loader = new BitInputStream.Loader(inputBase, start2, stream2currentAddress, stream2bits, stream2bitsConsumed);
done = loader.load();
stream2bitsConsumed = loader.getBitsConsumed();
stream2bits = loader.getBits();
stream2currentAddress = loader.getCurrentAddress();
if (done) {
break;
}
loader = new BitInputStream.Loader(inputBase, start3, stream3currentAddress, stream3bits, stream3bitsConsumed);
done = loader.load();
stream3bitsConsumed = loader.getBitsConsumed();
stream3bits = loader.getBits();
stream3currentAddress = loader.getCurrentAddress();
if (done) {
break;
}
loader = new BitInputStream.Loader(inputBase, start4, stream4currentAddress, stream4bits, stream4bitsConsumed);
done = loader.load();
stream4bitsConsumed = loader.getBitsConsumed();
stream4bits = loader.getBits();
stream4currentAddress = loader.getCurrentAddress();
if (done) {
break;
}
}
verify(output1 <= outputStart2 && output2 <= outputStart3 && output3 <= outputStart4, inputAddress, "Input is corrupted");
/// finish streams one by one
decodeTail(inputBase, start1, stream1currentAddress, stream1bitsConsumed, stream1bits, outputBase, output1, outputStart2);
decodeTail(inputBase, start2, stream2currentAddress, stream2bitsConsumed, stream2bits, outputBase, output2, outputStart3);
decodeTail(inputBase, start3, stream3currentAddress, stream3bitsConsumed, stream3bits, outputBase, output3, outputStart4);
decodeTail(inputBase, start4, stream4currentAddress, stream4bitsConsumed, stream4bits, outputBase, output4, outputLimit);
}
private void decodeTail(final Object inputBase, final long startAddress, long currentAddress, int bitsConsumed, long bits, final Object outputBase, long outputAddress, final long outputLimit)
{
int tableLog = this.tableLog;
byte[] numbersOfBits = this.numbersOfBits;
byte[] symbols = this.symbols;
// closer to the end
while (outputAddress < outputLimit) {
BitInputStream.Loader loader = new BitInputStream.Loader(inputBase, startAddress, currentAddress, bits, bitsConsumed);
boolean done = loader.load();
bitsConsumed = loader.getBitsConsumed();
bits = loader.getBits();
currentAddress = loader.getCurrentAddress();
if (done) {
break;
}
bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, outputAddress++, bits, bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
}
// not more data in bit stream, so no need to reload
while (outputAddress < outputLimit) {
bitsConsumed = decodeSymbol(outputBase, outputAddress++, bits, bitsConsumed, tableLog, numbersOfBits, symbols);
}
verify(isEndOfStream(startAddress, currentAddress, bitsConsumed), startAddress, "Bit stream is not fully consumed");
}
private static int decodeSymbol(Object outputBase, long outputAddress, long bitContainer, int bitsConsumed, int tableLog, byte[] numbersOfBits, byte[] symbols)
{
int value = (int) peekBitsFast(bitsConsumed, bitContainer, tableLog);
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, outputAddress, symbols[value]);
return bitsConsumed + numbersOfBits[value];
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/HuffmanCompressionContext.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
class HuffmanCompressionContext
{
private final HuffmanTableWriterWorkspace tableWriterWorkspace = new HuffmanTableWriterWorkspace();
private final HuffmanCompressionTableWorkspace compressionTableWorkspace = new HuffmanCompressionTableWorkspace();
private HuffmanCompressionTable previousTable = new HuffmanCompressionTable(Huffman.MAX_SYMBOL_COUNT);
private HuffmanCompressionTable temporaryTable = new HuffmanCompressionTable(Huffman.MAX_SYMBOL_COUNT);
private HuffmanCompressionTable previousCandidate = previousTable;
private HuffmanCompressionTable temporaryCandidate = temporaryTable;
public HuffmanCompressionTable getPreviousTable()
{
return previousTable;
}
public HuffmanCompressionTable borrowTemporaryTable()
{
previousCandidate = temporaryTable;
temporaryCandidate = previousTable;
return temporaryTable;
}
public void discardTemporaryTable()
{
previousCandidate = previousTable;
temporaryCandidate = temporaryTable;
}
public void saveChanges()
{
temporaryTable = temporaryCandidate;
previousTable = previousCandidate;
}
public HuffmanCompressionTableWorkspace getCompressionTableWorkspace()
{
return compressionTableWorkspace;
}
public HuffmanTableWriterWorkspace getTableWriterWorkspace()
{
return tableWriterWorkspace;
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/HuffmanCompressionTable.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import java.util.Arrays;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Huffman.MAX_FSE_TABLE_LOG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Huffman.MAX_SYMBOL;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Huffman.MAX_SYMBOL_COUNT;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Huffman.MAX_TABLE_LOG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Huffman.MIN_TABLE_LOG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.UnsafeUtil.UNSAFE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.checkArgument;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.minTableLog;
final class HuffmanCompressionTable
{
private final short[] values;
private final byte[] numberOfBits;
private int maxSymbol;
private int maxNumberOfBits;
public HuffmanCompressionTable(int capacity)
{
this.values = new short[capacity];
this.numberOfBits = new byte[capacity];
}
public static int optimalNumberOfBits(int maxNumberOfBits, int inputSize, int maxSymbol)
{
if (inputSize <= 1) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException(); // not supported. Use RLE instead
}
int result = maxNumberOfBits;
result = Math.min(result, Util.highestBit((inputSize - 1)) - 1); // we may be able to reduce accuracy if input is small
// Need a minimum to safely represent all symbol values
result = Math.max(result, minTableLog(inputSize, maxSymbol));
result = Math.max(result, MIN_TABLE_LOG); // absolute minimum for Huffman
result = Math.min(result, MAX_TABLE_LOG); // absolute maximum for Huffman
return result;
}
public void initialize(int[] counts, int maxSymbol, int maxNumberOfBits, HuffmanCompressionTableWorkspace workspace)
{
checkArgument(maxSymbol <= MAX_SYMBOL, "Max symbol value too large");
workspace.reset();
NodeTable nodeTable = workspace.nodeTable;
nodeTable.reset();
int lastNonZero = buildTree(counts, maxSymbol, nodeTable);
// enforce max table log
maxNumberOfBits = setMaxHeight(nodeTable, lastNonZero, maxNumberOfBits, workspace);
checkArgument(maxNumberOfBits <= MAX_TABLE_LOG, "Max number of bits larger than max table size");
// populate table
int symbolCount = maxSymbol + 1;
for (int node = 0; node < symbolCount; node++) {
int symbol = nodeTable.symbols[node];
numberOfBits[symbol] = nodeTable.numberOfBits[node];
}
short[] entriesPerRank = workspace.entriesPerRank;
short[] valuesPerRank = workspace.valuesPerRank;
for (int n = 0; n <= lastNonZero; n++) {
entriesPerRank[nodeTable.numberOfBits[n]]++;
}
// determine starting value per rank
short startingValue = 0;
for (int rank = maxNumberOfBits; rank > 0; rank--) {
valuesPerRank[rank] = startingValue; // get starting value within each rank
startingValue += entriesPerRank[rank];
startingValue >>>= 1;
}
for (int n = 0; n <= maxSymbol; n++) {
values[n] = valuesPerRank[numberOfBits[n]]++; // assign value within rank, symbol order
}
this.maxSymbol = maxSymbol;
this.maxNumberOfBits = maxNumberOfBits;
}
private int buildTree(int[] counts, int maxSymbol, NodeTable nodeTable)
{
// populate the leaves of the node table from the histogram of counts
// in descending order by count, ascending by symbol value.
short current = 0;
for (int symbol = 0; symbol <= maxSymbol; symbol++) {
int count = counts[symbol];
// simple insertion sort
int position = current;
while (position > 1 && count > nodeTable.count[position - 1]) {
nodeTable.copyNode(position - 1, position);
position--;
}
nodeTable.count[position] = count;
nodeTable.symbols[position] = symbol;
current++;
}
int lastNonZero = maxSymbol;
while (nodeTable.count[lastNonZero] == 0) {
lastNonZero--;
}
// populate the non-leaf nodes
short nonLeafStart = MAX_SYMBOL_COUNT;
current = nonLeafStart;
int currentLeaf = lastNonZero;
// combine the two smallest leaves to create the first intermediate node
int currentNonLeaf = current;
nodeTable.count[current] = nodeTable.count[currentLeaf] + nodeTable.count[currentLeaf - 1];
nodeTable.parents[currentLeaf] = current;
nodeTable.parents[currentLeaf - 1] = current;
current++;
currentLeaf -= 2;
int root = MAX_SYMBOL_COUNT + lastNonZero - 1;
// fill in sentinels
for (int n = current; n <= root; n++) {
nodeTable.count[n] = 1 << 30;
}
// create parents
while (current <= root) {
int child1;
if (currentLeaf >= 0 && nodeTable.count[currentLeaf] < nodeTable.count[currentNonLeaf]) {
child1 = currentLeaf--;
}
else {
child1 = currentNonLeaf++;
}
int child2;
if (currentLeaf >= 0 && nodeTable.count[currentLeaf] < nodeTable.count[currentNonLeaf]) {
child2 = currentLeaf--;
}
else {
child2 = currentNonLeaf++;
}
nodeTable.count[current] = nodeTable.count[child1] + nodeTable.count[child2];
nodeTable.parents[child1] = current;
nodeTable.parents[child2] = current;
current++;
}
// distribute weights
nodeTable.numberOfBits[root] = 0;
for (int n = root - 1; n >= nonLeafStart; n--) {
short parent = nodeTable.parents[n];
nodeTable.numberOfBits[n] = (byte) (nodeTable.numberOfBits[parent] + 1);
}
for (int n = 0; n <= lastNonZero; n++) {
short parent = nodeTable.parents[n];
nodeTable.numberOfBits[n] = (byte) (nodeTable.numberOfBits[parent] + 1);
}
return lastNonZero;
}
// TODO: consider encoding 2 symbols at a time
// - need a table with 256x256 entries with
// - the concatenated bits for the corresponding pair of symbols
// - the sum of bits for the corresponding pair of symbols
// - read 2 symbols at a time from the input
public void encodeSymbol(BitOutputStream output, int symbol)
{
output.addBitsFast(values[symbol], numberOfBits[symbol]);
}
public int write(Object outputBase, long outputAddress, int outputSize, HuffmanTableWriterWorkspace workspace)
{
byte[] weights = workspace.weights;
long output = outputAddress;
int maxNumberOfBits = this.maxNumberOfBits;
int maxSymbol = this.maxSymbol;
// convert to weights per RFC 8478 section 4.2.1
for (int symbol = 0; symbol < maxSymbol; symbol++) {
int bits = numberOfBits[symbol];
if (bits == 0) {
weights[symbol] = 0;
}
else {
weights[symbol] = (byte) (maxNumberOfBits + 1 - bits);
}
}
// attempt weights compression by FSE
int size = compressWeights(outputBase, output + 1, outputSize - 1, weights, maxSymbol, workspace);
if (maxSymbol > 127 && size > 127) {
// This should never happen. Since weights are in the range [0, 12], they can be compressed optimally to ~3.7 bits per symbol for a uniform distribution.
// Since maxSymbol has to be <= MAX_SYMBOL (255), this is 119 bytes + FSE headers.
throw new AssertionError();
}
if (size != 0 && size != 1 && size < maxSymbol / 2) {
// Go with FSE only if:
// - the weights are compressible
// - the compressed size is better than what we'd get with the raw encoding below
// - the compressed size is <= 127 bytes, which is the most that the encoding can hold for FSE-compressed weights (see RFC 8478 section 4.2.1.1). This is implied
// by the maxSymbol / 2 check, since maxSymbol must be <= 255
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output, (byte) size);
return size + 1; // header + size
}
else {
// Use raw encoding (4 bits per entry)
// #entries = #symbols - 1 since last symbol is implicit. Thus, #entries = (maxSymbol + 1) - 1 = maxSymbol
int entryCount = maxSymbol;
size = (entryCount + 1) / 2; // ceil(#entries / 2)
checkArgument(size + 1 /* header */ <= outputSize, "Output size too small"); // 2 entries per byte
// encode number of symbols
// header = #entries + 127 per RFC
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output, (byte) (127 + entryCount));
output++;
weights[maxSymbol] = 0; // last weight is implicit, so set to 0 so that it doesn't get encoded below
for (int i = 0; i < entryCount; i += 2) {
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output, (byte) ((weights[i] << 4) + weights[i + 1]));
output++;
}
return (int) (output - outputAddress);
}
}
/**
* Can this table encode all symbols with non-zero count?
*/
public boolean isValid(int[] counts, int maxSymbol)
{
if (maxSymbol > this.maxSymbol) {
// some non-zero count symbols cannot be encoded by the current table
return false;
}
for (int symbol = 0; symbol <= maxSymbol; ++symbol) {
if (counts[symbol] != 0 && numberOfBits[symbol] == 0) {
return false;
}
}
return true;
}
public int estimateCompressedSize(int[] counts, int maxSymbol)
{
int numberOfBits = 0;
for (int symbol = 0; symbol <= Math.min(maxSymbol, this.maxSymbol); symbol++) {
numberOfBits += this.numberOfBits[symbol] * counts[symbol];
}
return numberOfBits >>> 3; // convert to bytes
}
// http://fastcompression.blogspot.com/2015/07/huffman-revisited-part-3-depth-limited.html
private static int setMaxHeight(NodeTable nodeTable, int lastNonZero, int maxNumberOfBits, HuffmanCompressionTableWorkspace workspace)
{
int largestBits = nodeTable.numberOfBits[lastNonZero];
if (largestBits <= maxNumberOfBits) {
return largestBits; // early exit: no elements > maxNumberOfBits
}
// there are several too large elements (at least >= 2)
int totalCost = 0;
int baseCost = 1 << (largestBits - maxNumberOfBits);
int n = lastNonZero;
while (nodeTable.numberOfBits[n] > maxNumberOfBits) {
totalCost += baseCost - (1 << (largestBits - nodeTable.numberOfBits[n]));
nodeTable.numberOfBits[n ] = (byte) maxNumberOfBits;
n--;
} // n stops at nodeTable.numberOfBits[n + offset] <= maxNumberOfBits
while (nodeTable.numberOfBits[n] == maxNumberOfBits) {
n--; // n ends at index of smallest symbol using < maxNumberOfBits
}
// renormalize totalCost
totalCost >>>= (largestBits - maxNumberOfBits); // note: totalCost is necessarily a multiple of baseCost
// repay normalized cost
int noSymbol = 0xF0F0F0F0;
int[] rankLast = workspace.rankLast;
Arrays.fill(rankLast, noSymbol);
// Get pos of last (smallest) symbol per rank
int currentNbBits = maxNumberOfBits;
for (int pos = n; pos >= 0; pos--) {
if (nodeTable.numberOfBits[pos] >= currentNbBits) {
continue;
}
currentNbBits = nodeTable.numberOfBits[pos]; // < maxNumberOfBits
rankLast[maxNumberOfBits - currentNbBits] = pos;
}
while (totalCost > 0) {
int numberOfBitsToDecrease = Util.highestBit(totalCost) + 1;
for (; numberOfBitsToDecrease > 1; numberOfBitsToDecrease--) {
int highPosition = rankLast[numberOfBitsToDecrease];
int lowPosition = rankLast[numberOfBitsToDecrease - 1];
if (highPosition == noSymbol) {
continue;
}
if (lowPosition == noSymbol) {
break;
}
int highTotal = nodeTable.count[highPosition];
int lowTotal = 2 * nodeTable.count[lowPosition];
if (highTotal <= lowTotal) {
break;
}
}
// only triggered when no more rank 1 symbol left => find closest one (note : there is necessarily at least one !)
// HUF_MAX_TABLELOG test just to please gcc 5+; but it should not be necessary
while ((numberOfBitsToDecrease <= MAX_TABLE_LOG) && (rankLast[numberOfBitsToDecrease] == noSymbol)) {
numberOfBitsToDecrease++;
}
totalCost -= 1 << (numberOfBitsToDecrease - 1);
if (rankLast[numberOfBitsToDecrease - 1] == noSymbol) {
rankLast[numberOfBitsToDecrease - 1] = rankLast[numberOfBitsToDecrease]; // this rank is no longer empty
}
nodeTable.numberOfBits[rankLast[numberOfBitsToDecrease]]++;
if (rankLast[numberOfBitsToDecrease] == 0) { /* special case, reached largest symbol */
rankLast[numberOfBitsToDecrease] = noSymbol;
}
else {
rankLast[numberOfBitsToDecrease]--;
if (nodeTable.numberOfBits[rankLast[numberOfBitsToDecrease]] != maxNumberOfBits - numberOfBitsToDecrease) {
rankLast[numberOfBitsToDecrease] = noSymbol; // this rank is now empty
}
}
}
while (totalCost < 0) { // Sometimes, cost correction overshoot
if (rankLast[1] == noSymbol) { /* special case : no rank 1 symbol (using maxNumberOfBits-1); let's create one from largest rank 0 (using maxNumberOfBits) */
while (nodeTable.numberOfBits[n] == maxNumberOfBits) {
n--;
}
nodeTable.numberOfBits[n + 1]--;
rankLast[1] = n + 1;
totalCost++;
continue;
}
nodeTable.numberOfBits[rankLast[1] + 1]--;
rankLast[1]++;
totalCost++;
}
return maxNumberOfBits;
}
/**
* All elements within weightTable must be <= Huffman.MAX_TABLE_LOG
*/
private static int compressWeights(Object outputBase, long outputAddress, int outputSize, byte[] weights, int weightsLength, HuffmanTableWriterWorkspace workspace)
{
if (weightsLength <= 1) {
return 0; // Not compressible
}
// Scan input and build symbol stats
int[] counts = workspace.counts;
Histogram.count(weights, weightsLength, counts);
int maxSymbol = Histogram.findMaxSymbol(counts, MAX_TABLE_LOG);
int maxCount = Histogram.findLargestCount(counts, maxSymbol);
if (maxCount == weightsLength) {
return 1; // only a single symbol in source
}
if (maxCount == 1) {
return 0; // each symbol present maximum once => not compressible
}
short[] normalizedCounts = workspace.normalizedCounts;
int tableLog = FiniteStateEntropy.optimalTableLog(MAX_FSE_TABLE_LOG, weightsLength, maxSymbol);
FiniteStateEntropy.normalizeCounts(normalizedCounts, tableLog, counts, weightsLength, maxSymbol);
long output = outputAddress;
long outputLimit = outputAddress + outputSize;
// Write table description header
int headerSize = FiniteStateEntropy.writeNormalizedCounts(outputBase, output, outputSize, normalizedCounts, maxSymbol, tableLog);
output += headerSize;
// Compress
FseCompressionTable compressionTable = workspace.fseTable;
compressionTable.initialize(normalizedCounts, maxSymbol, tableLog);
int compressedSize = FiniteStateEntropy.compress(outputBase, output, (int) (outputLimit - output), weights, weightsLength, compressionTable);
if (compressedSize == 0) {
return 0;
}
output += compressedSize;
return (int) (output - outputAddress);
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/HuffmanCompressionTableWorkspace.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import java.util.Arrays;
class HuffmanCompressionTableWorkspace
{
public final NodeTable nodeTable = new NodeTable((2 * Huffman.MAX_SYMBOL_COUNT - 1)); // number of nodes in binary tree with MAX_SYMBOL_COUNT leaves
public final short[] entriesPerRank = new short[Huffman.MAX_TABLE_LOG + 1];
public final short[] valuesPerRank = new short[Huffman.MAX_TABLE_LOG + 1];
// for setMaxHeight
public final int[] rankLast = new int[Huffman.MAX_TABLE_LOG + 2];
public void reset()
{
Arrays.fill(entriesPerRank, (short) 0);
Arrays.fill(valuesPerRank, (short) 0);
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/HuffmanCompressor.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_LONG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_SHORT;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.UnsafeUtil.UNSAFE;
final class HuffmanCompressor
{
private HuffmanCompressor()
{
}
public static int compress4streams(Object outputBase, long outputAddress, int outputSize, Object inputBase, long inputAddress, int inputSize, HuffmanCompressionTable table)
{
long input = inputAddress;
long inputLimit = inputAddress + inputSize;
long output = outputAddress;
long outputLimit = outputAddress + outputSize;
int segmentSize = (inputSize + 3) / 4;
if (outputSize < 6 /* jump table */ + 1 /* first stream */ + 1 /* second stream */ + 1 /* third stream */ + 8 /* 8 bytes minimum needed by the bitstream encoder */) {
return 0; // minimum space to compress successfully
}
if (inputSize <= 6 + 1 + 1 + 1) { // jump table + one byte per stream
return 0; // no saving possible: input too small
}
output += SIZE_OF_SHORT + SIZE_OF_SHORT + SIZE_OF_SHORT; // jump table
int compressedSize;
// first segment
compressedSize = compressSingleStream(outputBase, output, (int) (outputLimit - output), inputBase, input, segmentSize, table);
if (compressedSize == 0) {
return 0;
}
UNSAFE.putShort(outputBase, outputAddress, (short) compressedSize);
output += compressedSize;
input += segmentSize;
// second segment
compressedSize = compressSingleStream(outputBase, output, (int) (outputLimit - output), inputBase, input, segmentSize, table);
if (compressedSize == 0) {
return 0;
}
UNSAFE.putShort(outputBase, outputAddress + SIZE_OF_SHORT, (short) compressedSize);
output += compressedSize;
input += segmentSize;
// third segment
compressedSize = compressSingleStream(outputBase, output, (int) (outputLimit - output), inputBase, input, segmentSize, table);
if (compressedSize == 0) {
return 0;
}
UNSAFE.putShort(outputBase, outputAddress + SIZE_OF_SHORT + SIZE_OF_SHORT, (short) compressedSize);
output += compressedSize;
input += segmentSize;
// fourth segment
compressedSize = compressSingleStream(outputBase, output, (int) (outputLimit - output), inputBase, input, (int) (inputLimit - input), table);
if (compressedSize == 0) {
return 0;
}
output += compressedSize;
return (int) (output - outputAddress);
}
public static int compressSingleStream(Object outputBase, long outputAddress, int outputSize, Object inputBase, long inputAddress, int inputSize, HuffmanCompressionTable table)
{
if (outputSize < SIZE_OF_LONG) {
return 0;
}
BitOutputStream bitstream = new BitOutputStream(outputBase, outputAddress, outputSize);
long input = inputAddress;
int n = inputSize & ~3; // join to mod 4
switch (inputSize & 3) {
case 3:
table.encodeSymbol(bitstream, UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input + n + 2) & 0xFF);
if (SIZE_OF_LONG * 8 < Huffman.MAX_TABLE_LOG * 4 + 7) {
bitstream.flush();
}
// fall-through
case 2:
table.encodeSymbol(bitstream, UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input + n + 1) & 0xFF);
if (SIZE_OF_LONG * 8 < Huffman.MAX_TABLE_LOG * 2 + 7) {
bitstream.flush();
}
// fall-through
case 1:
table.encodeSymbol(bitstream, UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input + n + 0) & 0xFF);
bitstream.flush();
// fall-through
case 0: /* fall-through */
default:
break;
}
for (; n > 0; n -= 4) { // note: n & 3 == 0 at this stage
table.encodeSymbol(bitstream, UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input + n - 1) & 0xFF);
if (SIZE_OF_LONG * 8 < Huffman.MAX_TABLE_LOG * 2 + 7) {
bitstream.flush();
}
table.encodeSymbol(bitstream, UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input + n - 2) & 0xFF);
if (SIZE_OF_LONG * 8 < Huffman.MAX_TABLE_LOG * 4 + 7) {
bitstream.flush();
}
table.encodeSymbol(bitstream, UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input + n - 3) & 0xFF);
if (SIZE_OF_LONG * 8 < Huffman.MAX_TABLE_LOG * 2 + 7) {
bitstream.flush();
}
table.encodeSymbol(bitstream, UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input + n - 4) & 0xFF);
bitstream.flush();
}
return bitstream.close();
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/HuffmanTableWriterWorkspace.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Huffman.MAX_FSE_TABLE_LOG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Huffman.MAX_SYMBOL;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Huffman.MAX_TABLE_LOG;
class HuffmanTableWriterWorkspace
{
// for encoding weights
public final byte[] weights = new byte[MAX_SYMBOL]; // the weight for the last symbol is implicit
// for compressing weights
public final int[] counts = new int[MAX_TABLE_LOG + 1];
public final short[] normalizedCounts = new short[MAX_TABLE_LOG + 1];
public final FseCompressionTable fseTable = new FseCompressionTable(MAX_FSE_TABLE_LOG, MAX_TABLE_LOG);
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/NodeTable.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import java.util.Arrays;
class NodeTable
{
int[] count;
short[] parents;
int[] symbols;
byte[] numberOfBits;
public NodeTable(int size)
{
count = new int[size];
parents = new short[size];
symbols = new int[size];
numberOfBits = new byte[size];
}
public void reset()
{
Arrays.fill(count, 0);
Arrays.fill(parents, (short) 0);
Arrays.fill(symbols, 0);
Arrays.fill(numberOfBits, (byte) 0);
}
public void copyNode(int from, int to)
{
count[to] = count[from];
parents[to] = parents[from];
symbols[to] = symbols[from];
numberOfBits[to] = numberOfBits[from];
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/RepeatedOffsets.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
class RepeatedOffsets
{
private int offset0 = 1;
private int offset1 = 4;
private int tempOffset0;
private int tempOffset1;
public int getOffset0()
{
return offset0;
}
public int getOffset1()
{
return offset1;
}
public void saveOffset0(int offset)
{
tempOffset0 = offset;
}
public void saveOffset1(int offset)
{
tempOffset1 = offset;
}
public void commit()
{
offset0 = tempOffset0;
offset1 = tempOffset1;
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/SequenceEncoder.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.DEFAULT_MAX_OFFSET_CODE_SYMBOL;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.LITERALS_LENGTH_BITS;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.LITERAL_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.LONG_NUMBER_OF_SEQUENCES;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MATCH_LENGTH_BITS;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MATCH_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MAX_LITERALS_LENGTH_SYMBOL;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MAX_MATCH_LENGTH_SYMBOL;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MAX_OFFSET_CODE_SYMBOL;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.OFFSET_TABLE_LOG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SEQUENCE_ENCODING_BASIC;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SEQUENCE_ENCODING_COMPRESSED;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SEQUENCE_ENCODING_RLE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_SHORT;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.FiniteStateEntropy.optimalTableLog;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.UnsafeUtil.UNSAFE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.checkArgument;
final class SequenceEncoder
{
private static final int DEFAULT_LITERAL_LENGTH_NORMALIZED_COUNTS_LOG = 6;
private static final short[] DEFAULT_LITERAL_LENGTH_NORMALIZED_COUNTS = {4, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2,
2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1, 1, 1,
2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2,
2, 3, 2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
-1, -1, -1, -1};
private static final int DEFAULT_MATCH_LENGTH_NORMALIZED_COUNTS_LOG = 6;
private static final short[] DEFAULT_MATCH_LENGTH_NORMALIZED_COUNTS = {1, 4, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2,
2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, -1, -1,
-1, -1, -1, -1, -1};
private static final int DEFAULT_OFFSET_NORMALIZED_COUNTS_LOG = 5;
private static final short[] DEFAULT_OFFSET_NORMALIZED_COUNTS = {1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2,
2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
-1, -1, -1, -1, -1};
private static final FseCompressionTable DEFAULT_LITERAL_LENGTHS_TABLE = FseCompressionTable.newInstance(DEFAULT_LITERAL_LENGTH_NORMALIZED_COUNTS, MAX_LITERALS_LENGTH_SYMBOL, DEFAULT_LITERAL_LENGTH_NORMALIZED_COUNTS_LOG);
private static final FseCompressionTable DEFAULT_MATCH_LENGTHS_TABLE = FseCompressionTable.newInstance(DEFAULT_MATCH_LENGTH_NORMALIZED_COUNTS, MAX_MATCH_LENGTH_SYMBOL, DEFAULT_LITERAL_LENGTH_NORMALIZED_COUNTS_LOG);
private static final FseCompressionTable DEFAULT_OFFSETS_TABLE = FseCompressionTable.newInstance(DEFAULT_OFFSET_NORMALIZED_COUNTS, DEFAULT_MAX_OFFSET_CODE_SYMBOL, DEFAULT_OFFSET_NORMALIZED_COUNTS_LOG);
private SequenceEncoder()
{
}
public static int compressSequences(Object outputBase, final long outputAddress, int outputSize, SequenceStore sequences, CompressionParameters.Strategy strategy, SequenceEncodingContext workspace)
{
long output = outputAddress;
long outputLimit = outputAddress + outputSize;
checkArgument(outputLimit - output > 3 /* max sequence count Size */ + 1 /* encoding type flags */, "Output buffer too small");
int sequenceCount = sequences.sequenceCount;
if (sequenceCount < 0x7F) {
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output, (byte) sequenceCount);
output++;
}
else if (sequenceCount < LONG_NUMBER_OF_SEQUENCES) {
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output, (byte) (sequenceCount >>> 8 | 0x80));
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output + 1, (byte) sequenceCount);
output += SIZE_OF_SHORT;
}
else {
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output, (byte) 0xFF);
output++;
UNSAFE.putShort(outputBase, output, (short) (sequenceCount - LONG_NUMBER_OF_SEQUENCES));
output += SIZE_OF_SHORT;
}
if (sequenceCount == 0) {
return (int) (output - outputAddress);
}
// flags for FSE encoding type
long headerAddress = output++;
int maxSymbol;
int largestCount;
// literal lengths
int[] counts = workspace.counts;
Histogram.count(sequences.literalLengthCodes, sequenceCount, workspace.counts);
maxSymbol = Histogram.findMaxSymbol(counts, MAX_LITERALS_LENGTH_SYMBOL);
largestCount = Histogram.findLargestCount(counts, maxSymbol);
int literalsLengthEncodingType = selectEncodingType(largestCount, sequenceCount, DEFAULT_LITERAL_LENGTH_NORMALIZED_COUNTS_LOG, true, strategy);
FseCompressionTable literalLengthTable;
switch (literalsLengthEncodingType) {
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_RLE:
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output, sequences.literalLengthCodes[0]);
output++;
workspace.literalLengthTable.initializeRleTable(maxSymbol);
literalLengthTable = workspace.literalLengthTable;
break;
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_BASIC:
literalLengthTable = DEFAULT_LITERAL_LENGTHS_TABLE;
break;
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_COMPRESSED:
output += buildCompressionTable(
workspace.literalLengthTable,
outputBase,
output,
outputLimit,
sequenceCount,
LITERAL_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG,
sequences.literalLengthCodes,
workspace.counts,
maxSymbol,
workspace.normalizedCounts);
literalLengthTable = workspace.literalLengthTable;
break;
default:
throw new UnsupportedOperationException("not yet implemented");
}
// offsets
Histogram.count(sequences.offsetCodes, sequenceCount, workspace.counts);
maxSymbol = Histogram.findMaxSymbol(counts, MAX_OFFSET_CODE_SYMBOL);
largestCount = Histogram.findLargestCount(counts, maxSymbol);
// We can only use the basic table if max <= DEFAULT_MAX_OFFSET_CODE_SYMBOL, otherwise the offsets are too large .
boolean defaultAllowed = maxSymbol < DEFAULT_MAX_OFFSET_CODE_SYMBOL;
int offsetEncodingType = selectEncodingType(largestCount, sequenceCount, DEFAULT_OFFSET_NORMALIZED_COUNTS_LOG, defaultAllowed, strategy);
FseCompressionTable offsetCodeTable;
switch (offsetEncodingType) {
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_RLE:
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output, sequences.offsetCodes[0]);
output++;
workspace.offsetCodeTable.initializeRleTable(maxSymbol);
offsetCodeTable = workspace.offsetCodeTable;
break;
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_BASIC:
offsetCodeTable = DEFAULT_OFFSETS_TABLE;
break;
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_COMPRESSED:
output += buildCompressionTable(
workspace.offsetCodeTable,
outputBase,
output,
output + outputSize,
sequenceCount,
OFFSET_TABLE_LOG,
sequences.offsetCodes,
workspace.counts,
maxSymbol,
workspace.normalizedCounts);
offsetCodeTable = workspace.offsetCodeTable;
break;
default:
throw new UnsupportedOperationException("not yet implemented");
}
// match lengths
Histogram.count(sequences.matchLengthCodes, sequenceCount, workspace.counts);
maxSymbol = Histogram.findMaxSymbol(counts, MAX_MATCH_LENGTH_SYMBOL);
largestCount = Histogram.findLargestCount(counts, maxSymbol);
int matchLengthEncodingType = selectEncodingType(largestCount, sequenceCount, DEFAULT_MATCH_LENGTH_NORMALIZED_COUNTS_LOG, true, strategy);
FseCompressionTable matchLengthTable;
switch (matchLengthEncodingType) {
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_RLE:
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output, sequences.matchLengthCodes[0]);
output++;
workspace.matchLengthTable.initializeRleTable(maxSymbol);
matchLengthTable = workspace.matchLengthTable;
break;
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_BASIC:
matchLengthTable = DEFAULT_MATCH_LENGTHS_TABLE;
break;
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_COMPRESSED:
output += buildCompressionTable(
workspace.matchLengthTable,
outputBase,
output,
outputLimit,
sequenceCount,
MATCH_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG,
sequences.matchLengthCodes,
workspace.counts,
maxSymbol,
workspace.normalizedCounts);
matchLengthTable = workspace.matchLengthTable;
break;
default:
throw new UnsupportedOperationException("not yet implemented");
}
// flags
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, headerAddress, (byte) ((literalsLengthEncodingType << 6) | (offsetEncodingType << 4) | (matchLengthEncodingType << 2)));
output += encodeSequences(outputBase, output, outputLimit, matchLengthTable, offsetCodeTable, literalLengthTable, sequences);
return (int) (output - outputAddress);
}
private static int buildCompressionTable(FseCompressionTable table, Object outputBase, long output, long outputLimit, int sequenceCount, int maxTableLog, byte[] codes, int[] counts, int maxSymbol, short[] normalizedCounts)
{
int tableLog = optimalTableLog(maxTableLog, sequenceCount, maxSymbol);
// this is a minor optimization. The last symbol is embedded in the initial FSE state, so it's not part of the bitstream. We can omit it from the
// statistics (but only if its count is > 1). This makes the statistics a tiny bit more accurate.
if (counts[codes[sequenceCount - 1]] > 1) {
counts[codes[sequenceCount - 1]]--;
sequenceCount--;
}
FiniteStateEntropy.normalizeCounts(normalizedCounts, tableLog, counts, sequenceCount, maxSymbol);
table.initialize(normalizedCounts, maxSymbol, tableLog);
return FiniteStateEntropy.writeNormalizedCounts(outputBase, output, (int) (outputLimit - output), normalizedCounts, maxSymbol, tableLog); // TODO: pass outputLimit directly
}
private static int encodeSequences(
Object outputBase,
long output,
long outputLimit,
FseCompressionTable matchLengthTable,
FseCompressionTable offsetsTable,
FseCompressionTable literalLengthTable,
SequenceStore sequences)
{
byte[] matchLengthCodes = sequences.matchLengthCodes;
byte[] offsetCodes = sequences.offsetCodes;
byte[] literalLengthCodes = sequences.literalLengthCodes;
BitOutputStream blockStream = new BitOutputStream(outputBase, output, (int) (outputLimit - output));
int sequenceCount = sequences.sequenceCount;
// first symbols
int matchLengthState = matchLengthTable.begin(matchLengthCodes[sequenceCount - 1]);
int offsetState = offsetsTable.begin(offsetCodes[sequenceCount - 1]);
int literalLengthState = literalLengthTable.begin(literalLengthCodes[sequenceCount - 1]);
blockStream.addBits(sequences.literalLengths[sequenceCount - 1], LITERALS_LENGTH_BITS[literalLengthCodes[sequenceCount - 1]]);
blockStream.addBits(sequences.matchLengths[sequenceCount - 1], MATCH_LENGTH_BITS[matchLengthCodes[sequenceCount - 1]]);
blockStream.addBits(sequences.offsets[sequenceCount - 1], offsetCodes[sequenceCount - 1]);
blockStream.flush();
if (sequenceCount >= 2) {
for (int n = sequenceCount - 2; n >= 0; n--) {
byte literalLengthCode = literalLengthCodes[n];
byte offsetCode = offsetCodes[n];
byte matchLengthCode = matchLengthCodes[n];
int literalLengthBits = LITERALS_LENGTH_BITS[literalLengthCode];
int offsetBits = offsetCode;
int matchLengthBits = MATCH_LENGTH_BITS[matchLengthCode];
// (7)
offsetState = offsetsTable.encode(blockStream, offsetState, offsetCode); // 15
matchLengthState = matchLengthTable.encode(blockStream, matchLengthState, matchLengthCode); // 24
literalLengthState = literalLengthTable.encode(blockStream, literalLengthState, literalLengthCode); // 33
if ((offsetBits + matchLengthBits + literalLengthBits >= 64 - 7 - (LITERAL_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG + MATCH_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG + OFFSET_TABLE_LOG))) {
blockStream.flush(); /* (7)*/
}
blockStream.addBits(sequences.literalLengths[n], literalLengthBits);
if (((literalLengthBits + matchLengthBits) > 24)) {
blockStream.flush();
}
blockStream.addBits(sequences.matchLengths[n], matchLengthBits);
if ((offsetBits + matchLengthBits + literalLengthBits > 56)) {
blockStream.flush();
}
blockStream.addBits(sequences.offsets[n], offsetBits); // 31
blockStream.flush(); // (7)
}
}
matchLengthTable.finish(blockStream, matchLengthState);
offsetsTable.finish(blockStream, offsetState);
literalLengthTable.finish(blockStream, literalLengthState);
int streamSize = blockStream.close();
checkArgument(streamSize > 0, "Output buffer too small");
return streamSize;
}
private static int selectEncodingType(
int largestCount,
int sequenceCount,
int defaultNormalizedCountsLog,
boolean isDefaultTableAllowed,
CompressionParameters.Strategy strategy)
{
if (largestCount == sequenceCount) { // => all entries are equal
if (isDefaultTableAllowed && sequenceCount <= 2) {
/* Prefer set_basic over set_rle when there are 2 or fewer symbols,
* since RLE uses 1 byte, but set_basic uses 5-6 bits per symbol.
* If basic encoding isn't possible, always choose RLE.
*/
return SEQUENCE_ENCODING_BASIC;
}
return SEQUENCE_ENCODING_RLE;
}
if (strategy.ordinal() < CompressionParameters.Strategy.LAZY.ordinal()) { // TODO: more robust check. Maybe encapsulate in strategy objects
if (isDefaultTableAllowed) {
int factor = 10 - strategy.ordinal(); // TODO more robust. Move it to strategy
int baseLog = 3;
long minNumberOfSequences = ((1L << defaultNormalizedCountsLog) * factor) >> baseLog; /* 28-36 for offset, 56-72 for lengths */
if ((sequenceCount < minNumberOfSequences) || (largestCount < (sequenceCount >> (defaultNormalizedCountsLog - 1)))) {
/* The format allows default tables to be repeated, but it isn't useful.
* When using simple heuristics to select encoding type, we don't want
* to confuse these tables with dictionaries. When running more careful
* analysis, we don't need to waste time checking both repeating tables
* and default tables.
*/
return SEQUENCE_ENCODING_BASIC;
}
}
}
else {
// TODO implement when other strategies are supported
throw new UnsupportedOperationException("not yet implemented");
}
return SEQUENCE_ENCODING_COMPRESSED;
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/SequenceEncodingContext.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MAX_LITERALS_LENGTH_SYMBOL;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MAX_MATCH_LENGTH_SYMBOL;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MAX_OFFSET_CODE_SYMBOL;
class SequenceEncodingContext
{
private static final int MAX_SEQUENCES = Math.max(MAX_LITERALS_LENGTH_SYMBOL, MAX_MATCH_LENGTH_SYMBOL);
public final FseCompressionTable literalLengthTable = new FseCompressionTable(Constants.LITERAL_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG, MAX_LITERALS_LENGTH_SYMBOL);
public final FseCompressionTable offsetCodeTable = new FseCompressionTable(Constants.OFFSET_TABLE_LOG, MAX_OFFSET_CODE_SYMBOL);
public final FseCompressionTable matchLengthTable = new FseCompressionTable(Constants.MATCH_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG, MAX_MATCH_LENGTH_SYMBOL);
public final int[] counts = new int[MAX_SEQUENCES + 1];
public final short[] normalizedCounts = new short[MAX_SEQUENCES + 1];
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/SequenceStore.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_LONG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.UnsafeUtil.UNSAFE;
import static sun.misc.Unsafe.ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET;
final class SequenceStore
{
public final byte[] literalsBuffer;
public int literalsLength;
public final int[] offsets;
public final int[] literalLengths;
public final int[] matchLengths;
public int sequenceCount;
public final byte[] literalLengthCodes;
public final byte[] matchLengthCodes;
public final byte[] offsetCodes;
public LongField longLengthField;
public int longLengthPosition;
public enum LongField
{
LITERAL, MATCH
}
private static final byte[] LITERAL_LENGTH_CODE = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
16, 16, 17, 17, 18, 18, 19, 19,
20, 20, 20, 20, 21, 21, 21, 21,
22, 22, 22, 22, 22, 22, 22, 22,
23, 23, 23, 23, 23, 23, 23, 23,
24, 24, 24, 24, 24, 24, 24, 24,
24, 24, 24, 24, 24, 24, 24, 24};
private static final byte[] MATCH_LENGTH_CODE = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31,
32, 32, 33, 33, 34, 34, 35, 35, 36, 36, 36, 36, 37, 37, 37, 37,
38, 38, 38, 38, 38, 38, 38, 38, 39, 39, 39, 39, 39, 39, 39, 39,
40, 40, 40, 40, 40, 40, 40, 40, 40, 40, 40, 40, 40, 40, 40, 40,
41, 41, 41, 41, 41, 41, 41, 41, 41, 41, 41, 41, 41, 41, 41, 41,
42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42,
42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42};
public SequenceStore(int blockSize, int maxSequences)
{
offsets = new int[maxSequences];
literalLengths = new int[maxSequences];
matchLengths = new int[maxSequences];
literalLengthCodes = new byte[maxSequences];
matchLengthCodes = new byte[maxSequences];
offsetCodes = new byte[maxSequences];
literalsBuffer = new byte[blockSize];
reset();
}
public void appendLiterals(Object inputBase, long inputAddress, int inputSize)
{
UNSAFE.copyMemory(inputBase, inputAddress, literalsBuffer, ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET + literalsLength, inputSize);
literalsLength += inputSize;
}
public void storeSequence(Object literalBase, long literalAddress, int literalLength, int offsetCode, int matchLengthBase)
{
long input = literalAddress;
long output = ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET + literalsLength;
int copied = 0;
do {
UNSAFE.putLong(literalsBuffer, output, UNSAFE.getLong(literalBase, input));
input += SIZE_OF_LONG;
output += SIZE_OF_LONG;
copied += SIZE_OF_LONG;
}
while (copied < literalLength);
literalsLength += literalLength;
if (literalLength > 65535) {
longLengthField = LongField.LITERAL;
longLengthPosition = sequenceCount;
}
literalLengths[sequenceCount] = literalLength;
offsets[sequenceCount] = offsetCode + 1;
if (matchLengthBase > 65535) {
longLengthField = LongField.MATCH;
longLengthPosition = sequenceCount;
}
matchLengths[sequenceCount] = matchLengthBase;
sequenceCount++;
}
public void reset()
{
literalsLength = 0;
sequenceCount = 0;
longLengthField = null;
}
public void generateCodes()
{
for (int i = 0; i < sequenceCount; ++i) {
literalLengthCodes[i] = (byte) literalLengthToCode(literalLengths[i]);
offsetCodes[i] = (byte) Util.highestBit(offsets[i]);
matchLengthCodes[i] = (byte) matchLengthToCode(matchLengths[i]);
}
if (longLengthField == LongField.LITERAL) {
literalLengthCodes[longLengthPosition] = Constants.MAX_LITERALS_LENGTH_SYMBOL;
}
if (longLengthField == LongField.MATCH) {
matchLengthCodes[longLengthPosition] = Constants.MAX_MATCH_LENGTH_SYMBOL;
}
}
private static int literalLengthToCode(int literalLength)
{
if (literalLength >= 64) {
return Util.highestBit(literalLength) + 19;
}
else {
return LITERAL_LENGTH_CODE[literalLength];
}
}
/*
* matchLengthBase = matchLength - MINMATCH
* (that's how it's stored in SequenceStore)
*/
private static int matchLengthToCode(int matchLengthBase)
{
if (matchLengthBase >= 128) {
return Util.highestBit(matchLengthBase) + 36;
}
else {
return MATCH_LENGTH_CODE[matchLengthBase];
}
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/UnsafeUtil.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.IncompatibleJvmException;
import sun.misc.Unsafe;
import java.lang.foreign.MemorySegment;
import java.lang.reflect.Field;
import java.nio.ByteOrder;
import static java.lang.String.format;
import static sun.misc.Unsafe.ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET;
final class UnsafeUtil
{
public static final Unsafe UNSAFE;
private UnsafeUtil() {}
static {
ByteOrder order = ByteOrder.nativeOrder();
if (!order.equals(ByteOrder.LITTLE_ENDIAN)) {
throw new IncompatibleJvmException(format("Zstandard requires a little endian platform (found %s)", order));
}
try {
Field theUnsafe = Unsafe.class.getDeclaredField("theUnsafe");
theUnsafe.setAccessible(true);
UNSAFE = (Unsafe) theUnsafe.get(null);
}
catch (Exception e) {
throw new IncompatibleJvmException("Zstandard requires access to sun.misc.Unsafe");
}
}
public static byte[] getBase(MemorySegment segment)
{
if (segment.isNative()) {
return null;
}
if (segment.isReadOnly()) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("MemorySegment is read-only");
}
Object inputBase = segment.heapBase().orElse(null);
if (!(inputBase instanceof byte[] byteArray)) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("MemorySegment is not backed by a byte array");
}
return byteArray;
}
public static long getAddress(MemorySegment segment)
{
if (segment.isNative()) {
return segment.address();
}
return segment.address() + ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET;
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/Util.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.MalformedInputException;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_SHORT;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.UnsafeUtil.UNSAFE;
final class Util
{
private Util()
{
}
public static int highestBit(int value)
{
return 31 - Integer.numberOfLeadingZeros(value);
}
public static boolean isPowerOf2(int value)
{
return (value & (value - 1)) == 0;
}
public static int mask(int bits)
{
return (1 << bits) - 1;
}
public static void verify(boolean condition, long offset, String reason)
{
if (!condition) {
throw new MalformedInputException(offset, reason);
}
}
public static void checkArgument(boolean condition, String reason)
{
if (!condition) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException(reason);
}
}
static void checkPositionIndexes(int start, int end, int size)
{
// Carefully optimized for execution by hotspot (explanatory comment above)
if (start < 0 || end < start || end > size) {
throw new IndexOutOfBoundsException(badPositionIndexes(start, end, size));
}
}
private static String badPositionIndexes(int start, int end, int size)
{
if (start < 0 || start > size) {
return badPositionIndex(start, size, "start index");
}
if (end < 0 || end > size) {
return badPositionIndex(end, size, "end index");
}
// end < start
return String.format("end index (%s) must not be less than start index (%s)", end, start);
}
private static String badPositionIndex(int index, int size, String desc)
{
if (index < 0) {
return String.format("%s (%s) must not be negative", desc, index);
}
else if (size < 0) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("negative size: " + size);
}
else { // index > size
return String.format("%s (%s) must not be greater than size (%s)", desc, index, size);
}
}
public static void checkState(boolean condition, String reason)
{
if (!condition) {
throw new IllegalStateException(reason);
}
}
public static MalformedInputException fail(long offset, String reason)
{
throw new MalformedInputException(offset, reason);
}
public static int cycleLog(int hashLog, CompressionParameters.Strategy strategy)
{
int cycleLog = hashLog;
if (strategy == CompressionParameters.Strategy.BTLAZY2 || strategy == CompressionParameters.Strategy.BTOPT || strategy == CompressionParameters.Strategy.BTULTRA) {
cycleLog = hashLog - 1;
}
return cycleLog;
}
public static int get24BitLittleEndian(Object inputBase, long inputAddress)
{
return (UNSAFE.getShort(inputBase, inputAddress) & 0xFFFF)
| ((UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, inputAddress + SIZE_OF_SHORT) & 0xFF) << Short.SIZE);
}
public static void put24BitLittleEndian(Object outputBase, long outputAddress, int value)
{
UNSAFE.putShort(outputBase, outputAddress, (short) value);
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, outputAddress + SIZE_OF_SHORT, (byte) (value >>> Short.SIZE));
}
// provides the minimum logSize to safely represent a distribution
public static int minTableLog(int inputSize, int maxSymbolValue)
{
if (inputSize <= 1) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Not supported. RLE should be used instead"); // TODO
}
int minBitsSrc = highestBit((inputSize - 1)) + 1;
int minBitsSymbols = highestBit(maxSymbolValue) + 2;
return Math.min(minBitsSrc, minBitsSymbols);
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/XxHash64.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import java.io.IOException;
import java.io.InputStream;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_LONG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.UnsafeUtil.UNSAFE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.checkPositionIndexes;
import static java.lang.Long.rotateLeft;
import static java.lang.Math.min;
import static sun.misc.Unsafe.ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET;
// Forked from https://github.com/airlift/slice
// This Unsafe-based implementation exists only to serve the Zstd Java implementation,
// which also uses Unsafe throughout. For public use, see io.airlift.compress.v3.xxhash.XxHash64Hasher
final class XxHash64
{
private static final long PRIME64_1 = 0x9E3779B185EBCA87L;
private static final long PRIME64_2 = 0xC2B2AE3D27D4EB4FL;
private static final long PRIME64_3 = 0x165667B19E3779F9L;
private static final long PRIME64_4 = 0x85EBCA77C2b2AE63L;
private static final long PRIME64_5 = 0x27D4EB2F165667C5L;
private static final long DEFAULT_SEED = 0;
private final long seed;
private static final long BUFFER_ADDRESS = ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET;
private final byte[] buffer = new byte[32];
private int bufferSize;
private long bodyLength;
private long v1;
private long v2;
private long v3;
private long v4;
public XxHash64()
{
this(DEFAULT_SEED);
}
private XxHash64(long seed)
{
this.seed = seed;
this.v1 = seed + PRIME64_1 + PRIME64_2;
this.v2 = seed + PRIME64_2;
this.v3 = seed;
this.v4 = seed - PRIME64_1;
}
public XxHash64 update(byte[] data)
{
return update(data, 0, data.length);
}
public XxHash64 update(byte[] data, int offset, int length)
{
checkPositionIndexes(offset, offset + length, data.length);
updateHash(data, ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET + offset, length);
return this;
}
public long hash()
{
long hash;
if (bodyLength > 0) {
hash = computeBody();
}
else {
hash = seed + PRIME64_5;
}
hash += bodyLength + bufferSize;
return updateTail(hash, buffer, BUFFER_ADDRESS, 0, bufferSize);
}
private long computeBody()
{
long hash = rotateLeft(v1, 1) + rotateLeft(v2, 7) + rotateLeft(v3, 12) + rotateLeft(v4, 18);
hash = update(hash, v1);
hash = update(hash, v2);
hash = update(hash, v3);
hash = update(hash, v4);
return hash;
}
private void updateHash(Object base, long address, int length)
{
if (bufferSize > 0) {
int available = min(32 - bufferSize, length);
UNSAFE.copyMemory(base, address, buffer, BUFFER_ADDRESS + bufferSize, available);
bufferSize += available;
address += available;
length -= available;
if (bufferSize == 32) {
updateBody(buffer, BUFFER_ADDRESS, bufferSize);
bufferSize = 0;
}
}
if (length >= 32) {
int index = updateBody(base, address, length);
address += index;
length -= index;
}
if (length > 0) {
UNSAFE.copyMemory(base, address, buffer, BUFFER_ADDRESS, length);
bufferSize = length;
}
}
private int updateBody(Object base, long address, int length)
{
int remaining = length;
while (remaining >= 32) {
v1 = mix(v1, UNSAFE.getLong(base, address));
v2 = mix(v2, UNSAFE.getLong(base, address + 8));
v3 = mix(v3, UNSAFE.getLong(base, address + 16));
v4 = mix(v4, UNSAFE.getLong(base, address + 24));
address += 32;
remaining -= 32;
}
int index = length - remaining;
bodyLength += index;
return index;
}
public static long hash(long value)
{
long hash = DEFAULT_SEED + PRIME64_5 + SIZE_OF_LONG;
hash = updateTail(hash, value);
hash = finalShuffle(hash);
return hash;
}
public static long hash(InputStream in)
throws IOException
{
return hash(DEFAULT_SEED, in);
}
public static long hash(long seed, InputStream in)
throws IOException
{
XxHash64 hash = new XxHash64(seed);
byte[] buffer = new byte[8192];
while (true) {
int length = in.read(buffer);
if (length == -1) {
break;
}
hash.update(buffer, 0, length);
}
return hash.hash();
}
public static long hash(long seed, Object base, long address, int length)
{
long hash;
if (length >= 32) {
hash = updateBody(seed, base, address, length);
}
else {
hash = seed + PRIME64_5;
}
hash += length;
// round to the closest 32 byte boundary
// this is the point up to which updateBody() processed
int index = length & 0xFFFFFFE0;
return updateTail(hash, base, address, index, length);
}
private static long updateTail(long hash, Object base, long address, int index, int length)
{
while (index <= length - 8) {
hash = updateTail(hash, UNSAFE.getLong(base, address + index));
index += 8;
}
if (index <= length - 4) {
hash = updateTail(hash, UNSAFE.getInt(base, address + index));
index += 4;
}
while (index < length) {
hash = updateTail(hash, UNSAFE.getByte(base, address + index));
index++;
}
hash = finalShuffle(hash);
return hash;
}
private static long updateBody(long seed, Object base, long address, int length)
{
long v1 = seed + PRIME64_1 + PRIME64_2;
long v2 = seed + PRIME64_2;
long v3 = seed;
long v4 = seed - PRIME64_1;
int remaining = length;
while (remaining >= 32) {
v1 = mix(v1, UNSAFE.getLong(base, address));
v2 = mix(v2, UNSAFE.getLong(base, address + 8));
v3 = mix(v3, UNSAFE.getLong(base, address + 16));
v4 = mix(v4, UNSAFE.getLong(base, address + 24));
address += 32;
remaining -= 32;
}
long hash = rotateLeft(v1, 1) + rotateLeft(v2, 7) + rotateLeft(v3, 12) + rotateLeft(v4, 18);
hash = update(hash, v1);
hash = update(hash, v2);
hash = update(hash, v3);
hash = update(hash, v4);
return hash;
}
private static long mix(long current, long value)
{
return rotateLeft(current + value * PRIME64_2, 31) * PRIME64_1;
}
private static long update(long hash, long value)
{
long temp = hash ^ mix(0, value);
return temp * PRIME64_1 + PRIME64_4;
}
private static long updateTail(long hash, long value)
{
long temp = hash ^ mix(0, value);
return rotateLeft(temp, 27) * PRIME64_1 + PRIME64_4;
}
private static long updateTail(long hash, int value)
{
long unsigned = value & 0xFFFF_FFFFL;
long temp = hash ^ (unsigned * PRIME64_1);
return rotateLeft(temp, 23) * PRIME64_2 + PRIME64_3;
}
private static long updateTail(long hash, byte value)
{
int unsigned = value & 0xFF;
long temp = hash ^ (unsigned * PRIME64_5);
return rotateLeft(temp, 11) * PRIME64_1;
}
private static long finalShuffle(long hash)
{
hash ^= hash >>> 33;
hash *= PRIME64_2;
hash ^= hash >>> 29;
hash *= PRIME64_3;
hash ^= hash >>> 32;
return hash;
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/ZstdCodec.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.hadoop.CodecAdapter;
public class ZstdCodec
extends CodecAdapter
{
public ZstdCodec()
{
super(configuration -> new ZstdHadoopStreams());
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/ZstdCompressor.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Compressor;
import java.lang.foreign.MemorySegment;
public interface ZstdCompressor
extends Compressor
{
int compress(MemorySegment input, MemorySegment output);
static ZstdCompressor create()
{
if (ZstdNativeCompressor.isEnabled()) {
return new ZstdNativeCompressor();
}
return new ZstdJavaCompressor();
}
static ZstdCompressor create(int compressionLevel)
{
if (ZstdNativeCompressor.isEnabled()) {
return new ZstdNativeCompressor(compressionLevel);
}
if (compressionLevel != CompressionParameters.DEFAULT_COMPRESSION_LEVEL) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Compression level different from default cannot be used for non-native Zstd compressor");
}
return new ZstdJavaCompressor();
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/ZstdDecompressor.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Decompressor;
public interface ZstdDecompressor
extends Decompressor
{
long getDecompressedSize(byte[] input, int offset, int length);
static ZstdDecompressor create()
{
if (ZstdNativeDecompressor.isEnabled()) {
return new ZstdNativeDecompressor();
}
return new ZstdJavaDecompressor();
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/ZstdFrameCompressor.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.COMPRESSED_BLOCK;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.COMPRESSED_LITERALS_BLOCK;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MAGIC_NUMBER;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MIN_BLOCK_SIZE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MIN_WINDOW_LOG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.RAW_BLOCK;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.RAW_LITERALS_BLOCK;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.RLE_LITERALS_BLOCK;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_BLOCK_HEADER;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_INT;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_SHORT;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.TREELESS_LITERALS_BLOCK;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Huffman.MAX_SYMBOL;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Huffman.MAX_SYMBOL_COUNT;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.UnsafeUtil.UNSAFE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.checkArgument;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.put24BitLittleEndian;
import static sun.misc.Unsafe.ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET;
final class ZstdFrameCompressor
{
static final int MAX_FRAME_HEADER_SIZE = 14;
private static final int CHECKSUM_FLAG = 0b100;
private static final int SINGLE_SEGMENT_FLAG = 0b100000;
private static final int MINIMUM_LITERALS_SIZE = 63;
// the maximum table log allowed for literal encoding per RFC 8478, section 4.2.1
private static final int MAX_HUFFMAN_TABLE_LOG = 11;
private ZstdFrameCompressor()
{
}
// visible for testing
static int writeMagic(final Object outputBase, final long outputAddress, final long outputLimit)
{
checkArgument(outputLimit - outputAddress >= SIZE_OF_INT, "Output buffer too small");
UNSAFE.putInt(outputBase, outputAddress, MAGIC_NUMBER);
return SIZE_OF_INT;
}
// visible for testing
static int writeFrameHeader(final Object outputBase, final long outputAddress, final long outputLimit, int inputSize, int windowSize)
{
checkArgument(outputLimit - outputAddress >= MAX_FRAME_HEADER_SIZE, "Output buffer too small");
long output = outputAddress;
int contentSizeDescriptor = 0;
if (inputSize != -1) {
contentSizeDescriptor = (inputSize >= 256 ? 1 : 0) + (inputSize >= 65536 + 256 ? 1 : 0);
}
int frameHeaderDescriptor = (contentSizeDescriptor << 6) | CHECKSUM_FLAG; // dictionary ID missing
boolean singleSegment = inputSize != -1 && windowSize >= inputSize;
if (singleSegment) {
frameHeaderDescriptor |= SINGLE_SEGMENT_FLAG;
}
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output, (byte) frameHeaderDescriptor);
output++;
if (!singleSegment) {
int base = Integer.highestOneBit(windowSize);
int exponent = 32 - Integer.numberOfLeadingZeros(base) - 1;
if (exponent < MIN_WINDOW_LOG) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Minimum window size is " + (1 << MIN_WINDOW_LOG));
}
int remainder = windowSize - base;
if (remainder % (base / 8) != 0) {
throw new IllegalArgumentException("Window size of magnitude 2^" + exponent + " must be multiple of " + (base / 8));
}
// mantissa is guaranteed to be between 0-7
int mantissa = remainder / (base / 8);
int encoded = ((exponent - MIN_WINDOW_LOG) << 3) | mantissa;
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output, (byte) encoded);
output++;
}
switch (contentSizeDescriptor) {
case 0:
if (singleSegment) {
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output++, (byte) inputSize);
}
break;
case 1:
UNSAFE.putShort(outputBase, output, (short) (inputSize - 256));
output += SIZE_OF_SHORT;
break;
case 2:
UNSAFE.putInt(outputBase, output, inputSize);
output += SIZE_OF_INT;
break;
default:
throw new AssertionError();
}
return (int) (output - outputAddress);
}
// visible for testing
static int writeChecksum(Object outputBase, long outputAddress, long outputLimit, Object inputBase, long inputAddress, long inputLimit)
{
checkArgument(outputLimit - outputAddress >= SIZE_OF_INT, "Output buffer too small");
int inputSize = (int) (inputLimit - inputAddress);
long hash = XxHash64.hash(0, inputBase, inputAddress, inputSize);
UNSAFE.putInt(outputBase, outputAddress, (int) hash);
return SIZE_OF_INT;
}
public static int compress(Object inputBase, long inputAddress, long inputLimit, Object outputBase, long outputAddress, long outputLimit, int compressionLevel)
{
int inputSize = (int) (inputLimit - inputAddress);
CompressionParameters parameters = CompressionParameters.compute(compressionLevel, inputSize);
long output = outputAddress;
output += writeMagic(outputBase, output, outputLimit);
output += writeFrameHeader(outputBase, output, outputLimit, inputSize, parameters.getWindowSize());
output += compressFrame(inputBase, inputAddress, inputLimit, outputBase, output, outputLimit, parameters);
output += writeChecksum(outputBase, output, outputLimit, inputBase, inputAddress, inputLimit);
return (int) (output - outputAddress);
}
private static int compressFrame(Object inputBase, long inputAddress, long inputLimit, Object outputBase, long outputAddress, long outputLimit, CompressionParameters parameters)
{
int blockSize = parameters.getBlockSize();
int outputSize = (int) (outputLimit - outputAddress);
int remaining = (int) (inputLimit - inputAddress);
long output = outputAddress;
long input = inputAddress;
CompressionContext context = new CompressionContext(parameters, inputAddress, remaining);
do {
checkArgument(outputSize >= SIZE_OF_BLOCK_HEADER + MIN_BLOCK_SIZE, "Output buffer too small");
boolean lastBlock = blockSize >= remaining;
blockSize = Math.min(blockSize, remaining);
int compressedSize = writeCompressedBlock(inputBase, input, blockSize, outputBase, output, outputSize, context, lastBlock);
input += blockSize;
remaining -= blockSize;
output += compressedSize;
outputSize -= compressedSize;
}
while (remaining > 0);
return (int) (output - outputAddress);
}
static int writeCompressedBlock(Object inputBase, long input, int blockSize, Object outputBase, long output, int outputSize, CompressionContext context, boolean lastBlock)
{
checkArgument(lastBlock || blockSize == context.parameters.getBlockSize(), "Only last block can be smaller than block size");
int compressedSize = 0;
if (blockSize > 0) {
compressedSize = compressBlock(inputBase, input, blockSize, outputBase, output + SIZE_OF_BLOCK_HEADER, outputSize - SIZE_OF_BLOCK_HEADER, context);
}
if (compressedSize == 0) { // block is not compressible
checkArgument(blockSize + SIZE_OF_BLOCK_HEADER <= outputSize, "Output size too small");
int blockHeader = (lastBlock ? 1 : 0) | (RAW_BLOCK << 1) | (blockSize << 3);
put24BitLittleEndian(outputBase, output, blockHeader);
UNSAFE.copyMemory(inputBase, input, outputBase, output + SIZE_OF_BLOCK_HEADER, blockSize);
compressedSize = SIZE_OF_BLOCK_HEADER + blockSize;
}
else {
int blockHeader = (lastBlock ? 1 : 0) | (COMPRESSED_BLOCK << 1) | (compressedSize << 3);
put24BitLittleEndian(outputBase, output, blockHeader);
compressedSize += SIZE_OF_BLOCK_HEADER;
}
return compressedSize;
}
private static int compressBlock(Object inputBase, long inputAddress, int inputSize, Object outputBase, long outputAddress, int outputSize, CompressionContext context)
{
if (inputSize < MIN_BLOCK_SIZE + SIZE_OF_BLOCK_HEADER + 1) {
// don't even attempt compression below a certain input size
return 0;
}
CompressionParameters parameters = context.parameters;
context.blockCompressionState.enforceMaxDistance(inputAddress + inputSize, parameters.getWindowSize());
context.sequenceStore.reset();
int lastLiteralsSize = parameters.getStrategy()
.getCompressor()
.compressBlock(inputBase, inputAddress, inputSize, context.sequenceStore, context.blockCompressionState, context.offsets, parameters);
long lastLiteralsAddress = inputAddress + inputSize - lastLiteralsSize;
// append [lastLiteralsAddress .. lastLiteralsSize] to sequenceStore literals buffer
context.sequenceStore.appendLiterals(inputBase, lastLiteralsAddress, lastLiteralsSize);
// convert length/offsets into codes
context.sequenceStore.generateCodes();
long outputLimit = outputAddress + outputSize;
long output = outputAddress;
int compressedLiteralsSize = encodeLiterals(
context.huffmanContext,
parameters,
outputBase,
output,
(int) (outputLimit - output),
context.sequenceStore.literalsBuffer,
context.sequenceStore.literalsLength);
output += compressedLiteralsSize;
int compressedSequencesSize = SequenceEncoder.compressSequences(outputBase, output, (int) (outputLimit - output), context.sequenceStore, parameters.getStrategy(), context.sequenceEncodingContext);
int compressedSize = compressedLiteralsSize + compressedSequencesSize;
if (compressedSize == 0) {
// not compressible
return compressedSize;
}
// Check compressibility
int maxCompressedSize = inputSize - calculateMinimumGain(inputSize, parameters.getStrategy());
if (compressedSize > maxCompressedSize) {
return 0; // not compressed
}
// confirm repeated offsets and entropy tables
context.commit();
return compressedSize;
}
private static int encodeLiterals(
HuffmanCompressionContext context,
CompressionParameters parameters,
Object outputBase,
long outputAddress,
int outputSize,
byte[] literals,
int literalsSize)
{
// TODO: move this to Strategy
boolean bypassCompression = (parameters.getStrategy() == CompressionParameters.Strategy.FAST) && (parameters.getTargetLength() > 0);
if (bypassCompression || literalsSize <= MINIMUM_LITERALS_SIZE) {
return rawLiterals(outputBase, outputAddress, outputSize, literals, ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET, literalsSize);
}
int headerSize = 3 + (literalsSize >= 1024 ? 1 : 0) + (literalsSize >= 16384 ? 1 : 0);
checkArgument(headerSize + 1 <= outputSize, "Output buffer too small");
int[] counts = new int[MAX_SYMBOL_COUNT]; // TODO: preallocate
Histogram.count(literals, literalsSize, counts);
int maxSymbol = Histogram.findMaxSymbol(counts, MAX_SYMBOL);
int largestCount = Histogram.findLargestCount(counts, maxSymbol);
long literalsAddress = ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET;
if (largestCount == literalsSize) {
// all bytes in input are equal
return rleLiterals(outputBase, outputAddress, outputSize, literals, ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET, literalsSize);
}
else if (largestCount <= (literalsSize >>> 7) + 4) {
// heuristic: probably not compressible enough
return rawLiterals(outputBase, outputAddress, outputSize, literals, ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET, literalsSize);
}
HuffmanCompressionTable previousTable = context.getPreviousTable();
HuffmanCompressionTable table;
int serializedTableSize;
boolean reuseTable;
boolean canReuse = previousTable.isValid(counts, maxSymbol);
// heuristic: use existing table for small inputs if valid
// TODO: move to Strategy
boolean preferReuse = parameters.getStrategy().ordinal() < CompressionParameters.Strategy.LAZY.ordinal() && literalsSize <= 1024;
if (preferReuse && canReuse) {
table = previousTable;
reuseTable = true;
serializedTableSize = 0;
}
else {
HuffmanCompressionTable newTable = context.borrowTemporaryTable();
newTable.initialize(
counts,
maxSymbol,
HuffmanCompressionTable.optimalNumberOfBits(MAX_HUFFMAN_TABLE_LOG, literalsSize, maxSymbol),
context.getCompressionTableWorkspace());
serializedTableSize = newTable.write(outputBase, outputAddress + headerSize, outputSize - headerSize, context.getTableWriterWorkspace());
// Check if using previous huffman table is beneficial
if (canReuse && previousTable.estimateCompressedSize(counts, maxSymbol) <= serializedTableSize + newTable.estimateCompressedSize(counts, maxSymbol)) {
table = previousTable;
reuseTable = true;
serializedTableSize = 0;
context.discardTemporaryTable();
}
else {
table = newTable;
reuseTable = false;
}
}
int compressedSize;
boolean singleStream = literalsSize < 256;
if (singleStream) {
compressedSize = HuffmanCompressor.compressSingleStream(outputBase, outputAddress + headerSize + serializedTableSize, outputSize - headerSize - serializedTableSize, literals, literalsAddress, literalsSize, table);
}
else {
compressedSize = HuffmanCompressor.compress4streams(outputBase, outputAddress + headerSize + serializedTableSize, outputSize - headerSize - serializedTableSize, literals, literalsAddress, literalsSize, table);
}
int totalSize = serializedTableSize + compressedSize;
int minimumGain = calculateMinimumGain(literalsSize, parameters.getStrategy());
if (compressedSize == 0 || totalSize >= literalsSize - minimumGain) {
// incompressible or no savings
// discard any temporary table we might have borrowed above
context.discardTemporaryTable();
return rawLiterals(outputBase, outputAddress, outputSize, literals, ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET, literalsSize);
}
int encodingType = reuseTable ? TREELESS_LITERALS_BLOCK : COMPRESSED_LITERALS_BLOCK;
// Build header
switch (headerSize) {
case 3: { // 2 - 2 - 10 - 10
int header = encodingType | ((singleStream ? 0 : 1) << 2) | (literalsSize << 4) | (totalSize << 14);
put24BitLittleEndian(outputBase, outputAddress, header);
break;
}
case 4: { // 2 - 2 - 14 - 14
int header = encodingType | (2 << 2) | (literalsSize << 4) | (totalSize << 18);
UNSAFE.putInt(outputBase, outputAddress, header);
break;
}
case 5: { // 2 - 2 - 18 - 18
int header = encodingType | (3 << 2) | (literalsSize << 4) | (totalSize << 22);
UNSAFE.putInt(outputBase, outputAddress, header);
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, outputAddress + SIZE_OF_INT, (byte) (totalSize >>> 10));
break;
}
default: // not possible : headerSize is {3,4,5}
throw new IllegalStateException();
}
return headerSize + totalSize;
}
private static int rleLiterals(Object outputBase, long outputAddress, int outputSize, Object inputBase, long inputAddress, int inputSize)
{
int headerSize = 1 + (inputSize > 31 ? 1 : 0) + (inputSize > 4095 ? 1 : 0);
switch (headerSize) {
case 1: // 2 - 1 - 5
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, outputAddress, (byte) (RLE_LITERALS_BLOCK | (inputSize << 3)));
break;
case 2: // 2 - 2 - 12
UNSAFE.putShort(outputBase, outputAddress, (short) (RLE_LITERALS_BLOCK | (1 << 2) | (inputSize << 4)));
break;
case 3: // 2 - 2 - 20
UNSAFE.putInt(outputBase, outputAddress, RLE_LITERALS_BLOCK | 3 << 2 | inputSize << 4);
break;
default: // impossible. headerSize is {1,2,3}
throw new IllegalStateException();
}
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, outputAddress + headerSize, UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, inputAddress));
return headerSize + 1;
}
private static int calculateMinimumGain(int inputSize, CompressionParameters.Strategy strategy)
{
// TODO: move this to Strategy to avoid hardcoding a specific strategy here
int minLog = strategy == CompressionParameters.Strategy.BTULTRA ? 7 : 6;
return (inputSize >>> minLog) + 2;
}
private static int rawLiterals(Object outputBase, long outputAddress, int outputSize, Object inputBase, long inputAddress, int inputSize)
{
int headerSize = 1;
if (inputSize >= 32) {
headerSize++;
}
if (inputSize >= 4096) {
headerSize++;
}
checkArgument(inputSize + headerSize <= outputSize, "Output buffer too small");
switch (headerSize) {
case 1:
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, outputAddress, (byte) (RAW_LITERALS_BLOCK | (inputSize << 3)));
break;
case 2:
UNSAFE.putShort(outputBase, outputAddress, (short) (RAW_LITERALS_BLOCK | (1 << 2) | (inputSize << 4)));
break;
case 3:
put24BitLittleEndian(outputBase, outputAddress, RAW_LITERALS_BLOCK | (3 << 2) | (inputSize << 4));
break;
default:
throw new AssertionError();
}
// TODO: ensure this test is correct
checkArgument(inputSize + 1 <= outputSize, "Output buffer too small");
UNSAFE.copyMemory(inputBase, inputAddress, outputBase, outputAddress + headerSize, inputSize);
return headerSize + inputSize;
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/ZstdFrameDecompressor.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.MalformedInputException;
import java.util.Arrays;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.BitInputStream.peekBits;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.COMPRESSED_BLOCK;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.COMPRESSED_LITERALS_BLOCK;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.DEFAULT_MAX_OFFSET_CODE_SYMBOL;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.LITERALS_LENGTH_BITS;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.LITERAL_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.LONG_NUMBER_OF_SEQUENCES;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MAGIC_NUMBER;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MATCH_LENGTH_BITS;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MATCH_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MAX_BLOCK_SIZE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MAX_LITERALS_LENGTH_SYMBOL;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MAX_MATCH_LENGTH_SYMBOL;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MIN_BLOCK_SIZE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MIN_SEQUENCES_SIZE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.MIN_WINDOW_LOG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.OFFSET_TABLE_LOG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.RAW_BLOCK;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.RAW_LITERALS_BLOCK;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.RLE_BLOCK;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.RLE_LITERALS_BLOCK;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SEQUENCE_ENCODING_BASIC;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SEQUENCE_ENCODING_COMPRESSED;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SEQUENCE_ENCODING_REPEAT;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SEQUENCE_ENCODING_RLE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_BLOCK_HEADER;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_BYTE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_INT;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_LONG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_SHORT;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.TREELESS_LITERALS_BLOCK;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.UnsafeUtil.UNSAFE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.fail;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.get24BitLittleEndian;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.mask;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.verify;
import static java.lang.String.format;
import static sun.misc.Unsafe.ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET;
class ZstdFrameDecompressor
{
private static final int[] DEC_32_TABLE = {4, 1, 2, 1, 4, 4, 4, 4};
private static final int[] DEC_64_TABLE = {0, 0, 0, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3};
private static final int V07_MAGIC_NUMBER = 0xFD2FB527;
static final int MAX_WINDOW_SIZE = 1 << 23;
private static final int[] LITERALS_LENGTH_BASE = {
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 28, 32, 40, 48, 64, 0x80, 0x100, 0x200, 0x400, 0x800, 0x1000,
0x2000, 0x4000, 0x8000, 0x10000};
private static final int[] MATCH_LENGTH_BASE = {
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,
19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34,
35, 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 51, 59, 67, 83, 99, 0x83, 0x103, 0x203, 0x403, 0x803,
0x1003, 0x2003, 0x4003, 0x8003, 0x10003};
private static final int[] OFFSET_CODES_BASE = {
0, 1, 1, 5, 0xD, 0x1D, 0x3D, 0x7D,
0xFD, 0x1FD, 0x3FD, 0x7FD, 0xFFD, 0x1FFD, 0x3FFD, 0x7FFD,
0xFFFD, 0x1FFFD, 0x3FFFD, 0x7FFFD, 0xFFFFD, 0x1FFFFD, 0x3FFFFD, 0x7FFFFD,
0xFFFFFD, 0x1FFFFFD, 0x3FFFFFD, 0x7FFFFFD, 0xFFFFFFD};
private static final FiniteStateEntropy.Table DEFAULT_LITERALS_LENGTH_TABLE = new FiniteStateEntropy.Table(
6,
new int[] {
0, 16, 32, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 32, 0, 0, 0, 0, 32, 0, 0, 32, 0, 32, 0, 32, 0, 0, 32, 0, 32, 0, 32, 0, 0, 16, 32, 0, 0, 48, 16, 32, 32, 32,
32, 32, 32, 32, 32, 0, 32, 32, 32, 32, 32, 32, 0, 0, 0, 0},
new byte[] {
0, 0, 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 31, 0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 25, 26, 28, 30, 0,
1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 24, 35, 34, 33, 32},
new byte[] {
4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5,
6, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6});
private static final FiniteStateEntropy.Table DEFAULT_OFFSET_CODES_TABLE = new FiniteStateEntropy.Table(
5,
new int[] {0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 16, 0, 0, 0, 0, 16, 0, 0, 0, 16, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
new byte[] {0, 6, 9, 15, 21, 3, 7, 12, 18, 23, 5, 8, 14, 20, 2, 7, 11, 17, 22, 4, 8, 13, 19, 1, 6, 10, 16, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24},
new byte[] {5, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 4, 5, 5, 5, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 4, 5, 5, 5, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5});
private static final FiniteStateEntropy.Table DEFAULT_MATCH_LENGTH_TABLE = new FiniteStateEntropy.Table(
6,
new int[] {
0, 0, 32, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 16, 0, 32, 0, 32, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 32, 48, 16, 32, 32, 32, 32,
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
new byte[] {
0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 28, 31, 33, 35, 37, 39, 41, 43, 45, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 1,
1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, 23, 26, 29, 52, 51, 50, 49, 48, 47, 46},
new byte[] {
6, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6,
6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6});
private final byte[] literals = new byte[MAX_BLOCK_SIZE + SIZE_OF_LONG]; // extra space to allow for long-at-a-time copy
// current buffer containing literals
private Object literalsBase;
private long literalsAddress;
private long literalsLimit;
private final int[] previousOffsets = new int[3];
private final FiniteStateEntropy.Table literalsLengthTable = new FiniteStateEntropy.Table(LITERAL_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG);
private final FiniteStateEntropy.Table offsetCodesTable = new FiniteStateEntropy.Table(OFFSET_TABLE_LOG);
private final FiniteStateEntropy.Table matchLengthTable = new FiniteStateEntropy.Table(MATCH_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG);
private FiniteStateEntropy.Table currentLiteralsLengthTable;
private FiniteStateEntropy.Table currentOffsetCodesTable;
private FiniteStateEntropy.Table currentMatchLengthTable;
private final Huffman huffman = new Huffman();
private final FseTableReader fse = new FseTableReader();
public int decompress(
final Object inputBase,
final long inputAddress,
final long inputLimit,
final Object outputBase,
final long outputAddress,
final long outputLimit)
{
if (outputAddress == outputLimit) {
return 0;
}
long input = inputAddress;
long output = outputAddress;
while (input < inputLimit) {
reset();
long outputStart = output;
input += verifyMagic(inputBase, input, inputLimit);
FrameHeader frameHeader = readFrameHeader(inputBase, input, inputLimit);
input += frameHeader.headerSize;
boolean lastBlock;
do {
verify(input + SIZE_OF_BLOCK_HEADER <= inputLimit, input, "Not enough input bytes");
// read block header
int header = get24BitLittleEndian(inputBase, input);
input += SIZE_OF_BLOCK_HEADER;
lastBlock = (header & 1) != 0;
int blockType = (header >>> 1) & 0b11;
int blockSize = (header >>> 3) & 0x1F_FFFF; // 21 bits
int decodedSize;
switch (blockType) {
case RAW_BLOCK:
verify(input + blockSize <= inputLimit, input, "Not enough input bytes");
decodedSize = decodeRawBlock(inputBase, input, blockSize, outputBase, output, outputLimit);
input += blockSize;
break;
case RLE_BLOCK:
verify(input + 1 <= inputLimit, input, "Not enough input bytes");
decodedSize = decodeRleBlock(blockSize, inputBase, input, outputBase, output, outputLimit);
input += 1;
break;
case COMPRESSED_BLOCK:
verify(input + blockSize <= inputLimit, input, "Not enough input bytes");
decodedSize = decodeCompressedBlock(inputBase, input, blockSize, outputBase, output, outputLimit, frameHeader.windowSize, outputAddress);
input += blockSize;
break;
default:
throw fail(input, "Invalid block type");
}
output += decodedSize;
}
while (!lastBlock);
if (frameHeader.hasChecksum) {
int decodedFrameSize = (int) (output - outputStart);
long hash = XxHash64.hash(0, outputBase, outputStart, decodedFrameSize);
verify(input + SIZE_OF_INT <= inputLimit, input, "Not enough input bytes");
int checksum = UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, input);
if (checksum != (int) hash) {
throw new MalformedInputException(input, format("Bad checksum. Expected: %s, actual: %s", Integer.toHexString(checksum), Integer.toHexString((int) hash)));
}
input += SIZE_OF_INT;
}
}
return (int) (output - outputAddress);
}
void reset()
{
previousOffsets[0] = 1;
previousOffsets[1] = 4;
previousOffsets[2] = 8;
currentLiteralsLengthTable = null;
currentOffsetCodesTable = null;
currentMatchLengthTable = null;
}
static int decodeRawBlock(Object inputBase, long inputAddress, int blockSize, Object outputBase, long outputAddress, long outputLimit)
{
verify(outputAddress + blockSize <= outputLimit, inputAddress, "Output buffer too small");
UNSAFE.copyMemory(inputBase, inputAddress, outputBase, outputAddress, blockSize);
return blockSize;
}
static int decodeRleBlock(int size, Object inputBase, long inputAddress, Object outputBase, long outputAddress, long outputLimit)
{
verify(outputAddress + size <= outputLimit, inputAddress, "Output buffer too small");
long output = outputAddress;
long value = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, inputAddress) & 0xFFL;
int remaining = size;
if (remaining >= SIZE_OF_LONG) {
long packed = value
| (value << 8)
| (value << 16)
| (value << 24)
| (value << 32)
| (value << 40)
| (value << 48)
| (value << 56);
do {
UNSAFE.putLong(outputBase, output, packed);
output += SIZE_OF_LONG;
remaining -= SIZE_OF_LONG;
}
while (remaining >= SIZE_OF_LONG);
}
for (int i = 0; i < remaining; i++) {
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output, (byte) value);
output++;
}
return size;
}
int decodeCompressedBlock(
Object inputBase,
final long inputAddress,
int blockSize,
Object outputBase,
long outputAddress,
long outputLimit,
int windowSize,
long outputAbsoluteBaseAddress)
{
long inputLimit = inputAddress + blockSize;
long input = inputAddress;
verify(blockSize <= MAX_BLOCK_SIZE, input, "Expected match length table to be present");
verify(blockSize >= MIN_BLOCK_SIZE, input, "Compressed block size too small");
// decode literals
int literalsBlockType = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input) & 0b11;
switch (literalsBlockType) {
case RAW_LITERALS_BLOCK: {
input += decodeRawLiterals(inputBase, input, inputLimit);
break;
}
case RLE_LITERALS_BLOCK: {
input += decodeRleLiterals(inputBase, input, blockSize);
break;
}
case TREELESS_LITERALS_BLOCK:
verify(huffman.isLoaded(), input, "Dictionary is corrupted");
case COMPRESSED_LITERALS_BLOCK: {
input += decodeCompressedLiterals(inputBase, input, blockSize, literalsBlockType);
break;
}
default:
throw fail(input, "Invalid literals block encoding type");
}
verify(windowSize <= MAX_WINDOW_SIZE, input, "Window size too large (not yet supported)");
return decompressSequences(
inputBase, input, inputAddress + blockSize,
outputBase, outputAddress, outputLimit,
literalsBase, literalsAddress, literalsLimit,
outputAbsoluteBaseAddress);
}
private int decompressSequences(
final Object inputBase, final long inputAddress, final long inputLimit,
final Object outputBase, final long outputAddress, final long outputLimit,
final Object literalsBase, final long literalsAddress, final long literalsLimit,
long outputAbsoluteBaseAddress)
{
final long fastOutputLimit = outputLimit - SIZE_OF_LONG;
final long fastMatchOutputLimit = fastOutputLimit - SIZE_OF_LONG;
long input = inputAddress;
long output = outputAddress;
long literalsInput = literalsAddress;
int size = (int) (inputLimit - inputAddress);
verify(size >= MIN_SEQUENCES_SIZE, input, "Not enough input bytes");
// decode header
int sequenceCount = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input++) & 0xFF;
if (sequenceCount != 0) {
if (sequenceCount == 255) {
verify(input + SIZE_OF_SHORT <= inputLimit, input, "Not enough input bytes");
sequenceCount = (UNSAFE.getShort(inputBase, input) & 0xFFFF) + LONG_NUMBER_OF_SEQUENCES;
input += SIZE_OF_SHORT;
}
else if (sequenceCount > 127) {
verify(input < inputLimit, input, "Not enough input bytes");
sequenceCount = ((sequenceCount - 128) << 8) + (UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input++) & 0xFF);
}
verify(input + SIZE_OF_INT <= inputLimit, input, "Not enough input bytes");
byte type = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input++);
int literalsLengthType = (type & 0xFF) >>> 6;
int offsetCodesType = (type >>> 4) & 0b11;
int matchLengthType = (type >>> 2) & 0b11;
input = computeLiteralsTable(literalsLengthType, inputBase, input, inputLimit);
input = computeOffsetsTable(offsetCodesType, inputBase, input, inputLimit);
input = computeMatchLengthTable(matchLengthType, inputBase, input, inputLimit);
// decompress sequences
BitInputStream.Initializer initializer = new BitInputStream.Initializer(inputBase, input, inputLimit);
initializer.initialize();
int bitsConsumed = initializer.getBitsConsumed();
long bits = initializer.getBits();
long currentAddress = initializer.getCurrentAddress();
FiniteStateEntropy.Table currentLiteralsLengthTable = this.currentLiteralsLengthTable;
FiniteStateEntropy.Table currentOffsetCodesTable = this.currentOffsetCodesTable;
FiniteStateEntropy.Table currentMatchLengthTable = this.currentMatchLengthTable;
int literalsLengthState = (int) peekBits(bitsConsumed, bits, currentLiteralsLengthTable.log2Size);
bitsConsumed += currentLiteralsLengthTable.log2Size;
int offsetCodesState = (int) peekBits(bitsConsumed, bits, currentOffsetCodesTable.log2Size);
bitsConsumed += currentOffsetCodesTable.log2Size;
int matchLengthState = (int) peekBits(bitsConsumed, bits, currentMatchLengthTable.log2Size);
bitsConsumed += currentMatchLengthTable.log2Size;
int[] previousOffsets = this.previousOffsets;
byte[] literalsLengthNumbersOfBits = currentLiteralsLengthTable.numberOfBits;
int[] literalsLengthNewStates = currentLiteralsLengthTable.newState;
byte[] literalsLengthSymbols = currentLiteralsLengthTable.symbol;
byte[] matchLengthNumbersOfBits = currentMatchLengthTable.numberOfBits;
int[] matchLengthNewStates = currentMatchLengthTable.newState;
byte[] matchLengthSymbols = currentMatchLengthTable.symbol;
byte[] offsetCodesNumbersOfBits = currentOffsetCodesTable.numberOfBits;
int[] offsetCodesNewStates = currentOffsetCodesTable.newState;
byte[] offsetCodesSymbols = currentOffsetCodesTable.symbol;
while (sequenceCount > 0) {
sequenceCount--;
BitInputStream.Loader loader = new BitInputStream.Loader(inputBase, input, currentAddress, bits, bitsConsumed);
loader.load();
bitsConsumed = loader.getBitsConsumed();
bits = loader.getBits();
currentAddress = loader.getCurrentAddress();
if (loader.isOverflow()) {
verify(sequenceCount == 0, input, "Not all sequences were consumed");
break;
}
// decode sequence
int literalsLengthCode = literalsLengthSymbols[literalsLengthState];
int matchLengthCode = matchLengthSymbols[matchLengthState];
int offsetCode = offsetCodesSymbols[offsetCodesState];
int literalsLengthBits = LITERALS_LENGTH_BITS[literalsLengthCode];
int matchLengthBits = MATCH_LENGTH_BITS[matchLengthCode];
int offsetBits = offsetCode;
int offset = OFFSET_CODES_BASE[offsetCode];
if (offsetCode > 0) {
offset += peekBits(bitsConsumed, bits, offsetBits);
bitsConsumed += offsetBits;
}
if (offsetCode <= 1) {
if (literalsLengthCode == 0) {
offset++;
}
if (offset != 0) {
int temp;
if (offset == 3) {
temp = previousOffsets[0] - 1;
}
else {
temp = previousOffsets[offset];
}
if (temp == 0) {
temp = 1;
}
if (offset != 1) {
previousOffsets[2] = previousOffsets[1];
}
previousOffsets[1] = previousOffsets[0];
previousOffsets[0] = temp;
offset = temp;
}
else {
offset = previousOffsets[0];
}
}
else {
previousOffsets[2] = previousOffsets[1];
previousOffsets[1] = previousOffsets[0];
previousOffsets[0] = offset;
}
int matchLength = MATCH_LENGTH_BASE[matchLengthCode];
if (matchLengthCode > 31) {
matchLength += peekBits(bitsConsumed, bits, matchLengthBits);
bitsConsumed += matchLengthBits;
}
int literalsLength = LITERALS_LENGTH_BASE[literalsLengthCode];
if (literalsLengthCode > 15) {
literalsLength += peekBits(bitsConsumed, bits, literalsLengthBits);
bitsConsumed += literalsLengthBits;
}
int totalBits = literalsLengthBits + matchLengthBits + offsetBits;
if (totalBits > 64 - 7 - (LITERAL_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG + MATCH_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG + OFFSET_TABLE_LOG)) {
BitInputStream.Loader loader1 = new BitInputStream.Loader(inputBase, input, currentAddress, bits, bitsConsumed);
loader1.load();
bitsConsumed = loader1.getBitsConsumed();
bits = loader1.getBits();
currentAddress = loader1.getCurrentAddress();
}
int numberOfBits;
numberOfBits = literalsLengthNumbersOfBits[literalsLengthState];
literalsLengthState = (int) (literalsLengthNewStates[literalsLengthState] + peekBits(bitsConsumed, bits, numberOfBits)); // <= 9 bits
bitsConsumed += numberOfBits;
numberOfBits = matchLengthNumbersOfBits[matchLengthState];
matchLengthState = (int) (matchLengthNewStates[matchLengthState] + peekBits(bitsConsumed, bits, numberOfBits)); // <= 9 bits
bitsConsumed += numberOfBits;
numberOfBits = offsetCodesNumbersOfBits[offsetCodesState];
offsetCodesState = (int) (offsetCodesNewStates[offsetCodesState] + peekBits(bitsConsumed, bits, numberOfBits)); // <= 8 bits
bitsConsumed += numberOfBits;
final long literalOutputLimit = output + literalsLength;
final long matchOutputLimit = literalOutputLimit + matchLength;
verify(matchOutputLimit <= outputLimit, input, "Output buffer too small");
long literalEnd = literalsInput + literalsLength;
verify(literalEnd <= literalsLimit, input, "Input is corrupted");
long matchAddress = literalOutputLimit - offset;
verify(matchAddress >= outputAbsoluteBaseAddress, input, "Input is corrupted");
if (literalOutputLimit > fastOutputLimit) {
executeLastSequence(outputBase, output, literalOutputLimit, matchOutputLimit, fastOutputLimit, literalsInput, matchAddress);
}
else {
// copy literals. literalOutputLimit <= fastOutputLimit, so we can copy
// long at a time with over-copy
output = copyLiterals(outputBase, literalsBase, output, literalsInput, literalOutputLimit);
copyMatch(outputBase, fastOutputLimit, output, offset, matchOutputLimit, matchAddress, matchLength, fastMatchOutputLimit);
}
output = matchOutputLimit;
literalsInput = literalEnd;
}
}
// last literal segment
output = copyLastLiteral(input, literalsBase, literalsInput, literalsLimit, outputBase, output, outputLimit);
return (int) (output - outputAddress);
}
private static long copyLastLiteral(long input, Object literalsBase, long literalsInput, long literalsLimit, Object outputBase, long output, long outputLimit)
{
long lastLiteralsSize = literalsLimit - literalsInput;
verify(output + lastLiteralsSize <= outputLimit, input, "Output buffer too small");
UNSAFE.copyMemory(literalsBase, literalsInput, outputBase, output, lastLiteralsSize);
output += lastLiteralsSize;
return output;
}
private static void copyMatch(Object outputBase,
long fastOutputLimit,
long output,
int offset,
long matchOutputLimit,
long matchAddress,
int matchLength,
long fastMatchOutputLimit)
{
matchAddress = copyMatchHead(outputBase, output, offset, matchAddress);
output += SIZE_OF_LONG;
matchLength -= SIZE_OF_LONG; // first 8 bytes copied above
copyMatchTail(outputBase, fastOutputLimit, output, matchOutputLimit, matchAddress, matchLength, fastMatchOutputLimit);
}
private static void copyMatchTail(Object outputBase, long fastOutputLimit, long output, long matchOutputLimit, long matchAddress, int matchLength, long fastMatchOutputLimit)
{
// fastMatchOutputLimit is just fastOutputLimit - SIZE_OF_LONG. It needs to be passed in so that it can be computed once for the
// whole invocation to decompressSequences. Otherwise, we'd just compute it here.
// If matchOutputLimit is < fastMatchOutputLimit, we know that even after the head (8 bytes) has been copied, the output pointer
// will be within fastOutputLimit, so it's safe to copy blindly before checking the limit condition
if (matchOutputLimit < fastMatchOutputLimit) {
int copied = 0;
do {
UNSAFE.putLong(outputBase, output, UNSAFE.getLong(outputBase, matchAddress));
output += SIZE_OF_LONG;
matchAddress += SIZE_OF_LONG;
copied += SIZE_OF_LONG;
}
while (copied < matchLength);
}
else {
while (output < fastOutputLimit) {
UNSAFE.putLong(outputBase, output, UNSAFE.getLong(outputBase, matchAddress));
matchAddress += SIZE_OF_LONG;
output += SIZE_OF_LONG;
}
while (output < matchOutputLimit) {
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output++, UNSAFE.getByte(outputBase, matchAddress++));
}
}
}
private static long copyMatchHead(Object outputBase, long output, int offset, long matchAddress)
{
// copy match
if (offset < 8) {
// 8 bytes apart so that we can copy long-at-a-time below
int increment32 = DEC_32_TABLE[offset];
int decrement64 = DEC_64_TABLE[offset];
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output, UNSAFE.getByte(outputBase, matchAddress));
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output + 1, UNSAFE.getByte(outputBase, matchAddress + 1));
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output + 2, UNSAFE.getByte(outputBase, matchAddress + 2));
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output + 3, UNSAFE.getByte(outputBase, matchAddress + 3));
matchAddress += increment32;
UNSAFE.putInt(outputBase, output + 4, UNSAFE.getInt(outputBase, matchAddress));
matchAddress -= decrement64;
}
else {
UNSAFE.putLong(outputBase, output, UNSAFE.getLong(outputBase, matchAddress));
matchAddress += SIZE_OF_LONG;
}
return matchAddress;
}
private static long copyLiterals(Object outputBase, Object literalsBase, long output, long literalsInput, long literalOutputLimit)
{
long literalInput = literalsInput;
do {
UNSAFE.putLong(outputBase, output, UNSAFE.getLong(literalsBase, literalInput));
output += SIZE_OF_LONG;
literalInput += SIZE_OF_LONG;
}
while (output < literalOutputLimit);
output = literalOutputLimit; // correction in case we over-copied
return output;
}
private long computeMatchLengthTable(int matchLengthType, Object inputBase, long input, long inputLimit)
{
switch (matchLengthType) {
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_RLE:
verify(input < inputLimit, input, "Not enough input bytes");
byte value = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input++);
verify(value <= MAX_MATCH_LENGTH_SYMBOL, input, "Value exceeds expected maximum value");
FseTableReader.initializeRleTable(matchLengthTable, value);
currentMatchLengthTable = matchLengthTable;
break;
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_BASIC:
currentMatchLengthTable = DEFAULT_MATCH_LENGTH_TABLE;
break;
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_REPEAT:
verify(currentMatchLengthTable != null, input, "Expected match length table to be present");
break;
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_COMPRESSED:
input += fse.readFseTable(matchLengthTable, inputBase, input, inputLimit, MAX_MATCH_LENGTH_SYMBOL, MATCH_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG);
currentMatchLengthTable = matchLengthTable;
break;
default:
throw fail(input, "Invalid match length encoding type");
}
return input;
}
private long computeOffsetsTable(int offsetCodesType, Object inputBase, long input, long inputLimit)
{
switch (offsetCodesType) {
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_RLE:
verify(input < inputLimit, input, "Not enough input bytes");
byte value = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input++);
verify(value <= DEFAULT_MAX_OFFSET_CODE_SYMBOL, input, "Value exceeds expected maximum value");
FseTableReader.initializeRleTable(offsetCodesTable, value);
currentOffsetCodesTable = offsetCodesTable;
break;
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_BASIC:
currentOffsetCodesTable = DEFAULT_OFFSET_CODES_TABLE;
break;
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_REPEAT:
verify(currentOffsetCodesTable != null, input, "Expected match length table to be present");
break;
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_COMPRESSED:
input += fse.readFseTable(offsetCodesTable, inputBase, input, inputLimit, DEFAULT_MAX_OFFSET_CODE_SYMBOL, OFFSET_TABLE_LOG);
currentOffsetCodesTable = offsetCodesTable;
break;
default:
throw fail(input, "Invalid offset code encoding type");
}
return input;
}
private long computeLiteralsTable(int literalsLengthType, Object inputBase, long input, long inputLimit)
{
switch (literalsLengthType) {
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_RLE:
verify(input < inputLimit, input, "Not enough input bytes");
byte value = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input++);
verify(value <= MAX_LITERALS_LENGTH_SYMBOL, input, "Value exceeds expected maximum value");
FseTableReader.initializeRleTable(literalsLengthTable, value);
currentLiteralsLengthTable = literalsLengthTable;
break;
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_BASIC:
currentLiteralsLengthTable = DEFAULT_LITERALS_LENGTH_TABLE;
break;
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_REPEAT:
verify(currentLiteralsLengthTable != null, input, "Expected match length table to be present");
break;
case SEQUENCE_ENCODING_COMPRESSED:
input += fse.readFseTable(literalsLengthTable, inputBase, input, inputLimit, MAX_LITERALS_LENGTH_SYMBOL, LITERAL_LENGTH_TABLE_LOG);
currentLiteralsLengthTable = literalsLengthTable;
break;
default:
throw fail(input, "Invalid literals length encoding type");
}
return input;
}
private void executeLastSequence(Object outputBase, long output, long literalOutputLimit, long matchOutputLimit, long fastOutputLimit, long literalInput, long matchAddress)
{
// copy literals
if (output < fastOutputLimit) {
// wild copy
do {
UNSAFE.putLong(outputBase, output, UNSAFE.getLong(literalsBase, literalInput));
output += SIZE_OF_LONG;
literalInput += SIZE_OF_LONG;
}
while (output < fastOutputLimit);
literalInput -= output - fastOutputLimit;
output = fastOutputLimit;
}
while (output < literalOutputLimit) {
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output, UNSAFE.getByte(literalsBase, literalInput));
output++;
literalInput++;
}
// copy match
while (output < matchOutputLimit) {
UNSAFE.putByte(outputBase, output, UNSAFE.getByte(outputBase, matchAddress));
output++;
matchAddress++;
}
}
private int decodeCompressedLiterals(Object inputBase, final long inputAddress, int blockSize, int literalsBlockType)
{
long input = inputAddress;
verify(blockSize >= 5, input, "Not enough input bytes");
// compressed
int compressedSize;
int uncompressedSize;
boolean singleStream = false;
int headerSize;
int type = (UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input) >> 2) & 0b11;
switch (type) {
case 0:
singleStream = true;
case 1: {
int header = UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, input);
headerSize = 3;
uncompressedSize = (header >>> 4) & mask(10);
compressedSize = (header >>> 14) & mask(10);
break;
}
case 2: {
int header = UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, input);
headerSize = 4;
uncompressedSize = (header >>> 4) & mask(14);
compressedSize = (header >>> 18) & mask(14);
break;
}
case 3: {
// read 5 little-endian bytes
long header = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input) & 0xFF |
(UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, input + 1) & 0xFFFF_FFFFL) << 8;
headerSize = 5;
uncompressedSize = (int) ((header >>> 4) & mask(18));
compressedSize = (int) ((header >>> 22) & mask(18));
break;
}
default:
throw fail(input, "Invalid literals header size type");
}
verify(uncompressedSize <= MAX_BLOCK_SIZE, input, "Block exceeds maximum size");
verify(headerSize + compressedSize <= blockSize, input, "Input is corrupted");
input += headerSize;
long inputLimit = input + compressedSize;
if (literalsBlockType != TREELESS_LITERALS_BLOCK) {
input += huffman.readTable(inputBase, input, compressedSize);
}
literalsBase = literals;
literalsAddress = ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET;
literalsLimit = ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET + uncompressedSize;
if (singleStream) {
huffman.decodeSingleStream(inputBase, input, inputLimit, literals, literalsAddress, literalsLimit);
}
else {
huffman.decode4Streams(inputBase, input, inputLimit, literals, literalsAddress, literalsLimit);
}
return headerSize + compressedSize;
}
private int decodeRleLiterals(Object inputBase, final long inputAddress, int blockSize)
{
long input = inputAddress;
int outputSize;
int type = (UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input) >> 2) & 0b11;
switch (type) {
case 0:
case 2:
outputSize = (UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input) & 0xFF) >>> 3;
input++;
break;
case 1:
outputSize = (UNSAFE.getShort(inputBase, input) & 0xFFFF) >>> 4;
input += 2;
break;
case 3:
// we need at least 4 bytes (3 for the header, 1 for the payload)
verify(blockSize >= SIZE_OF_INT, input, "Not enough input bytes");
outputSize = (UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, input) & 0xFF_FFFF) >>> 4;
input += 3;
break;
default:
throw fail(input, "Invalid RLE literals header encoding type");
}
verify(outputSize <= MAX_BLOCK_SIZE, input, "Output exceeds maximum block size");
byte value = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input++);
Arrays.fill(literals, 0, outputSize + SIZE_OF_LONG, value);
literalsBase = literals;
literalsAddress = ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET;
literalsLimit = ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET + outputSize;
return (int) (input - inputAddress);
}
private int decodeRawLiterals(Object inputBase, final long inputAddress, long inputLimit)
{
long input = inputAddress;
int type = (UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input) >> 2) & 0b11;
int literalSize;
switch (type) {
case 0:
case 2:
literalSize = (UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input) & 0xFF) >>> 3;
input++;
break;
case 1:
literalSize = (UNSAFE.getShort(inputBase, input) & 0xFFFF) >>> 4;
input += 2;
break;
case 3:
// read 3 little-endian bytes
int header = ((UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input) & 0xFF) |
((UNSAFE.getShort(inputBase, input + 1) & 0xFFFF) << 8));
literalSize = header >>> 4;
input += 3;
break;
default:
throw fail(input, "Invalid raw literals header encoding type");
}
verify(input + literalSize <= inputLimit, input, "Not enough input bytes");
// Set literals pointer to [input, literalSize], but only if we can copy 8 bytes at a time during sequence decoding
// Otherwise, copy literals into buffer that's big enough to guarantee that
if (literalSize > (inputLimit - input) - SIZE_OF_LONG) {
literalsBase = literals;
literalsAddress = ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET;
literalsLimit = ARRAY_BYTE_BASE_OFFSET + literalSize;
UNSAFE.copyMemory(inputBase, input, literals, literalsAddress, literalSize);
Arrays.fill(literals, literalSize, literalSize + SIZE_OF_LONG, (byte) 0);
}
else {
literalsBase = inputBase;
literalsAddress = input;
literalsLimit = literalsAddress + literalSize;
}
input += literalSize;
return (int) (input - inputAddress);
}
static FrameHeader readFrameHeader(final Object inputBase, final long inputAddress, final long inputLimit)
{
long input = inputAddress;
verify(input < inputLimit, input, "Not enough input bytes");
int frameHeaderDescriptor = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input++) & 0xFF;
boolean singleSegment = (frameHeaderDescriptor & 0b100000) != 0;
int dictionaryDescriptor = frameHeaderDescriptor & 0b11;
int contentSizeDescriptor = frameHeaderDescriptor >>> 6;
int headerSize = 1 +
(singleSegment ? 0 : 1) +
(dictionaryDescriptor == 0 ? 0 : (1 << (dictionaryDescriptor - 1))) +
(contentSizeDescriptor == 0 ? (singleSegment ? 1 : 0) : (1 << contentSizeDescriptor));
verify(headerSize <= inputLimit - inputAddress, input, "Not enough input bytes");
// decode window size
int windowSize = -1;
if (!singleSegment) {
int windowDescriptor = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input++) & 0xFF;
int exponent = windowDescriptor >>> 3;
int mantissa = windowDescriptor & 0b111;
int base = 1 << (MIN_WINDOW_LOG + exponent);
windowSize = base + (base / 8) * mantissa;
}
// decode dictionary id
long dictionaryId = -1;
switch (dictionaryDescriptor) {
case 1:
dictionaryId = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input) & 0xFF;
input += SIZE_OF_BYTE;
break;
case 2:
dictionaryId = UNSAFE.getShort(inputBase, input) & 0xFFFF;
input += SIZE_OF_SHORT;
break;
case 3:
dictionaryId = UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, input) & 0xFFFF_FFFFL;
input += SIZE_OF_INT;
break;
}
verify(dictionaryId == -1, input, "Custom dictionaries not supported");
// decode content size
long contentSize = -1;
switch (contentSizeDescriptor) {
case 0:
if (singleSegment) {
contentSize = UNSAFE.getByte(inputBase, input) & 0xFF;
input += SIZE_OF_BYTE;
}
break;
case 1:
contentSize = UNSAFE.getShort(inputBase, input) & 0xFFFF;
contentSize += 256;
input += SIZE_OF_SHORT;
break;
case 2:
contentSize = UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, input) & 0xFFFF_FFFFL;
input += SIZE_OF_INT;
break;
case 3:
contentSize = UNSAFE.getLong(inputBase, input);
input += SIZE_OF_LONG;
break;
}
boolean hasChecksum = (frameHeaderDescriptor & 0b100) != 0;
return new FrameHeader(
input - inputAddress,
windowSize,
contentSize,
dictionaryId,
hasChecksum);
}
public static long getDecompressedSize(final Object inputBase, final long inputAddress, final long inputLimit)
{
long input = inputAddress;
input += verifyMagic(inputBase, input, inputLimit);
return readFrameHeader(inputBase, input, inputLimit).contentSize;
}
static int verifyMagic(Object inputBase, long inputAddress, long inputLimit)
{
verify(inputLimit - inputAddress >= 4, inputAddress, "Not enough input bytes");
int magic = UNSAFE.getInt(inputBase, inputAddress);
if (magic != MAGIC_NUMBER) {
if (magic == V07_MAGIC_NUMBER) {
throw new MalformedInputException(inputAddress, "Data encoded in unsupported ZSTD v0.7 format");
}
throw new MalformedInputException(inputAddress, "Invalid magic prefix: " + Integer.toHexString(magic));
}
return SIZE_OF_INT;
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/ZstdHadoopInputStream.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.hadoop.HadoopInputStream;
import java.io.IOException;
import java.io.InputStream;
import static java.util.Objects.requireNonNull;
class ZstdHadoopInputStream
extends HadoopInputStream
{
private final InputStream in;
private ZstdInputStream zstdInputStream;
public ZstdHadoopInputStream(InputStream in)
{
this.in = requireNonNull(in, "in is null");
zstdInputStream = new ZstdInputStream(in);
}
@Override
public int read()
throws IOException
{
return zstdInputStream.read();
}
@Override
public int read(byte[] b)
throws IOException
{
return zstdInputStream.read(b);
}
@Override
public int read(byte[] outputBuffer, int outputOffset, int outputLength)
throws IOException
{
return zstdInputStream.read(outputBuffer, outputOffset, outputLength);
}
@Override
public void resetState()
{
zstdInputStream = new ZstdInputStream(in);
}
@Override
public void close()
throws IOException
{
zstdInputStream.close();
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/ZstdHadoopOutputStream.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.hadoop.HadoopOutputStream;
import java.io.IOException;
import java.io.OutputStream;
import static java.util.Objects.requireNonNull;
class ZstdHadoopOutputStream
extends HadoopOutputStream
{
private final OutputStream out;
private boolean initialized;
private ZstdOutputStream zstdOutputStream;
public ZstdHadoopOutputStream(OutputStream out)
{
this.out = requireNonNull(out, "out is null");
}
@Override
public void write(int b)
throws IOException
{
openStreamIfNecessary();
zstdOutputStream.write(b);
}
@Override
public void write(byte[] buffer, int offset, int length)
throws IOException
{
openStreamIfNecessary();
zstdOutputStream.write(buffer, offset, length);
}
@Override
public void finish()
throws IOException
{
if (zstdOutputStream != null) {
zstdOutputStream.finishWithoutClosingSource();
zstdOutputStream = null;
}
}
@Override
public void flush()
throws IOException
{
out.flush();
}
@Override
public void close()
throws IOException
{
try {
// it the stream has never been initialized, create a valid empty file
if (!initialized) {
openStreamIfNecessary();
}
finish();
}
finally {
out.close();
}
}
private void openStreamIfNecessary()
throws IOException
{
if (zstdOutputStream == null) {
initialized = true;
zstdOutputStream = new ZstdOutputStream(out);
}
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/ZstdHadoopStreams.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.hadoop.HadoopInputStream;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.hadoop.HadoopOutputStream;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.hadoop.HadoopStreams;
import java.io.IOException;
import java.io.InputStream;
import java.io.OutputStream;
import java.util.List;
import static java.util.Collections.singletonList;
public class ZstdHadoopStreams
implements HadoopStreams
{
@Override
public String getDefaultFileExtension()
{
return ".zst";
}
@Override
public List Run from Maven:
* To run with specific sizes:
*
DESCRIPTION OF FARMER OAK -- AN INCIDENT
When Farmer Oak smiled, the corners of his mouth
spread till they were within an unimportant distance of
his ears, his eyes were reduced to chinks, and diverging
wrinkles appeared round them, extending upon his
countenance like the rays in a rudimentary sketch of
the rising sun.
His Christian name was Gabriel, and on working
days he was a young man of sound judgment, easy
motions, proper dress, and general good character. On
Sundays he was a man of misty views, rather given to
postponing, and hampered by his best clothes and
umbrella : upon the whole, one who felt himself to
occupy morally that vast middle space of Laodicean
neutrality which lay between the Communion people
of the parish and the drunken section, -- that is, he went
to church, but yawned privately by the time the con+
gegation reached the Nicene creed,- and thought of
what there would be for dinner when he meant to be
listening to the sermon. Or, to state his character as
it stood in the scale of public opinion, when his friends
and critics were in tantrums, he was considered rather a
bad man ; when they were pleased, he was rather a good
man ; when they were neither, he was a man whose
moral colour was a kind of pepper-and-salt mixture.
Since he lived six times as many working-days as
Sundays, Oak's appearance in his old clothes was most
peculiarly his own -- the mental picture formed by his
neighbours in imagining him being always dressed in
that way. He wore a low-crowned felt hat, spread out
at the base by tight jamming upon the head for security
in high winds, and a coat like Dr. Johnson's ; his lower
extremities being encased in ordinary leather leggings
and boots emphatically large, affording to each foot a
roomy apartment so constructed that any wearer might
stand in a river all day long and know nothing of
damp -- their maker being a conscientious man who
endeavoured to compensate for any weakness in his cut
by unstinted dimension and solidity.
Mr. Oak 'carried 'about him, by way of watch,+
what may be called a small silver clock; in other
words, it was a watch as to shape and intention, and
a small clock as to size. This instrument being several
years older than Oak's grandfather, had the peculiarity
of going either too fast or not at all. The smaller
of its hands, too, occasionally slipped round on the
pivot, and thus, though the minutes were told with
precision, nobody could be quite certain of the hour
they belonged to. The stopping peculiarity of his
watch Oak remedied by thumps and shakes, and he
escaped any evil consequences from the other two
defects by constant comparisons with and observations
of the sun and stars, and by pressing his face close
to the glass of his neighbours' windows, till he could
discern the hour marked by the green-faced timekeepers
within. It may be mentioned that Oak's fob being
difficult of access, by reason of its somewhat high
situation in the waistband of his trousers (which also
lay at a remote height under his waistcoat), the watch
was as a necessity pulled out by throwing the body to
one-side, compressing the- mouth and face to a mere
mass of- ruddy flesh- on account -of the exertion, and
drawing up the watch by its chain, like a bucket from a
well.
But some thoughtfull persons, who had seen him
walking across one of his fields on a certain December
morning -- sunny and exceedingly mild -- might have
regarded Gabriel Oak in other aspects than these. In
his face one might notice that many of the hues and
curves of youth had tarried on to manhood: there even
remained in his remoter crannies some relics of the boy.
His height and breadth would have been sufficient to
make his presence imposing, had they been exhibited
with due consideration. But there is a way some men
have, rural and urban alike, for which the mind is more
responsible than flesh and sinew : it is a way of curtail+
ing their dimensions by their manner of showing them.
And from a quiet modesty that would have become a
vestal which seemed continually to impress upon him
that he had no great claim on the world's room, Oak
walked unassumingly and with a faintly perceptible
bend, yet distinct from a bowing of the shoulders.
This may be said to be a defect in an individual if he
depends for his valuation more upon his appearance
than upon his capacity to wear well, which Oak did not.
He had just reached the time of life at which " young'
is ceasing to be the prefix of "man ' in speaking of one.
He was at the brightest period of masculine growth,
for his intellect and his emotions were clearly separated :
he had passed the time during which the influence of
youth indiscriminately mingles them in the character
of impulse, and he had not yet arrived at the stage
wherein they become united again, in the character of
prejudice, by the influence of a wife and family. In
short, he was twenty-eight, and a bachelor.
The field he was in this morning sloped to a
ridge called Norcombe Hill. Through a spur of this
hill ran the highway between Emminster and Chalk+
Newton. Casually glancing over the hedge, Oak saw
coming down the incline before him an ornamental
spring waggon, painted yellow and gaily marked,
drawn by two horses, a waggoner walking alongside
bearing a whip perpendicularly. The waggon was
laden with household goods and window plants, and
on the apex of the whole sat a woman, 'young-'and
attractive. Gabriel had not beheld the sight for more
than half a minute, when the vehicle was brought to a
standstill just beneath his eyes.
" The tailboard of the waggon is gone, Miss,' said the
waggoner.
"Then I heard it fall,' said the girl, in a soft, though
not particularly low voice. "I heard a noise I could
not account for when we were coming up the hill.'
"I'll run back.' +
" Do,' she answered. +
The sensible horses stood -- perfectly still, and the
waggoner's steps sank fainter and fainter in the distance.
The girl on the summit of the load sat motionless,
surrounded by tables and chairs with their legs upwards,
backed by an oak settle, and ornamented in front by
pots of geraniums, myrtles, and cactuses, together with
a caged canary -- all probably from the windows of the
house just vacated. There was also a cat in a willow
basket, from the partly-opened lid of which she gazed
with half-closed eyes, and affectionately-surveyed the
small birds around.
The handsome girl waited for some time idly in her
place, and the only sound heard in the stillness-was -the
hopping of the canary up-and down the perches of its
prison. Then she looked attentively downwards. It
was not at the bird, nor at the cat; it was at an oblong
package tied in paper, and lying between them. She
turned her head to learn if the waggoner were coming.
He was not yet in sight; and her-eyes crept back to
the package, her thoughts seeming to run 'upon what
was inside it. At length she drew the article into her
lap, and untied the paper covering; a small swing
looking-glass was disclosed, in which she proceeded to
survey herself attentively. She parted her lips and
smiled.
It was a fine morning, and the sun lighted up to a
scarlet glow the crimson jacket she wore, and painted
a soft lustre upon her bright face and dark hair. The
myrtles, geraniums, and cactuses packed around her
were fresh and green, and at such a leafless season they
invested the whole concern of horses, waggon, furniture,
and girl with a peculiar vernal charm. What possessed
her to indulge in such a performance in the sight of the
sparrows, blackbirds, and unperceived farmer who were
alone its spectators, -- whether the smile began as a
factitious one, to test her capacity in that art, -- nobody
knows ; it ended certainly in a real smile. She blushed
at herself, and seeing her reflection blush, blushed the
more.
The change from the customary spot and necessary
occasion of such an act -- from the dressing hour in a
bedroom to a time of travelling out of doors -- lent to
the idle deed a novelty it did not intrinsically possess.
The picture was a delicate one. Woman's prescriptive
infirmity had stalked into the sunlight, which had
clothed it in the freshness of an originality. A
cynical inference was irresistitle by Gabriel Oak as he
regarded the scene, generous though he fain would have
been. There was no necessity whatever for her looking
in the glass. She did not adjust her hat, or pat her
hair, or press a dimple into shape, or do one thing to
signify that any such intention had been her motive in
taking up the glass. She simply observed herself as a
fair product of Nature in the feminine kind, her thoughts
seeming to glide into far-off though likely dramas in
which men would play a part -- vistas of probable
triumphs -- the smiles being of a phase suggesting that
hearts were imagined as lost and won. Still, this was
but conjecture, and the whole series of actions was so
idly put forth as to make it rash to assert that intention
had any part in them at all.
The waggoner's steps were heard returning. She
put the glass in the paper, and the whole again into its
place.
When the waggon had passed on, Gabriel withdrew
from his point of espial, and descending into the road,
followed the vehicle to the turnpike-gate some way
beyond the bottom of the hill, where the object of his
contemplation now halted for the payment of toll. About
twenty steps still remained between him and the gate,
when he heard a dispute. lt was a difference con+
cerning twopence between the persons with the waggon
and the man at the toll-bar.
" Mis'ess's niece is upon the top of the things, and
she says that's enough that I've offered ye, you great
miser, and she won't pay any more.' These were the
waggoner's words.
"Very well ; then mis'ess's niece can't pass,' said the
turnpike-keeper, closing the gate.
Oak looked from one to the other of the disputants,
and fell into a reverie. There was something in the
tone of twopence remarkably insignificant. Threepence
had a definite value as money -- it was an appreciable
infringement on a day's wages, and, as such, a higgling
matter ; but twopence -- -- " Here,' he said, stepping
forward and handing twopence to the gatekeeper ; "let
the young woman pass.' He looked up at her then;
she heard his words, and looked down.
Gabriel's features adhered throughout their form so
exactly to the middle line between the beauty of St.
John and the ugliness of Judas Iscariot, as represented
in a window of the church he attended, that not a single
lineament could be selected and called worthy either of
distinction or notoriety. The redjacketed and dark+
haired maiden seemed to think so too, for she carelessly
glanced over him, and told her man to drive on. She
might have looked her thanks to Gabriel on a minute
scale, but she did not speak them; more probably she
felt none, for in gaining her a passage he had lost her
her point, and we know how women take a favour of
that kind.
The gatekeeper surveyed the retreating vehicle.
" That's a handsome maid ' he said to Oak
" But she has her faults,' said Gabriel.
" True, farmer. '
"And the greatest of them is -- well, what it is
always.'
" Beating people down ? ay, 'tis so.'
"O no.'
" What, then ? '
Gabriel, perhaps a little piqued by the comely
traveller's indifference, glanced back to where he had
witnessed her performance over the hedge, and said,
" Vanity.'
NIGHT -- THE FLOCK -- AN INIERIOR -- ANOTHER INTERIOR
IT was nearly midnight on the eve of St. Thomas"s, the
shortest day in the year. A desolating wind wandered
from the north over the hill whereon Oak had watched
the yellow waggon and its occupant in the sunshine of
a few days earlier.
Norcombe Hill -- not far from lonely Toller-Down
-- was one of the spots which suggest to a passer-by
that he is in the presence of a shape approaching the
indestructible as nearly as any to be found on earth.
It was a featureless convexity of chalk and soil -- an
ordinary specimen of those smoothly-outlined protuber+
ances of the globe which may remain undisturbed on
some great day of confusion, when far grander heights
and dizzy granite precipices topple down.
The hill was covered on its northern side by an
ancient and decaying plantation of beeches, whose
upper verge formed a line over the crest, fringing its
arched curve against the sky, like a mane. To-night
these trees sheltered the southern slope from the keenest
blasts, which smote the wood and floundered through
it with a sound as of grumbling, or gushed over its
crowning boughs in a weakened moan. The dry leaves
in the ditch simmered and boiled in the same breezes,
a tongue of air occasionally ferreting out a few, and
sending them spinning across the grass. A group or
two of the latest in date amongst the dead multitude
had remained till this very mid-winter time on the twigs
which bore them and in falling rattled against the trunks
with smart taps:
Betwenne this half-wooded, half naked hill, and the
vague still horizon that its summit indistinctly com+
manded, was a mysterious sheet of fathomless shade
-- the sounds from which suggested that what it con+
cealed bore some reduced resemblance to features here.
The thin grasses, more or less coating the hill, were
touched by the wind in breezes of differing powers, and
almost of differing natures -- one rubbing the blades
heavily, another raking them piercingly, another brushing
them like a soft broom. The instinctive act of human+
kind was to stand and listen, and learn how the trees
to each other in the regular antiphonies of a cathedral
choir; how hedges and other shapes to leeward them
caught the note, lowering it to the tenderest sob; and
how the hurrying gust then plunged into the south, to
be heard no more.
The sky was clear -- remarkably clear -- and the
twinkling of all the stars seemed to be but throbs of
one body, timed by a common pulse. The North Star
was directly in the wind's eye, and since evening the
Bear had swung round it outwardly to the east, till he
was now at a right angle with the meridian. A
difference of colour in the stars -- oftener read of than
seen in England-was really perceptible here. The
sovereign brilliancy of Sirius pierced the eye with a steely
glitter, the star called Capella was yellow, Aldebaran and
Betelgueux shone with a fiery red.
To persons standing alone on a hill during a clear
midnight such as this, the roll of the world eastward is
almost a palpable movement. The sensation may be
caused by the panoramic glide of the stars past earthly
objects, which is perceptible in a few minutes of still+
ness, or by the better outlook upon space that a hill
affords, or by the wind, or by the solitude ; but whatever
be its origin, the impression of riding along is vivid and
abiding. The poetry of motion is a phrase much in
use, and to enjoy the epic form of that gratification it
is necessary to stand on a hill at a small hour of the
night, and, having first expanded with a sense of differ+
ence from the mass of civilised mankind, who are
dreamwrapt and disregardful of all such proceedings at
this time, long and quietly watch your stately progress
through the stars. After such a nocturnal reconnoitre
it is hard to get back to earth, and to believe that the
consciousness of such majestic speeding is derived from
a tiny human frame.
Suddenly an unexpected series of sounds began to
be heard
in this place up against the sky. They had a
clearness which was to be found nowhere in the wind,
and a sequence which was to be found nowhere in
nature. They were the notes of Farmer Oak's flute.
The tune was not floating unhindered into the open
air : it seemed muffled in some way, and was altogether
too curtailed in power to spread high or wide. It came
from the direction of a small dark object under the
plantation hedge -- a shepherd's hut -- now presenting
an outline to which an uninitiated person might have
been puzzled to attach either meaning or use.
The image as a whole was that of a small Noah's
Ark on a small Ararat, allowing the traditionary outlines
and general form of the Ark which are followed by toy+
makers -- and by these means are established in men's
imaginations among their firmest, because earliest im+
pressions -- to pass as an approximate pattern. The
hut stood on little wheels, which raised its floor about a
foot from the ground. Such shepherds' huts are dragged
into the fields when the lambing season comes on, to
shelter the shepherd in his- enforced nightly attendance.
It was only latterly that people had begun to call
Gabriel !Farmer' Oak. During the twelvemonth pre+
ceding this time he had been enabled by sustained
efforts of industry and chronic good spirits to lease the
small shepp farm of which Norcombe Hill was a portion,
and stock it with two hundred sheep. Previously he
had been a bailiff for a short time, and earlier still a
shepherd only, having from his childhood assisted his
father in tending the floeks of large proprietors, till old
Gabriel sank to rest.
This venture, unaided and alone, into the paths of
farming as master and not as man, with an advance of
sheep not yet paid for, was a critical juncture with
Gabriel Oak, and he recognised his position clearly.
The first movement in his new progress was the lambing
of his ewes, and sheep having been his speciality from
his "youth, he wisely refrained from deputing -- the task
of tending them at this season to a hireling or a novice.
The wind continued to beat-about the corners of the
hut, but the flute-playing ceased. A rectangular space
of light
appeared in the side of the hut, and in the
opening the outline of Farmer Oak's figure. He carried
a lantern in his hand, and closing the door behind him,
came forward and busied himself about this nook of the
field for nearly twenty minutes, the lantern light appear+
ing and disappearing here and there, and brightening
him or darkening him as he stood before or behind it.
Oak's motions, though they had a quiet-energy, were
slow, and their deliberateness accorded well with his
occupation. Fitness being the basis of beauty, nobody
could-have denied that his steady swings and turns"
in and- about the flock had elements of grace, Yet,
although if occasion demanded he could do or think a
thing with as mercurial a dash as can the men of towns
who are more to the manner born, his special power,
morally, physically, and mentally, was static, owing
little or nothing to momentum as a rule.
A close examination of the ground hereabout, even
by the wan starlight only, revealed how a portion of
what would have been casually called a wild slope had
been appropriated by Farmer Oak for his great purpose
this winter. Detached hurdles thatched with straw
were stuck into the ground at various scattered points,
amid and under which the whitish forms of his meek
ewes moved and rustled. The ring of the sheep-bell,
which had been silent during his absence, recommenced,
in tones that had more mellowness than clearness, owing
to an increasing growth of surrounding wool. This
continued till Oak withdrew again from the flock. He
-- returned to the hut, bringing in his arms a new-born
lamb, consisting of four legs large enough for a full+
grown sheep, united by a seemingly inconsiderable mem+
brane about half the substance of the legs collectively,
which constituted the animal's entire body just at present.
The little speck of life he placed on a wisp of hay
before the small stove, where a can of milk was simmer+
ing. Oak extinguished the lantern by blowing into it
and then pinching the snuff, the cot being lighted
by a candle suspended by a twisted wire. A rather
hard couch, formed of a few corn sacks thrown carelessly
down, covered half the floor of this little
habitation, and
here the young man stretched himself along, loosened
his woollen cravat, and closed his eyes. In about the
time a person unaccustomed to bodily labour would have
decided upon which side to lie, Farmer Oak was asleep.
The inside of the hut, as it now presented itself, was
cosy and alluring, and the scarlet handful of fire in
addition to the candle, reflecting its own genial colour
upon whatever it could reach, flung associations of
enjoyment even over utensils and tools. In the corner
stood the sheep-crook, and along a shelf at one side
were ranged bottles and canisters of the simple prepara+
tions pertaining to ovine surgery and physic; spirits of
wine, turpentine, tar, magnesia, ginger, and castor-oil
being the chief. On a triangular shelf across the corner
stood bread, bacon, cheese, and a cup for ale or cider,
which was supplied from a flagon beneath. Beside the
provisions lay the flute whose notes had lately been
called forth by the lonely watcher to beguile a tedious
hour. The house was ventilated by two round holes,
like the lights of a ship's cabin, with wood slides+
The lamb, revived by the warmth' began to bleat'
instant meaning, as expected sounds will. Passing
from the profoundest sleep to the most alert wakefulness
with the same ease that had accompanied the reverse
operation, he looked at his watch, found that the hour+
hand had shifted again, put on his hat, took the lamb
in his arms, and carried it into the darkness. After
placing the little creature with its mother, he stood and
carefully examined the sky, to ascertain the time of
night from the altitudes of the stars.
The Dog-star and Aldebaran, pointing to the restless
Pleiades, were half-way up the Southern sky, and between
them hung Orion, which gorgeous constellation never
burnt more vividly than now, as it soared forth above
the rim of the landscape. Castor and Pollux will
the north-west; far away through the plantation Vega
and Cassiopeia's chair stood daintily poised on the
uppermost boughs.
"One o'clock,' said Gabriel.
Being a man not without a frequent consciousness
that there was some charm in this life he led, he stood
still after looking at the sky as a useful instrument, and
regarded it in an appreciative spirit, as a work of art
superlatively beautiful. For a moment he seemed
impressed with the speaking loneliness of the scene, or
rather with the complete abstraction from all its compass
of the sights and sounds of man. Human shapes,interferences,
troubles, and joys were all as if they were not, and there
seemed to be on the shaded hemisphere of the globe no sentient being
save himself; he could fancy them all gone round to the sunny side.
Occupied this, with eyes stretched afar, Oak gradually per+
ceived that what he had previously taken to be a star low
down behind the outskirts of the plantation was in reality no
such thing. It was an artificial light, almost close at hand.
To find themselves utterly alone at night where company
is desirable and expected makes some people fearful; but a
case more trying by far to the nerves is to discover some
mysterious companionship when intuition, sensation, memory,
analogy, testimony, probability, induction -- every kind of
evidence in the logician's list -- have united to persuade con+
sciousness that it is quite in isolation.
Farmer Oak went towards the plantation and pushed
through its lower boughs to the windy side. A dim mass under
the slope reminded him that a shed occupied a place here,
the site being a cutting into the slope of the hill, so that at
its back part the roof was almost level with the ground. In
front it was formed of board nailed to posts and covered with
tar as apreservative. Through crevices in the roof and side
spread streaks and spots of light, a combination of which made
the radiance that had attracted him. Oak stepped up behind,
where,leaning down upon the roof and putting his eye close
to a hole, he could see into the interior clearly.
The place contained two women and two cows. By the side
of the latter a steaming bran-mash stood in a bucket. One
of the women was past middle age. Her companion was ap+
parently young and graceful; he could form no decided opinion
upon her looks, her position being almost beneath his eye, so
that he saw her in a bird's-eye view, as Milton's Satan first saw
Paradise. She wore no bonnet or het, but had enveloped her+
self in a large cloak, which was carelessly flung over her head
as a covering.
"There, now we'll go home," said the elder of the two, resting
her knuckles upon her hips, and looking at their goings-on as
a whole. "I do hope Daisy will fetch round again now. I have
never been more frightened in my life, but I don't mind break+
ing my rest if she recovers."
The young woman, whose eyelids were apparently inclined
to fall together on the smallest provocation of silence,yawned
in sympathy.
"I wish we were rich enough to pay a man to do these
things," she said.
"As we are not, we must do them ourselves," said the other;
"for you must help me if you stay."
"Well, my hat is gone, however," continued the younger. "It
went over the hedge, I think. The idea of such a slight wind
catching it."
The cow standing erect was of the Devon breed, and was
encased in a tight warm hide of rich Indian red, as absolutely
uniform from eyes to tail as if the animal had been dipped in
a dye of that colour, her long back being mathematically level.
The other was spotted,grey and white. Beside her Oak now
noticed a little calf about a day old, looking idiotically at
the two women, which showed that it had not long been
accustomed to the phenomenon of eyesight, and often turn+
ing to the lantern, which it apparently mistook for the moon.
inherited instinct having as yet had little time for correction
by experience. Between the sheep and the cows Lucina had
been busy on Norcombe hill lately.
"I think we had better send for some oatmeal," said the
"Yes, aunt; and I'll ride over for it as soon as it is
light. '
" But there's no side-saddle.'
"I can ride on the other : trust me.'
Oak, upon hearing these remarks, became more
curious to observe her features, but this prospect being
denied him by the hooding efect of the cloak, and by his
aerial position, he felt himself drawing upon his fancy
for their details. In making even horizontal and clear
inspections we colour and mould according to the warts
within us whatever our eyes bring in. Had Gabriel
been able from the first to get a distinct view of her +
countenance, his estimate of it as very handsome or
slightly so would have been as his soul required a
divinity at the moment or was ready supplied with one.
Having for some time known the want of a satisfactory
form to fill an increasing void within him, his position
moreover affording the widest scope for his fancy, he
painted her a beauty.
By one of those whimsical coincidences in which
Nature, like a busy mother, seems to spare a moment
from her unremitting labours to turn and make her
children smile, the girl now dropped the cloak, and
forth tumbled ropes of black hair over a red jacket.
Oak knew her instantly as the heroine of the yellow
waggon, myrtles, and looking-glass : prosily, as the
woman who owed him twopence.
They placed the calf beside its mother again, took
up the lantern, and went out, the light sinking down
the hill till it was no more than a nebula. Gabriel
Oak returned to his flock.
A GIRL ON HORSEBACK -- CONVERSATION
THE sluggish day began to break. Even its position
terrestrially is one of the elements of a new interest,
and for no particular reason save that the incident of
the night had occurred there, Oak went again into
the plantation. Lingering and musing here, he heard
the steps of a horse at the foot of the hill, and soon
there appeared in view an auburn pony with a girl on
its back, ascending by the path leading past the cattle+
shed. She was the young woman of the night before.
Gabriel instantly thought of the hat she had mentioned
as having lost in the wind; possibly she had come to
look for it. He hastily scanned the ditch and after
walking about ten yards along it, found the hat among the
leaves. Gabriel took it in his hand and returned to his
hut. Here he ensconced himself, and peeped through
the loophole in the direction of the riders approach.
She came up and looked around -- then on the other
side of the hedge. Gabriel was about to advance and
restore the missing article when an unexpected per+
formance induced him to suspend the action for the
present. The path, after passing the cowshed, bisected
the plantation. It was not a bridle-path -- merely a
pedestrian's track, and the boughs spread horizontally
at a height not greater than seven feet above the ground,
which made it impossible to ride erect beneath them.
The girl, who wore no riding-habit, looked around for
a moment, as if to assure herself that all humanity was
out of view, then dexterously dropped backwards flat
upon the pony's back, her head over its tail, her feet
against its shoulders, and her eyes to the sky. The
rapidity of her glide into this position was that of a
kingfisher -- its noiselessness that of a hawk. Gabriel's
eyes had scarcely been able to follow her. The tall lank
pony seemed used to such doings, and ambled
along unconcerned. Thus she passed under the level boughs.
The performer seemed quite at home anywhere
between a horse's head and its tail, and the necessity
for this abnormal attitude having ceased with the
passage of the plantation, she began to adopt another,
even more obviously convenient than the first. She had
no side-saddle, and it was very apparent that a firm
seat upon the smooth leather beneath her was un+
attainable sideways. Springing to her accustomed
perpendicular like a bowed sapling, and satisfying her,
self that nobody was in sight, she seated herself in the
manner demanded by the saddle, though hardly expected
of the woman, and trotted off in the direction of Tewnell
Mill.
Oak was amused, perhaps a little astonished, and
hanging up the hat in his hut, went again among his
ewes. An hour passed, the girl returned, properly
seated now, with a bag of bran in front of her. On
nearing the cattle-shed she was met by a boy bringing
a milking-pail, who held the reins of the pony whilst
she slid off. The boy led away the horse, leaving the
pail with the young woman.
Soon soft spirts alternating with loud spirts came
in regular succession from within the shed, the obvious
sounds of a person milking a cow. Gabriel took the
lost hat in his hand, and waited beside the path she
would follow in leaving the hill.
She came, the pail in one hand, hanging against her
knee. The left arm was extended as a balance, enough
of it being shown bare to make Oak wish that the event
ha happened in the summer, when the whole would
have been revealed. There was a bright air and manner
about her now, by which she seemed to imply that the
desirability of her existence could not be questioned;
and this rather saucy assumption failed in being offensive,
because a beholder felt it to be, upon the whole, true.
Like exceptional emphasis in the tone of a genius, that
which would have made mediocrity ridiculous was an
addition to recognised power. It was with some
surprise that she saw Gabriel's face rising like the
moon behind the hedge.
The adjustment of the farmer's hazy conceptions of
her
charms to the portrait of herself she now presented
him with was less a diminuition than a difference. The
starting-point selected by the judgment was. her height
She seemed tall, but the pail was a small one, and the
hedge diminutive; hence, making allowance for error
by comparison with these, she could have been not
above the height to be chosen by women as best. All
features of consequence were severe and regular. It
may have been observed by persons who go about the
shires with eyes for beauty, that in Englishwoman a
classically-formed face is seldom found to be united
with a figure of the same pattern, the highly-finished
features being generally too large for the remainder of
the frame ; that a graceful and proportionate figure of
eight heads usually goes off into random facial curves.
Without throwing a Nymphean tissue over a milkmaid,
let it be said that here criticism checked itself as out
of place, and looked at her proportions with a long
consciousness of pleasure. From the contours of her
figure in its upper part, she must have had a beautiful
neek and shoulders ; but since her infancy nobody had
ever seen them. Had she been put into a low dress
she would have run and thrust her head into a bush.
Yet she was not a shy girl by any means; it was merely
her instinct to draw the line dividing the seen from the
unseen higher than they do it in towns.
That the girl's thoughts hovered about her face
and form as soon as she caught Oak's eyes conning the
same page was natural, and almost certain. The self+
consciousness shown would have been vanity if a little
more pronounced, dignity if a little less. Rays of male
vision seem to have a tickling effect upon virgin faces
in rural districts ; she brushed hers with her hand, as if
Gabriel had been irritating its pink surface by actual
touch, and the free air of her previous movements was
reduced at the same time to a chastened phase of
itself. Yet it was the man who blushed, the maid not
at all.
" I found a hat,' said Oak.
" It is mine,' said she, and, from a sense of proportion,
kept down to a small smile an inclination to laugh dis+
tinctly : "it flew away last night.'
" One o'clock this morning ? '
" Well -- it was.' She was surprised. " How did you
know ? ' she said.
" I was here.'
" You are Farmer Oak, are you not ? '
" That or thereabouts. I'm lately come to this place.'
" A large farm ? ' she inquired, casting her eyes round,
and swinging back her hair, which was black in the
shaded hollows of its mass; but it being now an hour
past sunrise, the rays touched its prominent curves with
a colour of their own.
" No ; not large. About a hundred.' (In speaking
of farms the word "acres ' is omitted by the natives, by
analogy to such old expressions as "a stag of ten.')
' "I wanted my hat this morning,' she went on.
had to ride to Tewnell Mill.'
"Yes you had.'
"How do you know?'
"I saw you!
"Where?' she inquired, a misgiving bringing every
muscle of her lineaments and frame to a standstill.
"Here-going through the plantation, and all down
the hill,' said Farmer Oak, with an aspect excessively
knowing with regard to some matter in his mind, as he
gazed at a remote point in the direction named, and then
turned back to meet his colloquist's eyes.
A perception caused him to withdraw his own eyes
from hers as suddenly as if he had been caught in a
theft. Recollection of the strange antics she had
indulged in when passing through the trees, was suc+
ceeded in the girl by a nettled palpitation, and that' by
a hot face. It was a time to see a woman redden who
was not given to reddening s a rule; not a point in
the milkmaid but was of the deepest rose-colour. From
the Maiden's Blush, through all varieties of the Provence
down to the Crimson Tuscany, the countenance of Oak's
acquaintance quickly graduated ; whereupon he, in con+
siderateness, turned away his head.
The sympathetic man still looked the other way, and
wondered when she would recover coolness sufficient to
justify him in facing her again. He heard what seemed
to be the flitting of a
dead leaf upon the breeze, and
looked. She had gone away.
With an air between that of Tragedy and Comedy !
Gabriel returned to his work.
Five mornings and evenings passed. The young
woman came regularly to milk the healthy cow or to
attend to the sick one, but never allowed her vision to
stray in the direction of Oak's person. His want of
tact had deeply offended her -- not by seeing what he
could not help, but by letting her know that he had
seen it. For, as without law there is no sin, without
eyes there is no indecorum; and she appeared to feel
that Gabriel's espial had made her an indecorous woman
without her own connivance. It was food for great regret
with him; it was also a contretemps which touched into
life a latent heat he had experienced in that direction.
The acquaintanceship might, however, have ended in
a slow forgetting, but for an incident which occurred at
the end of the same week. One afternoon it began to
freeze, and the frost increased with evening, which drew
on like a stealthy tightening of bonds. It was a time
when in cottages the breath of the sleepers freezes to
the sheets; when round the drawing-room fire of a
thick-walled mansion the sitters' backs are cold, even
whilst their faces are all aglow. Many a small bird went
to bed supperless that night among the bare boughs.
As the milking-hour drew near, Oak kept his usual
watch upon the cowshed. At last he felt cold, and
shaking an extra quantity of bedding round the yeaning
ewes he entered the hut and heaped more fuel upon
the stove. The wind came in at the bottom of the door,
and to prevent it Oak laid a sack there and wheeled the
cot round a little more to the south. Then the wind
spouted in at a ventilating hole -- of which there was one
on each side of the hut.
Gabriel had always known that when the fire was
lighted and the door closed one of these must be kept
open -- that chosen being always on the side away from
the wind. Closing the slide to windward, he turned to
open the other; on second -- -thoughts the farmer con+
sidered that he would first sit down leaving both
closed for a minute or two, till the temperature of the
hut was a little raised. He sat down.
His head began to ache in an unwonted manner, and,
fancying himself weary by reason of the broken rests of
the preceding nights, Oak decided to get up, open the
slide, and then allow himself to fall asleep. He fell
asleep, however, without having performed the necessary
preliminary.
How long he remained unconseious Gabriel never
knew. During the first stages of his return to percep+
tion peculiar deeds seemed to be in course of enactment.
His dog was howling, his head was aching fearfully --
somebody was pulling him about, hands were loosening
his neckerchief.
On opening his eyes he found that evening had sunk
to dusk in a strange manner of unexpectedness. The
young girl with the remarkably pleasant lips and white
teeth was beside him. More than this -- astonishingly
more -- his head was upon her lap, his face and neck
were disagreeably wet, and her fingers were unbuttoning
his collar.
"Whatever is the matter?' said Oak, vacantly.
She seemed to experience mirth, but of too insignifi+
cant a kind to start enjoyment.
"Nothing now', she answered, "since you are not
dead It is a wonder you were not,suffocated in this
hut of yours.'
"Ah, the hut ! ' murmured Gabriel. "I gave ten
pounds for that hut. But I'll sell it, and sit under
thatched hurdles as they did in old times, curl up
to sleep in a lock of straw! It played me nearly the
same trick the other day .! ' Gabriel, by way of emphasis,
brought down his fist upon the floor.
"It was not exactly the fault of the hut,' she ob+
served in a tone which showed her to be that novelty
among women -- one who finished a thought before
beginning the sentence which was to convey it. " You
should I think, have considered, and not have been so
foolish as to leave the slides closed.'
"Yes I suppose I should,' said Oak, absently. He
was endeavouring to catch and appreciate the sensation
of being thus with her, his head upon her dress, before
the event passed on into the heap of bygone things.
He wished she knew his impressions ; but he would as
soon have thought of carrying an odour in a net as of
attempting to convey the intangibilities
of his feeling
in the coarse meshes of language. So he remained
silent.
She made him sit up, and then Oak began wiping
his face and shaking himself like a Samson. "How
can I thank 'ee ? ' he said at last, gratefully, some of the
natural rusty red having returned to his face.
" Oh, never mind that,' said the girl, smiling, and
allowing her smile to hold good for Gabriel's next
remark, whatever that might prove to be.
"How did you find me?"
"I heard your dog howling and scratching at the
door of the hut when I came to the milking (it was so
lucky, Daisy's milking is almost over for the season, and
I shall not come here after this week or the next). The
dog saw me, and jumped over to me, and laid hold of
my skirt. I came across and looked round the hut the
very first thing to see if the slides were closed. My
uncle has a hut like this one, and I have heard him tell
his shepherd not to go to sleep without leaving a slide
open. I opened the door, and there you were like
dead. I threw the milk over you, as there was no
water, forgetting it was warm, and no use.'
"I wonder if I should have died ? ' Gabriel said, in a
low voice, which was rather meant to travel back to
himself than to her.
"O no," the girl replied. She seemed to prefer a
less tragic probability ; to have saved a man from death
'involved talk that should harmonise with the dignity of
such a deed -- and she shunned it.
"I believe you saved my life, Miss -- -- I don!t know
your name. I know your aunt's, but not yours.'
" I would just as soon not tell it -- rather not. There
is no reason either why I should, as you probably will
never have much to do with me.'
" Still, I should like to know.'
" You can inquire at my aunt's -- she will tell you.'
'My name is Gabriel Oak.'
"And mine isn't. You seem fond of yours in
speaking it so decisively, Gabriel Oak.'
" You see, it is the only one I shall ever have, and I
must make the most of it.'
" I always think mine sounds odd and disagreeable.'
"I should think you might soon get a new one.'
"Mercy ! -- how many opinions you keep about you
concerning other people, Gabriel Oak.
"Well Miss-excuse the words-I thought you
would like them But I can't match you I know in
napping out my mind upon my tongue. I never was
very clever in my inside. But I thank you. Come
give me your hand!'
She hesitated, somewhat disconcerted at Oak's old+
fashioned earnest conclusion. to a dialogue lightly
carried on."Very well,' she said, and gave him her
hand, compressing her lips to a demure impassivity.
He held it but an instant, and in his fear of being too
demonstrative, swerved to the opposite extreme, touching
her fingers with the lightness of a small-hearted person.
" I am sorry,' he said, the instant after.
" What for?'
"You may have it again if you like; there it is.'
She gave him her hand again.
Oak held it longer this time -- indeed, curiously long.
"How soft it is -- being winter time, too -- not chapped
or rough or anything!' he said.
"There -- that's long enough,' said she, though with+
out pulling it away "But I suppose you are thinking
you would like to kiss it? You may if you want to.'
"I wasn't thinking of any such thing,' said Gabriel,
simply ; "but I will'
"That you won't!' She snatched back her hand.
Gabriel felt himself guilty of another want of tact.
"Now find out my name,' she said, teasingly; and
withdrew.
GABRIEL'S RESOLVE -- THE VISIT -- THE MISTAKE
THE only superiority in women that is tolerable to the
rival sex is, as a rule, that of the unconscious kind ; but
a superiority which recognizes itself may sometimes
please by suggesting possibilities of capture to the
subordinated man.
This well-favoured and comely girl soon made appre+
ciable inroads upon the emotional constitution of young
Farmer Oak.
Love, being an extremely exacting usurer (a sense of
exorbitant profit, spiritually, by an exchange of hearts,
being at the bottom of pure passions, as that of exorbi+
tant profit, bodily or materially, is at the bottom of
those of lower atmosphere), every morning Oak's feelings
were as sensitive as the money-market in calculations
upon his chances. His dog waited for his meals in a
way so like that in which Oak waited for the girl's
presence, that the farmer was quite struck with the
resemblance, felt it lowering, and would not look at the
dog. However, he continued to watch through the
hedge for her regular coming, and thus his sentiments
towards her were ideepened without any corresponding
effect being produced upon herself. Oak had nothing
finished and ready to say as yet, and not being able
to frame love phrases which end where they begin ;
passionate tales -- +
-- -Full of sound and fury
-- -signifting nothing -- +
he said no word at all.
By making inquiries he found that the girl's name
was Bathsheba Everdene, and that the cow would go
dry in about seven days. He dreaded the eight day.
At last the eighth day came. The cow had ceased
to give milk for that year, and Bathsheba Everdene
came up the hill no more. Gabriel had reached a
pitch of existence he never
could have anticipated a
short time before. He liked saying 'Bathsheba' as a
private enjoyment instead of whistling; turned over his
taste to black hair, though he had sworn by brown ever
since he was a boy, isolated himself till the space he
filled in a possible strength in an actual weakness. Marriage
transforms a distraction into a support, the power of
which should be, and happily often is, in direct pro+
portion to the degree of imbecility it supplants. Oak
began now to see light in this direction, and said to
himself, "I'll make her my wife, or upon my soul I shall
be good for nothing .! '
All this while he was perplexing himself about an
errand on which he might consistently visit the cottage
of Bathsheba's aunt.
He found his opportunity in the death of a ewe,
mother of a living lamb. On a day which had a
summer face and a winter constitution-a fine January
morning, when there was just enough blue sky visible to
make cheerfully-disposed people wish for more, and an
occasional gleam of silvery sunshine, Oak put the lamb
into a respectable Sunday basket, and stalked across the
fields to the house of Mrs. Hurst, the aunt -- George,
the dog walking behind, with a countenance of great
concern at the serious turn pastoral affairs seemed to be
taking.
Gabriel had watched the blue wood-smoke curling
from the chimney with strange meditation. At evening
he had fancifully traced it down the chimney to the
spot of its origin -- seen the hearth and Bathsheba
beside it -- beside it in her out-door dress; for the
clothes she had worn on the hill were by association
equally with her person included in the compass of his
affection; they seemed at this early time of his love a
necessary ingredient of the sweet mixture called Bath+
sheba Everdene.
He had made a toilet of a nicely-adjusted kind -- of a
nature between the carefully neat and the carelessly
ornate -- of a degree between fine-market-day and wet+
Sunday selection. He thoroughly cleaned his silver
watch-chain with whiting, put new lacing straps to his
boots, looked to the brass eyelet-holes,
went to the
inmost heart of the plantation for a new walking-stick,
and trimmed it vigorously on his way back; took a new
handkerchief from the bottom of his clothes-box, put
on the light waistcoat patterned all over with sprigs
of an elegant flower uniting the beauties of both rose
and lily without the defects of either, and used all the
hair-oil he possessed upon his usually dry, sandy, and
inextricably curly hair, till he had deepened it to a
splendidly novel colour, between that of guano and
Roman cement, making it stick to his head like mace
round a nutmeg, or wet seaweed round a boulder after
the ebb.
Nothing disturbed the stillness of the cottage save
the chatter of a knot of sparrows on the eaves; one
might fancy scandal and rumour to be no less the
staple topic of these little coteries on roofs than of
those under them. It seemed that the omen was an
unpropitious one, for, as the rather untoward commence+
ment of Oak's overtures, just as he arrived by the garden
gate, he saw a cat inside, going into various arched shapes
and fiendish convulsions at the sight of his dog George.
The dog took no notice , for he had arrived at an age
at which all superfluous barking was cynically avoided
as a waste of breath -- -in fact he never barked even
at the sheep except to order, when it was done with
an absolutely neutral countenance, as a sort of Com+
mination-service, which, though offensive, had to be
gone through once now and then to frighten the flock
for their own good.
A voice came from behind some laurel-bushes into
which the cat had run:
"Poor dear! Did a nasty brute of a dog want to
kill it; -- did he poor dear !'
"I beg your pardon,' said Oak to the voice, 'but
George was walking on behind me with a temper as
mild as milk.'
Almost before he had ceased speaking, Oak was
seized with a misgiving as to whose ear was the recipient
of his answer. Nobody appeared, and he heard the
person retreat among the bushes.
Gabriel meditated, and so deeply that he brought
small furrows into his forehead by sheer force of
reverie. Where the
issue of an interview is as likely
to be a vast change for the worse as for the better,
any initial difference from expectation causes nipping
sensations of failure. Oak went up to the door a little
abashed : his mental rehearsal and the reality had had
no common grounds of opening.
Bathsheba's aunt was indoors. " Will you tell Miss
Everdene that somebody would be glad to speak to
her ?'said Mr. Oak. (Calling one's self merely Some+
body, without giving a name, is not to be taken as
an example of the ill-breeding of the rural world: it
springs from a refined modesty, of which townspeople,
with their cards and announcements, have no notion
whatever.)
Bathsheba was out. The voice had evidently been
hers.
" Will you come in, Mr. Oak ? '
"Oh, thank 'ee, said Gabriel, following her to the
fireplace. "I've brought a lamb for Miss Everdene.
I thought she might like one to rear; girls do.'
" She might,' said Mrs. Hurst, musingly ; " though
she's only a visitor here. If you will wait a minute,
Bathsheba will be in.'
" Yes, I will wait,' said Gabriel, sitting down. " The
lamb isn't really the business I came about, Mrs. Hurst.
In short, I was going to ask her if she'd like to be
married.'
"And were you indeed ?'
" Yes. Because if she would, I should be very glad
to marry her. D'ye know if she's got any other young
man hanging about her at all ?'
"Let me think," said Mrs. Hurst, poking the fire
superfluously.... " Yes -- bless you, ever so many young
men. You see, Farmer Oak, she's so good-looking, and
an excellent scholar besides -- she was going to be a
governess once, you know, only she was too wild. Not
that her young men ever come here -- but, Lord, in the
nature of women, she must have a dozen ! '
" That's unfortunate,' said Farmer Oak, contemplating
a crack in the stone floor with sorrow. "I'm only an
every-day sort of man, and my only chance was in being
the first comer... , Well, there's no use in my waiting,
for that was all I came about: so I'll take myself off
home-along, Mrs. Hurst.'
When Gabriel had gone about two hundred yards
along the
down, he heard a "hoi-hoi .! " uttered behind
him, in a piping note of more treble quality than that
in which the exclamation usually embodies itself when
shouted across a field. He looked round, and saw a girl
racing after him, waving a white handkerchief.
Oak stood still -- and the runner drew nearer. It was
Bathsheba Everdene. Gabriel's colour deepened: hers
was already deep, not, as it appeared, from emotion,
but from running.
"Farmer Oak -- I -- ' she said, pausing for want of
breath pulling up in front of him with a slanted face
and putting her hand to her side.
"I have just called to see you ' said Gabriel, pending
her further speech.
"Yes-I know that,! she said panting like a robin,
her face red and moist from her exertions, like a peony
petal before the sun dries off the dew. "I didn't know
you had come to ask to have me, or I should have come
in from the garden instantly. I ran after you to say --
that my aunt made a mistake in sending you away from
courting me -- -- -- '
Gabriel expanded."I'm sorry to have made you
run so fast, my dear,' he said, with a grateful sense of
favours to come. "Wait a bit till you've found your
breath.'
" -- It was quite a mistake-aunt's telling you I had
a young man "already,'- Bathsheba went on. " I haven't
a sweetheart at all -- and I never had one, and I thought
that, as times go with women, it was such a pity to send
you away thinking that I had several.'
"Really and truly I am glad to hear that.!' said .=
Farmer Oak, smiling one of his long special smiles, and
blushing with gladness. He held out his hand to take
hers, which, when she had eased her side by pressing
it there, was prettily extended upon her bosom to still
her loud-beating heart. Directly he seized it she put
it behind her, so that it slipped through his fingers like
an eel. "
"I have a nice snug little farm,' said Gabriel, with
half a degree less assurance than when he had seized
her hand.
"Yes ; you have.'
"A man has advanced me money to begin with, but
still, it
will soon be paid off and though I am only an
every-day sort of man, I have got on a little since I was
a boy.' Gabriel uttered "a little' in a tone to-show
her that it was the complacent form of "a great deal.'
He continued : " When we be married, I am quite sure
I can work twice as hard as I do now.'
He went forward and stretched out his arm again.
Bathsheba had overtaken him at a point beside which
stood a low stunted holly bush, now laden with red
berries. Seeing his advance take the form of an attitude
threatening a possible enclosure, if not compression, of
her person, she edged off round the bush.
" Why, Farmer Oak,' she said, over the top, looking
at him with rounded eyes, "I never said I was going to
marry you.'
" Well -- that is a tale .! ' said Oak, with dismay. " To
run after anybody like this, and then say you don"t
want him ! '
"What I meant to tell you was only this,' she said
eagerly, and yet half conscious of the absurdity of the
position she had made for herself -- "that nobody has
got me yet as a sweetheart, instead of my having a
dozen, as my aunt said; I hate to be thought men's
property in that way, though possibly I shall be had
some day. Why, if I'd wanted you I shouldn't have
run after you like this ; 'twould have'been the forwardest
thing ! But there was no harm in 'hurrying to correct
a piece of false news that had been told you.'
"Oh, no -- no harm at all." But there is such a thing
as being too generous in expressing a judgment impuls+
ively, and Oak added with a more appreciative sense
of all the circumstances -- ' Well, I am not quite certain
it was no harm.'
"Indeed, I hadn't time to think before starting
whether I wanted to marry or not, for you'd have been
gone over the hill.'
" Come,' said Gabriel, freshening again ; "think a
minute or two. I'll wait a while, Miss Everdene. Will
you marry me? Do, Bathsheba. I love you far more
than common!'
"I'll try to think,' she observed, rather more timor+
ously ; "if I can think out of doors; my mind spreads
away so.'
"But you can give a guess.'
"Then give me time.' Bathsheba looked thought+
fully into the distance, away from the direction in which
Gabriel stood.
"I can make you happy,' said he to the back of her
head, across the bush. "You shallo have as piano in a
year or two -- -farmers' wives are getting to have pianos
now -- and I'll practise up the flute right well to play
with you in the evenings.'
" Yes ; I should like that.'
"And have one of those little ten-pound" gigs for
market -- and nice flowers, and birds -- cocks and hens
I mean, because they be useful,' continued Gabriel,
feeling balanced between poetry and practicality.
"I should like it very much.'
"And a frame for cucumbers -- like a gentlman and
lady.'
"Yes.'
"And when the wedding was over, we'd have it put
in the newspaper list of marriages.'
" Dearly I should like that ! '
"And the babies in the births -- every man jack of
'em! And at home by the fire, whenever you look up,
there I shall be -- and whenever I look up' there will
be you.'
"Wait wait and don't be improper .!'
Her countenance fell, and she was silent awhile.
He regarded the red berries between them over and
over again, to such an extent, that holly seemed in
his after life to be a cypher signifying a proposal of
marriage. Bathsheba decisively turned to him.
"No;' 'tis no use,' she said. 'I don't want to marry
you. '
' Try.'
"I have tried hard all the time I've been thinking;
for a marriage would be very nice in one sense.
People would talk about me, and think I had won my
battle, and I should feel triumphant, and' all that,
But a husband -- -- ' - +
" Well .! '
" Why, he'd always be there, as you say; whenever
I looked up, there he'd be.'
" Of course he would -- I, that is.'
" Well, what I mean is that I shouldn't mind being
a bride at a wedding, if I could be one without having
a husband. But since a woman can't show off in that
way by herself, I shan't marry -- at least yet.'
' That's a terrible wooden story.'
At this criticism of her statement Bathsheba made
an addition to her dignity by a slight sweep away
from him.
"Upon my heart and soul, I don't know what a
maid can say stupider than that,' said Oak. "But
dearest,' he continued in a palliative voice, "don't be
like it !.' Oak sighed a deep honest sigh -- none the
less so in that, being like the sigh of a pine plantation,
it was rather noticeable as a disturbance of the atmo+
sphere. " Why won't you have me ? ' he appealed,
creeping round the holly to reach her side.
" I cannot,' she said, retreating.
"But why ?' he persisted, standing still at last in
despair of ever reaching her, and facing over the
bush.
' Because I don't love you.'
" Yes, but -- -- '
She contracted a yawn to an inoffensive smallness,
so that it was hardly ill-mannered at all. "I don't love
you,' she said.'
"But I love you -- and, as for myself, I am content
to be liked.'
" O Mr. Oak -- that's very fine ! You'd get to
despise me.'
"Never,' said Mr Oak, so earnestly that he seemed
to be coming, by the forceof his words, straight
through the bush and into her arms. "I shall do one
thing in this life -- one thing certain -- that is, love you,
and long for you, and keep wanting you till I die.' His
voice had a genuine pathos now, and his large brown
hands perceptibly trembled.
"It seems dreadfully wrong not to have you when
you feel so much!' she said with a little distress, and
looking hopeleely around for some means of escape
from her moral dilemma. " H(ow I wish I hadn't run
after you!' However she seemed to have a short cut
for getting back to cheerfulness, and set her face to
signify archness. "It wouldn't do, Mr Oak. I want
somebody to tame me; I am too independent ; and
you would never be able to, I know.'
Oak cast his eyes down the field in a way implying
that it was useless to attempt argument.
" Mr. Oak,' she said, with luminous distinctness and
common sense, " you are better off than I. I have
hardly a penny in the world -- I am staying with my
aunt for my bare sustenance. I am better educated
than you -- and I don't love you a bit: that's my side
of the case. Now yours: you are a farmer just begin+
ing; and you ought in common prudence, if you marry
at all (which you should certainly not think of doing
at present) to marry a woman with money, who would
admiration.
"That's the very thing I had been thinking myself !'
he naively said.
Farmer Oak had one-and-a-half Christian character
istics too many to succeed with Bathsheba : his humility,
and a superfluous moiety of honesty. Bathsheba was
decidedly disconcerted,
"Well, then, why did you come and disturb me?'
she said, almost angrily, if not quite, an enlarging red
spot rising in each cheek.
" I can't do what I think would be -- would be -- -- '
" Right ? '
" No : wise.'
" You have made an admission now, Mr. Oak,' she
exclaimed, with even more hauteur, and rocking her
head disdainfully. 'After that, do you think I could
marry you? Not if I know it.'
He broke in passionately ! "But don't mistake me
like that! Because I am open enough to own what
every man in my shoes would have thought of, you
make your colours come up your face, and get crabbed
with me. That about your not being good enough for
me is nonsense. You speak like a lady -- all the parish
notice it, and your uncle at Weatherbury is, I have
heerd, a large farmer -- much larger than ever I shall
be. May I call in the evening, or will you walk along
with me o' Sundays? I don't want you to make-up
your mind at once, if you'd rather not.'
" No -- no -- I cannot. Don't press me any more --
don't. I don't love you -- so 'twould be ridiculous,'
she said, with a laugh.
No man likes to see his emotions the sport of a
merry-go-round of skittishness. " Very well,' said Oak,
firmly, with the bearing of one who was going to give '
his days and nights to Ecclesiastes for ever. "Then
I'll ask you no more.'
DEPARTURE OF BATHSHEBA -- A PASTORAL TRAGEDY
THE news which one day reached Gabriel, that Bath+
sheba Everdene had left the neighbourhood, had an
influence upon him which might have surprised any
who never suspected that the more emphatic the renun+
ciation the less absolute its character.
It may have been observed that there is no regula
path for getting out of love as there is for getting in.
Some people look upon marriage as a short cut that way,
but it has been known to fail. Separation, which was
the means that chance offered to Gabriel Oak by
Bathsheba's disappearance though effectual with people
of certain humours is apt to idealise the removcd object
with others -- notably those whose affection, placid and
regular as it may be flows deep and long. Oak belonged
to the even-tempered order of humanity, and felt the
secret fusion of himself in Bathsheba to be burning with
a finer flame now that she was gone -- that was all.
His incipient friendship with her aunt-had been
nipped by the failure of his suit, and all that Oak learnt
of Bathsheba's movements was done indirectly. It ap+
peared that she had gone to a place called Weatherbury,
more than twenty miles off, but in what capacity --
whether as a visitor, or permanently, he could not
discover.
Gabriel had two dogs. George, the elder, exhibited
an ebony-tipped nose, surrounded by a narrow margin
of pink flesh, and a coat marked in random splotches
approximating in colour to white and slaty grey ; but the
grey, after years of sun and rain, had been scorched and
washed out of the more prominent locks, leaving them
of a reddish-brown, as if the blue component of the grey
had faded, like the indigo from the same kind of colour in
Turner's pictures. In substance it had originally been
hair, but long contact with sheep seemed
to be turning
it by degrees into wool of a poor quality and staple.
This dog had originally belonged to a shepherd of
inferior morals and dreadful temper, and the result was
that George knew the exact degrees of condemnation
signified by cursing and swearing of all descriptions
better than the wickedest old man in the neighbourhood.
Long experience had so precisely taught the animal the
difference between such exclamations as 'Come in .! '
and 'D -- -- ye, come in !.' that he knew to a hair's
breadth the rate of trotting back from the ewes' tails
that each call involved, if a staggerer with the sheep
crook was to be escaped. Though old, he was clever
and trustworthy still.
The young dog, George's son, might possibly have
been the image of his mother, for there was not much
resemblance between him and George. He was learn+
ing the sheep-keeping business, so as to follow on at
the flock when the other should die, but had got no
further than the rudiments as yet -- still finding an
insuperable difculty in distinguishing between doing a
thing well enough and doing it too well. So earnest
and yet so wrong-headed was this young dog (he had no,
name in particular, and answered with perfect readiness
to any pleasant interjection), that if sent behind the
flock to help them on, he did it so thoroughly that he
would have chased them across the whole county with
the greatest pleasure if not called off or reminded when
to step by the example of old George.
Thus much for the dogs. On the further side of
Norcombe Hill was a chalk-pit, from which chalk had
been drawn for generations, and spread over adjacent
farms. Two hcdges converged upon it in the form of
a V, but without quite meeting. The narrow opening
left, which was immediately over the brow of the pit,
was protected by a rough railing.
One night, when Farmer Oak had returned to, his
house, believing there would be no further necessity for
his attendance on the down, he called as usual to the
dogs, previously to shutting them up in the outhouse till
next morning. Only one responded -- old George ; the
other-could not be found, either in the house, lane, or
garden. - Gabriel then remembered
that he had left the
two dogs on the hill eating a dead lamb (a kind of meat
he usually kept from them, except when other food-ran
finished his meal, he went indoors to the luxury of a bed,
which latterly he had only enjoyed on Sundays.
It was a still, moist night. Just before dawn he was
assisted in waking by the abnormal reverberation of
familiar music. To the shepherd, the note of the sheep'
chronic sound that only makes itself noticed by ceasing
ever distant, that all is well in the fold. In the solemn
This exceptional ringing may be caused in two ways -- +
by the rapid feeding of the sheep bearing the bell, as
when the flock breaks into new pasture, which gives it
an intermittent rapidity, or by the sheep starting off in
a run, when the sound has a regular palpitation. The
experieced ear of Oak knew the sound he now' heard
to be caused by the running of the flock with great
velocity.
He jumped out of bed, dressed, tore down the lane
through a foggy dawn, and ascended the hill. The
forward ewes were kept apart from those among which
the fall of lambs would be later, there being two hundred
of the latter class in Gabriel's flock. These two hundred
seemed to have absolutely vanished from the hill. There
were the fifty with their lambs, enclosed at the other end
as he had left them, but the rest, forming the bulk of
the flock, were nowhere. Gabriel called at the top of
his voice the shepherd's call.
" Ovey, ovey, ovey .! '
Not a single bleat. He went to the hedge -- a gap
had been broken through it, and in the gap were the
footprints of the sheep. Rather surprised to find
them break fence at this season, yet putting it down
instantly to their great fondness for ivy in winter-time,
of which a great deal grew in the plantation, he followed
through the hedge. They were not in the plantation.
He called again : the valleys and farthest hills
resounded
as when the sailors invoked the lost Hylas on the Mysian
shore ; but no sheep. He passed through the trees and
along the ridge of the hill. On the extreme summit,
where the ends of the two converging hedges of which
we have spoken were stopped short by meeting the brow
of the chalk-pit, he saw the younger dog standing against
the sky -- dark and motionless as Napoleon at St.
Helena.
A horrible conviction darted through Oak. With
a sensation of bodily faintness he advanced : at one
point the rails were broken through, and there he saw
the footprints of his ewes. The dog came up, licked
his hand, and made signs implying that he expected
some great reward for signal services rendered. Oak
looked over the precipice. The ewes lay dead and dying
at its foot -- a heap of two hundred mangled careases,
representing in their condition just now at least two
hundred more.
Oak was an intensely humane man: indeed, his
humanity often tore in pieces any politic intentions of
his which bordered on strategy, and carried him on as
by gravitation. A shadow in his life had always been
that his flock ended in mutton -- that a day came and
found every shepherd an arrant traitor to his defenceless
sheep. His first feeling now was one of pity for the
untimely fate of these gentle ewes and their unborn
lambs.
It was a second to remember another phase of the
matter. The sheep were not insured. All the savings
of a frugal life had been dispersed at a blow ; his hopes
of being an independent farmer were laid low -- possibly
for ever. Gabriel's energies, patience, and industry had
been so severely taxed during the years of his life between
eighteen and eight-and-twenty, to reach his present stage
of progress' that no more seemed to be left in him. He
hands.
Stupors, however, do not last for ever, and Farmer
Oak recovered from his. It was as remarkable as it was
characteristic that the one sentence he uttered was in
thankfulness : --
'Thank God I am not married : what would she have
done in the poverty now coming upon me ! '
Oak raised his head, and wondering what he could
do listlessly surveyed the scene. By the outer margin
of the Pit was an oval pond, and over it hung the
attenuated skeleton of a chrome-yellow moon which
had only a few days to last -- the morning star dogging
her on the left hand. The pool glittered like a dead
man's eye, and as the world awoke a breeze blew,
shaking and elongating the reflection of the moon
without breaking it, and turning the image of the star
to a phosphoric streak upon the water. All this Oak
saw and remembered.
As far as could be learnt it appeared that the poor
young dog, still under the impression that since he was
kept for running after sheep, the more he ran after
them the better, had at the end of his meal off the
dead lamb, which may have given him additional energy
and spirits, collected all the ewes into a corner, driven
the timid creatures through the hedge, across the upper
field, and by main force of worrying had given them
momentum enough to break down a portion of the
rotten railing, and so hurled them over the edge.
George's son had done his work so thoroughly that
he was considered too good a workman to live, and was,
in fact, taken and tragically shot at twelve o'clcck that
same day -- another instance of the untoward fate which
so often attends dogs and other philosophers who
follow out a train of reasoning to its logical conclusion,
and attempt perfectly consistent conduct in a world
made up so largely of compromise.
Gabriel's farm had been stocked by a dealer -- on the
strength of Oak's promising look and character -- who
was receiving a percentage from the farmer till such
time as the advance should be cleared off Oak found+
that the value of stock, plant, and implements which
were really his own would be about sufficient to pay his
debts, leaving himself a free man with the clothes he
stood up in, and nothing more.
THE FAIR -- THE JOURNEY -- THE FIRE
TWO months passed away. We are brought on to a
day in February, on which was held the yearly statute
or hiring fair in the county-town of Casterbridge.
At one end of the street stood from two to three
hundred blithe and hearty labourers waiting upon Chance
-- all men of the stamp to whom labour suggests nothing
worse than a wrestle with gravitation, and pleasure
nothing better than a renunciation of the same among
these, carters and waggoners were distinguished by
having a piece of whip-cord twisted round their hats;
thatchers wore a fragment of woven straw; shepherds
held their sheep-crooks in their hands; and thus the
situation required was known to the hirers at a
glance.
In the crowd was an athletic young fellow of some+
what superior appearance to the rest -- in fact, his
superiority was marked enough to lead several ruddy
peasants standing by to speak to him inquiringly, as to
a farmer, and to use 'Sir' as a finishing word. His
answer always was,
'I am looking for a place myself -- a bailiff's. Do
Ye know of anybody who wants one ?'
Gabriel was paler now. His eyes were more medi+
tative, and his expression was more sad. He had
passed through an ordeal of wretchedness which had
given him more than it had taken away. He had sunk
from his modest elevation as pastoral king into the very
slime-pits of Siddim ; but there was left to him a digni+
fied calm he had never before known, and that indiffer+
ence to fate which, though it often makes a villain of
a man, is the basis of his sublimity when it does not.
And thus the abasement had been exaltation, and the
loss gain.
In the morning a regiment of cavalry had left the
town, and a sergeant and his party had been beating up
for recruits through the four streets. As the end of the
day drew on, and
he found himself not hired, Gabriel
almost wished that he had joined them, and gone off to
serve his country. Weary of standing in the market+
place, and not much minding the kind of work he
turned his hand to, he decided to offer himself in some
other capacity than that of bailiff.
All the farmers seemed to be wanting shepherds.
Sheep-tending was Gabriel's speciality. Turning down
an obscure street and entering an obscurer lane, he went
up to a smith's shop.
'How long would it take you to make a shepherd's
crook ? '
'Twenty minutes.'
'How much ? '
'Two shillings.'
He sat on a bench and the crook was made, a stem
being given him into the bargain.
He then went to a ready-made clothes' shop, the
owner of which had a large rural connection. As the
crook had absorbed most of Gabriel's money, he
attempted, and carried out, an exchange of his overcoat
for a shepherd's regulation smock-frock.
This transaction having been completed, he again
hurried off to the centre of the town, and stood on the
kerb of the pavement, as a shepherd, crook in hand.
Now that Oak had turned himself into a shepherd, it
seemed that bailifs were most in demand. However, two
or three farmers noticed him and drew near. Dialogues
followed, more or lessin the subjoined for: --
'Where do you come from?'
'Norcombe.'
'That's a long way.
'Fifteen miles.'
'Who's farm were you upon last?'
'My own.'
This reply invariably operated like a rumour of
cholera. The inquring farmer would edge away and
shake his head dubiously. Gabriel, like his dog, was
too good to be trustworthy,. and he never made advance
beyond this point.
It is safer to accept any chance that offers itself, and
extemporize a procedure to fit it, than to get a good
shepherd, but had laid himself out for anything in the
whole cycle of labour that was required in the fair. It
grew dusk. Some merry men were whistling and
singing by the corn-exchange. Gabriel's hand, which
had lain for some time idle in his smock-frock pocket,
touched his flute which he carried there. Here was
an opportunity for putting his dearly bought wisdom
into practice.
He drew out his flute and began to play Jockey to
the Fair' in the style of a man who had never known
moment's sorrow. Oak could pipe with Arcadian
sweetness and the sound of the well-known notes
cheered his own heart as well as those of the loungers.
He played on with spirit, and in half an hour had
earned in pence what was a small fortune to a destitute
man.
By making inquiries he learnt that there was another
fair at Shottsford the next day.
'How far is Shottsford?'
'Ten miles t'other side of Weatherbury.'
Weatherbury!. It was where Bathsheba had gone
two months before. This information was like coming
from night into noon.
'How far is it to Weatherbury ?'
'Five or six miles.'
Bathsheba had probably left Weatherbury long before
this time, but the place had enough interest attaching
to it to lead Oak to choose Shottsford fair as his next
field of inquiry, because it lay in the Weatherbury
quarter. Moreover, the Weatherbury folk were by no
means uninteresting intrinsically. If report spoke truly
they were as hardy, merry, thriving, wicked a set as
any in the whole county. Oak resolved to sleep at
Weatherbury -- -that -- night on his way to Shottsford,
and struck out at once -- into the -- high road which had
been recommended as the direct route to the village in
question.
The road stretched through water-meadows traversed
by little brooks, whose quivering surfaces were braided
along their centres, and folded into creases at the sides;
or, where the flow was more rapid, the stream was pied
with spots of white froth,
which rode on in undisturbed
serenity. On the higher levels the dead and dry carcases
of leaves tapped the ground as they bowled along helter+
skelter upon the shoulders of the wind, and little birds
in the hedges were rustling their feathers and tucking
themselves in comfortably for the night, retaining their
places if Oak kept moving, but flying away if he
stopped to look at them. He passed by Yalbury-Wood
where the game-birds were rising to their roosts, and
heard the crack-voiced cock-pheasants' 'cu-uck, cuck,'
and the wheezy whistle of the hens.
By the time he had walked three or four miles every
shape in the-landscape had assumed a uniform hue of
blackness. He descended Yalbury Hill and could just
discern ahead of him a waggon, drawn up under a great
over-hanging tree by the roadside.
On coming close, he found there were no horses
attached to it, the spot being apparently quite deserted.
The waggon, from its position, seemed to have been left
there for the night, for beyond about half a truss of hay
which was heaped in the bottom, it was quite empty.
Gabriel sat down on the shafts of the vehicle and con+
sidered his position. He calculated that he had walked
a very fair proportion of the journey; and having been
on foot since daybreak, he felt tempted to lie down upon
the hay in the waggon instead of pushing on to the
village of Weatherbury, and having to pay for a lodging.
Eating his las slices of bread and ham, and drinking
from the bottle of cider he had taken the precaution to
bring with him, he got into the lonely waggon. Here
he spread half of the hay as a bed, and, as well as he
could in the darkness, pulled the other half over him
by way of bed-clothes, covering himself entirely, and
feeling, physically, as comfortable as ever he had been
in his life. Inward melancholy it was impossible for
a man like Oak, introspective far beyond his neighbours,
to banish quite, whilst conning the present. untoward
page of his history. So, thinking of his misfortunes,
amorous and pastoral he fell asleep, shepherds enjoying,
in common with sailors, the privilege of being able to
summon the god instead of having to wait for him.
On somewhat suddenly awaking after a sleep of
whose length he had no idea, Oak found that the waggon
was in motion. He was being carried along the road
at a rate rather considerable for a vehicle without
springs, and under circumstances of physical uneadiness,
his head being dandled up and down on the bed of
the waggon like a kettledrum-stick. He then dis+
tinguished voices in conversation, comig from the
forpart of the waggon. His concern at this dilemma
(which would have been alarm, had he been a thriving
man; but -- misfortune is a fine opiate to personal terror)
led him to peer cautiously from the hay, and the first
sight he beheld was the stars above him. Charles's
Wain was getting towards a right angle with the Pole
star, and Gabriel concluded that it must be about nine
o'clock -- in other words, that he had slept two hours.
This small astronomical calculation was made without
any positive effort, and whilst he was stealthily turning
to discover, if possible, into whose hands he had fallen.
Two figures were dimly visible in front, sitting with
their legs outside the waggon, one of whom was driving.
Gabriel soon found that this was the waggoner, and it
appeared they had come from Casterbridge fair, like
himself.
A conversation was in progress, which continued
thus : --
'Be as 'twill, she's a fine handsome body as far's
looks be concerned. But that's only the skin of the
woman, and these dandy cattle be as-proud as a lucifer
in their insides.'
'Ay -- so 'a do seem, Billy Smallbury -- so 'a do seem.'
This utterance was very shaky by nature, and more so
by circumstance, the jolting of the waggon not being+
without its effect upon the speaker's larynx. It came
'from the man who held the reins.
'She's a very vain feymell -- so 'tis said here and
there.'
'Ah, now. If so be 'tis like that, I can't look her in
the face. Lord, no : not I -- heh-heh-heh .! Such a shy
man as I be.!'
'Yes -- she's very vain. 'Tis said that every night at
going to bed she looks in the glass to put on her night+
cap properly.'
'And not a married woman. Oh, the world .!
"And 'a can play the peanner, so 'tis said. Can
play so clever
that 'a can make a psalm tune sound as
well as the merriest loose song a man can wish for.'
'D'ye tell o't .! A happy time for us, and I feel quite
a new man! And how do she play?'
'That I dson't know, Master Poorgrass.'
On hearing these and other similar remarks, a wild
thought flashed into Gabriel's mind that they might
be speaking of Bathsheba. There were, however, no
ground for retaining such a supposition, for the waggon,
though going in the direction of Weatherbury, might be
going beyond it, and the woman alluded to seemed to be
the mistress of some estate. They were now apparently
close upon Weatherbury and not to alarm the speakers
unnecessarily, Gabriel slipped out of the waggon unseen.
He turned to an opening in the hedge, which he
found to be a gate, and mounting thereon, he sat
meditating whether to seek a cheap lodging in the
village, or to ensure a cheaper one by lying under
some hay or corn-stack. The crunching jangle of the
waggon died upon his ear. He was about to walk on,
when he noticed on his left hand an unusual light -- +
appearing about half a mile distant. Oak watched it,
and the glow increased. Something was on fire.
Gabriel again mounted the gate, and, leaping down
on the other side upon what he found to be ploughed
soil, made across the field in the exact direction of the
fire. The blaze, enlarging in a double ratio by his
approach and its own increase, showed him as he drew
nearer the outlines of ricks beside it, lighted up to great
distinctness. A rick-yard was the source of the fire.
His weary face now began to be painted over with a
rich orange glow, and the whole front of his smock+
frock and gaiters was covered with a dancing shadow
pattern of thorn-twigs -- the light reaching him through
a leafless intervening hedge -- and the metallic curve of
his sheep-crook shone silver-bright in the same abound+
ing rays. He came up to the boundary fence, and
stood to regain breath. It seemed as if the spot was
unocupied by a living soul.
The fire was issuing from a long straw-stack, which
was so
far gone as to preclude a possibility of saving it.
A rick burns differently from a house. As the wind
blows the fire inwards, the portion in flames completely
disappears like melting sugar, and the outline is lost
to the eye. However, a hay or a wheat-rick, well put
together, will resist combustion for a length of time, if
it begins on the outside.
This before Gabriel's eyes was a- rick of straw, loosely
put together, and the flames darted into it with lightning
swiftness. It glowed on the windward side, rising and
falling in intensity, like the coal of a cigar. Then a
superincumbent bundle rolled down, with a whisking
noise ; flames elongated, and bent themselves about
with a quiet roar, but no crackle. Banks of smoke
went off horizontally at the back like passing clouds,
and behind these burned hidden pyres, illuminating
the semi-transparent sheet of smoke to a lustrous yellow
uniformity. Individual straws in the foreground were
consumed in a creeping movement of ruddy heat, as
if they were knots of red worms, and above shone
imaginary fiery faces, tongues hanging from lips, glaring
eyes, and other impish forms, from which at intervals
sparks flew in clusters like birds from a nest,
Oak suddenly ceased from being a mere spectator
by discovering the case to be more serious than he had
at first imagined. A scroll of smoke blew aside and
revealed to him a wheat-rick in startling juxtaposition
with the decaying one, and behind this a series of
others, composing the main corn produce of the farm;
so that instead of the straw-stack standing, as he had
imagined comparatively isolated, there was a regular
connection between it and the remaining stacks of the
group.
Gabriel leapt over the hedge, and saw that he was
not alone. The first man he came to was running
about in a great hurry, as if his thoughts were several
yards in advance of his body, which they could never
drag on fast enough.
'O, man -- fire, fire ! A good master and a. bad
servant is fire, fire .! -- I mane a bad servant and a good
master O, Mark Clark -- come !- And you, Billy
Smallbury -- and you, Maryann Money -- and you, Jan
Coggan, and Matthew there!' Other figures now
appeared behind this shouting man and among the
smoke, and
Gabriel found that, far from being alone
he was in a great company -- whose shadows danced
merrily up and down, timed by the jigging of the
flames, and not at all by their owners' movements.
The assemblage -- -belonging to that class of society
which casts its thoughts into the form of feeling, and
its feelings into the form of commotion -- set to work
with a remarkable confusion of purpose.
'Stop the draught under the wheat-rick!' cried
Gabriel to those nearest to him. The corn stood on
stone staddles, and between these, tongues of yellow
hue from the burning straw licked and darted playfully.
If the fire once got under this stack, all would be
lost.
'Get a tarpaulin -- quick .! ' said Gabriel.
A rick-cloth was brought, and they hung it like a
curtain across the channel. The flames immediately
ceased to go under the bottom of the corn-stack, and
stood up vertical.
'Stand here with a bucket of water and keep the
cloth wet,' said Gabriel again.
The flames, now driven upwards, began to attack
the angles of the huge roof covering the wheat-stack.
'A ladder,' cried Gabriel.
'The ladder was against the straw-rick and is burnt
to a cinder,' said a spectre-like form in the smoke.
Oak seized the cut ends of the sheaves, as if he
were going to engage in the operation of ' reed-drawing,'
and digging in his feet, and occasionally sticking in the
stem of his sheep-crook, he clambered up the beetling
face. He at once sat astride the very apex, and began
with his crook to beat off the fiery fragments which had
lodged thereon, shouting to the others to get him a
bough and a ladder, and some water.
Billy Smallbury -- one of the men who had been on
the waggon -- by this time had found a ladder, which
Mark Clark ascended, holding on beside Oak upon the
thatch. The smoke at this corner was stifling, and
Clark, a nimble fellow, having been handed a bucket
of water, bathed Oak's face and sprinkled him generally,
whilst Gabriel, now with a long beech-bough in one
hand, in addition to his crook in the other, kept
sweeping the stack and dislodging all fiery particles.
On the ground the groups of villagers were still
occupied in doing all they could to keep down the
conflagration, which was not much. They were all
tinged orange, and backed up by shadows of varying
pattern. Round the corner of the largest stack, out
of the direct rays of the fire, stood a pony, bearing a
young woman on its back. By her side was another
woman, on foot. These two seemed to keep at a
distance from the fire, that the horse might not beome
restive.
'He's a shepherd,' said the woman on foot. 'Yes --
he is. See how his crook shines as he beats the rick
with it. And his smock-frock is burnt in two holes, I
declare.! A fine young shepherd he is too, ma'am.'
' Whose shepherd is he?' said the equestrian in a
clear voice.
'Don't know, ma'am.'
" Don't any of the others know ?'
" Nobody at all -- I've asked 'em. Quite a stranger,
they say.'
The young woman on the pony rode out from the
shade and looked anxiously around.
"Do you think the barn is safe ?" she said.
"D'ye think the barn is safe, Jan Coggan ?' said
the second woman, passing on the question to the
nearest man in that direction.
"Safe -now -- leastwise I think so. If this rick had
gone the barn would have followed. 'Tis- that bold
shepherd up there that have done the most good -- he
sitting on the top o' rick, whizzing his great long-arms
about like a windmill.'
" He does work hard,' said the young woman on
horseback, looking up at Gabriel through her thick
woollen veil. "I wish he was shepherd here. Don't
any of you know his name.'
"Never heard the man's name in my life, or seed
his form afore.'
The fire began to get worsted, and Gabriel's elevated
position being no longer required of him, he made as
if to descend.
"Maryann,' said the girl on horseback, "go to him
as he comes down, and say that the farmer wishes to
thank him for the great service he has done.'
Maryann stalked off towards the rick and met
Oak at the foot of the ladder. She delivered ber
message.
" Where is your master the farmer ?' asked Gabriel,
kindling with the idea of getting employment that
seemed to strike him now.
" 'Tisn't a master ; 'tis a mistress, shepherd.'
" A woman farmer ? '
"Ay, 'a b'lieve, and a rich one too .!' said a by"
stander. " Lately 'a came here from a distance. Took
on her uncle's farm, who died suddenly. Used to
measure his money in half-pint cups. They say now
that she've business in every bank in Casterbridge, and
thinks no more of playing pitch-and-toss sovereign than
you and I, do pitch-halfpenny -- not a bit in the world,
shepherd.'
"That's she, back there upon the pony,' said Mary+
ann ;"wi'her face a-covered up in that black cloth with
holes in it.'
Oak, his features smudged, grimy, and undiscoverable
from the smoke and heat, his smock-frock burnt-into
holes and dripping with water, the ash stem of his sheep+
crook charred six inches shorter, advansed with the
humility stern adversity had thrust upon him up to
the slight female form in the saddle. He lifted his
hat with respect, and not without galantry: stepping
close to her hanging feet he said in a hesitating voice, --
" Do you happen to want a shepherd, ma'am ? '
She lifted the wool veil tied round her face, and
looked all astonishment. Gabriel and his cold-hearted
darling, Bathsheba Everdene, were face to face.
Bathsheba did not speak, and he mechanically
repeated in an abashed and sad voice, --
" Do you want a shepherd, ma'am ? '
RECOGNITION -- A TIMID GIRL
BATHSHEBA withdrew into the shade. She scarcely
knew whether most to be amused at the singularity of
the meeting, or to be concerned at its awkwardness.
There was room for a little pity, also for a very little
exultation : the former at his position, the latter at her
own. Embarrassed she was not, and she" remembered
Gabriel's declaration of love to her at Norcombe only
to think she had nearly forgotten it.
" Yes,' she murmured, putting on an air of dignity,
and turning again to him with a little warmth of cheek ;
" I do want a shepherd. But -- -- '
" He's the very man, ma'am,' said one of the villagers,
quietly.
Conviction breeds conviction. " Ay, that 'a is,' said
a second, decisively.
"The man, truly .! ' said a third, with heartiness."
" He's all there ! ' said number four, fervidly."
Then will you tell him to speak to the bailiff, said
Bathsheba.
All "was practical again now. A summer eve and
loneliness would have been necessary to give the
meeting its proper fulness of romance.
the palpitation within his breast at discovering that this
Ashtoreth of strange report was only a modification of
Venus the well-known and admired, retired with him to
talk over the necessary preliminaries of hiring.
The fire before them wasted away. "Men,' said
Bathsheba, " you shall take a little refreshment after this
extra work. Will you come to the house ?'
"We could knock in a bit and a drop a good deal
freer, Miss,
if so be ye'd send it to Warren's Malthouse,'
replied the spokesman.
Bathsheba then rode off into the darkness, and the
men straggled on to the village in twos and threes -- Oak
and the bailiff being left by the rick alone.
"And now,' said the bailiff, finally, "all is settled, I
think, about your coming, and I am going home-along.
Good-night to ye, shepherd.'
" Can you get me a lodging ? ' inquired Gabriel.
'That I can't, indeed," he said, moving past Oak as
a Christian edges past an offertory-plate when he does
not mean to contribute. "If you follow on the road till
you come to Warren's Malthouse, where they are all
gone to have their snap of victuals, I daresay some of
'em will tell you of a place. Good-night to ye, shepherd.'
The bailiff who showed this nervous dread of loving
his neighbour as himself, went up the hill, and Oak
walked on to the village, still astonished at the ren+
counter with Bathsheba, glad of his nearness to her, and
perplexed at the rapidity with which the unpractised girl
of Norcombe had developed into the supervising and cool
woman here. But some women only require an emerg+
ency to make them fit for one.
Obligcd, to some extent, to forgo dreaming in order
to find the way, he reachcd the churchyard, and passed
round it under the wall where several ancient trees grew.
There was a wide margin of grass along here, and
Gabriel's footsteps were deadened by its softness, even
at this indurating period of the year. When abreast of
a trunk which appeared to be the oldest of the old, he
became aware that a figure was standing behind it.
Gabriel did not pause in his walk, and in another
moment he accidentally kicked a loose stone. The noise
was enough to disturb the motionless stranger, who
started and assumed a careless position.
It was a slim girl, rather thinly clad.
" Good-night to you,' said Gabriel, heartily.
" Good-night,' said the girl to Gabriel.
The voice was unexpectedly attractive ; it was "the
low and
dulcet note suggestive of romance ; common in
descriptions, rare in experience.
'I'll thank you to tell me if I'm in the way for
Warren's Malthouse ? ' Gabriel resumed, primarily to gain
the information, indirectly to get more of the music.
"Quite right. It's at the bottom of the hill. And
do you know -- -- ' The girl hesitated and then went
on again. "Do you know how late they keep open
the Buck's Head Inn?' She seemed" to be won by
Gabriel's heartiness, as Gabriel had been won by her
modulations.
" I don't know where the Buck's Head is, or anything
about it. Do you think of going there to-night ?'
" Yes -- -- ' The woman again paused. There was
no necessity for any continuance of speech, and the fact
that she did add more seemed to proceed from an
unconscious desire to show unconcern by making a
remark, which is noticeable in the ingenuous when they
are acting by stealth. " You are not a Weatherbury man ? '
she said, timorously.
' I am not. I am the new shepherd -- just arrived.'
"Only a shepherd -- and you seem almost a farmer by
your ways.'
" Only a shepherd,' Gabriel repeated, in a dull cadence
of finality. " His thoughts were directed to the past, his
eyes to the feet of the girl; and for the first time he
saw lying there a bundle of some sort. She may have
perceived the direction of his face, for she said
coaxingly, --
" You won't say anything in the parish about having
seen me here, will you -- at least, not for a day or two ?'
"I won't if you wish me not to,' said Oak.
"Thank you, indeed,' the other replied.'I am
rather poor, and I don't want people to know anything
about me.' Then she was silent and shivered.
'You ought to have a cloak on such a cold night,'
Gabriel observed. " I would advise 'ee to get indoors."
"O no! Would you mind going on and leaving
me ? I thank you much for what you have told me.'
" I will go on,' he said ; adding hesitatingly, -- ' Since
you are
not very well off, perhaps you would accept this
trifle from me. It is only a shilling, but'it is all I have
to spare.'
' Yes, I will take it,' said the stranger, gratefully.
She extended her hand ; Gabriel his. In feeling for
each other's palm in the gloom before the money could
be passed, a minute incident occurred which told much.
Gabriel's fingers alighted on the young woman's wrist.
It was beating with a throb of tragic intensity. He had
frequently felt the same quick, hard beat in the femoral
artery of -- his lambs when overdriven. It suggested a
consumption too great of a vitality which, to judge from
her figure and stature, was already too little.
"What is the matter ?'
" Nothing.'
'But there is?'
" No, no, no ! Let your having seen me be a.secret .! "
' Very well ; I will. Good-night, again.'
" Good-night.'
The young girl remained motionless by the tree, and
Gabriel descended into the village of Weatherbury, or
Lower Longpuddle as it was sometimes called. He
fancied that he had felt himself in the penumbra of a
very deep sadness when touching that slight and fragile
creature. But wisdom lies in moderating mere impres+
sions, and Gabriel endeavoured to think little of this.
THE MALTHOUSE -- THE CHAT -- NEWS
WARREN'S Malthouse was enclosed by an old wall
inwrapped with ivy, and though not much of the exterior
was visible at this hour, the character and purposes of
the building were clearly enough shown by its outline
upon the sky. From the walls an overhanging thatched
roof sloped up to a point in the centre, upon which rose
a small wooden lantern, fitted with louvre-boards on all
the four sides, and from these openings a mist was dimly
perceived to be escaping into the night air. There was
no window in front ; but a square hole in the door was
glazed with a single pane, through which red, comfortable
rays now stretched out upon the ivied wall in front.
Voices were to be heard inside.
Oak's hand skimmed the surface of the door with
fingers extended to an Elymas-the-Somerer pattern, till
he found a leathern strap, which he pulled. This lifted
a wooden latch, and the door swung open.
The room inside was lighted only by the, ruddy glow
from the kiln mouth, which shone over ,the floor with
the streaming, horizontality of the setting sun, and threw
upwards the shadows of all facial irregularities in those
assembled around. The stone-flag floor was worn into
a path from the doorway to the kiln, and into undula+
tions everywhere. A curved settle of unplaned oak
stretched along one side, and in a remote corner was a
small bed and bedstead, the owner and frequent occupier
of which was the maltster.
This aged man was now sitting opposite the fire, his
frosty white hair and beard overgrowing his gnarled
figure like the grey moss and lichen upon a leafless
apple-tree. He wore breeches and the laced-up shoes
called ankle-jacks; he kept his eyes fixed upon the
fire.
Gabriel's nose was greeted by an atmosphere laden
with the sweet smell of new malt. The conversation
(which seemed to have been concerning the origin of the
fire) immediately ceased, and every one ocularly criticised
him to the degree expressed by contracting the flesh of
their foreheads and looking at him with narrowed eye+
lids, as if he had been a light too strong for their sight.
Several exclaimed meditatively, after this operation had
been completed : --
"Oh, 'tis the new shepherd, 'a b'lieve.'
"We thought we heard a hand pawing about the
door for the bobbin, but weren't sure 'twere not a dead
leaf blowed across,' said another. " Come in, shepherd ;
sure ye be welcome, though we don't know yer name.'
" Gabriel Oak, that's my name, neighbours.'
The ancient maltster sitting in the midst turned up
this -- his turning being as the turning of a rusty
crane.
"That's never Gable Oak's grandson over at Nor+
combe -- never !. ' he said, as a formula expressive of
surprise, which nobody was supposed to take literally'.
'My father and my grandfather were old men of the
name of Gabriel,' said the shepherd, placidly.
"Thought I knowed the man's face as I seed him
on the rick ! -- thought I did.! And where be ye trading
o't to now, shepherd ? '
" I'm thinking of biding here,' said Mr. Oak.
"Knowed yer grandfather for years and years !'
continued the maltster, the words coming forth of their
own accord as if the momentum previously imparted
had been sufficient.
'Ah -- and did you! '
" Knowed yer grandmother.'
'And her too!'
"Likewise knowed yer father when he was a child.
Why, my boy Jacob there and your father were sworn
brothers -- that they were sure -- weren't ye, Jacob ? '
"Ay, sure,' said his son, a young man about sixty+
five, with a semi-bald head and one tooth in the left
centre of his upper jaw, which made much of itself by
standing prominent, like a
milestone in a bank. 'But
'twas Joe had most to do with him. However, my son
William must have knowed the very man afore us --
didn't ye, Billy, afore ye left Norcombe ? '
"No, 'twas Andrew,' said Jacob's son Billy, a child
of forty, or thereabouts, who manifested the peculiarity
of possessing a cheerful soul in a gloomy body, and
whose whiskers were assuming a chinchilla shade here
and there.
"I can mind Andrew,' said Oak, 'as being a man in
the place when I was quite a child.'
"Ay -- the other day I and my youngest daughter,
Liddy, were over at my grandson's christening,' continued
Billy. ' We were talking about this very family, and
'twas only last Purification Day in this very world, when
the use-money is gied away to the second-best poor
folk, you know, shepherd, and I can mind the day
because they all had to traypse up to the vestry -- yes,
this very man's family.'
' Come, shepherd, and drink. 'Tis gape and
swaller with us -- a drap of sommit, but not of much
account,' said the maltster, removing from the fire his
eyes, which were vermilion-red and bleared by gazing
into it for so many years. "Take up the God-forgive"
me, Jacob. See if 'tis warm, Jacoh.'
Jacob stooped to the God-forgive-me, which was a
two-handled tall mug standing in the ashes, cracked
and charred with heat : it was rather furred with ex"
traneous matter about the outside, especially in the
crevices of the handles, the innermost curves of which
may not have seen daylight for several years by reason
of this encrustation thereon -- formed of ashes accident+
ally wetted with cider and baked hard; but to the mind
of any sensible drinker the cup was no worse for that,
being incontestably clean on the inside and about the
rim. It may be observed that such a class of mug is
called a God-forgive-me in Weatherbury and its vicinity
for uncertain reasons ; probably because its size makes
any given toper feel ashamed of himself when he sees
its bottom in drinking it empty.
Jacob, on receiving the order to see if the liquor was
warm enough, placidly dipped his forefinger into it by
way of thermometer, and having pronounced it nearly
of the proper degree, raised the cup and very civilly
attempted to dust some of the
ashes from the bottom
with the skirt of his smock-frock, because Shepherd Oak
was a stranger.
"A clane cup for the shepherd,' said the maltster
commandingly.
"No -- not at all," said Gabriel, in a reproving tone
of considerateness. "I never fuss about dirt in its pure
state, and when I know what sort it is.' Taking the
mug he drank an inch or more from the depth of its
contents, and duly passed it to the next man.
wouldn't think of giving such trouble to neighbours in
washing up when there's so much work to be done in
the world already,' continued Oak in a moister tone,
after recovering from the stoppage of breath which is
occasioned by pulls at large mugs.
' A right sensible man,' said Jacob.
" True, true ; it can't be gainsaid!.' observed a brisk
young man -- Mark Clark by name, a genial and pleasant
gentleman, whom to meet anywhcre in your travels was
to know, to know was to drink with, and to drink with
was, unfortunately, to pay for.
"And here's a mouthful of bread and bacon that
mis'ess have sent, shepherd. The cider will go down
better with a bit of victuals. Don't ye chaw quite close,
shepherd, for I let the bacon fall in the road outside as
I was bringing it along, and may be 'tis rather gritty.
There, 'tis clane dirt; and we all know what that is,
as you say, and you bain't a particular man we see,
shepherd.'
" True, true -- not at all,' said the friendly Oak.
'Don't let your teeth quite meet, and you won't feel
the sandiness at all. Ah !. 'tis wonderful what can be
done by contrivance .! '
" My own mind exactly, neighbour.'
" Ah, he's his grandfer's own grandson .! -- his grandfer
were just such a nice unparticular man !.' said the maltster.
" Drink, Henry Fray -- drink,' magnanimously said
Jan Coggan, a person who held Saint-Simonian notions
of share and share alike where liquor was concerned, as
the vessel showed signs of approaching him in its gradual
revolution among them.
Having at this moment reached the end of a wistful
gaze
into mid-air, Henry did not refuse. He was a man
of more than middle age, with eyebrows high up in his
forehead, who laid it down that the law of the world
was bad, with a long-suffering look through his listeners
at the world alluded to, as it presented itself to his
imagination. He always signed his name 'Henery' --
strenuously insisting upon that spelling, and if any
passing schoolmaster ventured to remark that the second
'e' was superfluous and old-fashioned, he received the
reply that ' H-e-n-e-r-y' was the name he was christened
and the name he 'would stick to -- in the tone of one
to whom orthographical differences were matters which
had a great deal to do with personal character.
Mr. Jan Coggan, who had passed the cup to Henery,
was a crimson man with a spacious countenance, and
private glimmer in his eye, whose name had appeared
on the marriage register of Weatherbury and neighbour+
ing parishes as best man and chief witness in countless
unions of the previous twenty years; he also very
frequently filled the post of head godfather in baptisms
of the subtly-jovial kind.
" Come, Mark Clark -- come. Ther's plenty more
in the barrel,' said Jan.
"Ay -- that I will; 'tis my only doctor,' replied Mr.
Clark, who, twenty years younger than Jan Coggan,
revolved in the same orbit. He secreted mirth on all
occasions for special discharge at popular parties.
" Why, Joseph Poorgrass, ye han't had a drop! ' said
Mr. Coggan to a self-conscious man in the background,
thrusting the cup towards him.
" Such a modest man as he is !. ' said Jacob Smallbury.
" Why, ye've hardly had strength of eye enough to look
in our young mis'ess's face, so I hear, Joseph ?'
All looked at Joseph Poorgrass with pitying reproach.
" No -- I've hardly looked at her at all,' simpered
Joseph, reducing his body smaller whilst talking,
apparently from a meek sense of undue prominence.
"And when I seed her, 'twas nothing but blushes with
me!'
' Poor feller,' said Mr. Clark.
"'Tis a curious nature for a man,' said Jan Coggan.
" Yes,' continued Jdseph Poorgrass -- his shyness,
which was so painful as a defect, filling him with a
mild complacency now that it was regarded as an
interesting study. " 'Twere blush, blush, blush with
me every minute of the time, when she was speaking
to me.'
"I believe ye, Joseph Poorgrass, for we all know ye
to be a very bashful man.'
"'Tis a' awkward gift for a man, poor soul,' said the
maltster. "And ye have suffered from it a long time,
we know.'
"Ay ever since I was a boy. Yes -- mother was
concerned to her heart about it -- yes. But twas all
nought.'
"Did ye ever go into the world to try and stop it,
Joseph Poorgrass ? '
"Oh ay, tried all sorts o' company. They took me
to Greenhill Fair, and into a great gay jerry-go-nimble
show, where there were women-folk riding round --
standing upon horses, with hardly anything on but their
smocks; but it didn't cure me a morsel. And then I
was put errand-man at the Women's Skittle Alley at the
back of the Tailor's Arms in Casterbridge. 'Twas a
horrible sinful situation, and a very curious place for a
good man. I had to stand and look ba'dy people in
the face from morning till night; but 'twas no use -- I
was just as-bad as ever after all. Blushes hev been
in the family for generations. There, 'tis a happy pro+
vidence that I be no worse.'
" True,' said Jacob Smallbury, deepening his thoughts
to a profounder view of the subject. "'Tis a thought
to look at, that ye might have been worse; but even
as you be, 'tis a very bad affliction for 'ee, Joseph. For
ye see, shepherd, though 'tis very well for a woman,
dang it all, 'tis awkward for a man like him, poor
feller ? '
" 'Tis -- 'tis,' said Gabriel, recovering from a medita+
tion. " Yes, very awkward for the man.'
" Ay, and he's very timid, too,' observed Jan Coggan.
"Once he had been working late at Yalbury Bottom,
and had had a drap of drink, and lost his way as he was
coming home-along through Yalbury Wood, didn't ye,
Master Poorgrass ? '
" No, no, no ; not that story !' expostulated the
modest man, forcing a laugh to bury his concern.
" -- -- And so 'a lost himself quite,' continued Mr
Coggan, with an impassive face, implying that a true
narrative, like time and tide, must run its course and
would respect no man. "And as he was coming along
in the middle of the night, much afeared, and not able
to find his way out of the trees nohow, 'a cried out,
" Man-a-lost!. man-a-lost !." A owl in a tree happened
to be crying "Whoo-whoo-whoo !" as owls do, you
know, shepherd ' (Gabriel nodded), " and Joseph, all
in a tremble, said, " Joseph Poorgrass, of Weatherbury,
sir.!"
"No, no, now -- that's too much! ' said the timid
man, becoming a man of brazen courage all of a sudden.
"I didn't say sir. I'll tike my oath I didn't say " Joseph
Poorgrass o' Weatherbury, sir." No, no ; what's right
is right, and I never said sir to the bird, knowing very
well that no man of a gentleman's rank would be
hollering there at that time o' night. " Joseph Poor+
grass of Weatherbury," -- that's every word I said, and
I shouldn't ha' said that if 't hadn't been for Keeper
Day's metheglin.... There, 'twas a merciful thing it
ended where it did.'
The question of which was right being tacitly waived
by the company, Jan went on meditatively : --
"And he's the fearfullest man, bain't ye, Joseph?
Ay, another time ye were lost by Lambing-Down Gate,
weren't ye, Joseph ? '
"I was,' replied Poorgrass, as if there were some
conditions too serious even for modesty to remember
itself under, this being one.
' Yes ; that were the middle of the night, too. The
gate would not open, try how he would, and knowing
there was the Devil's hand in it, he kneeled down.'
'Ay,' said Joseph, acquiring confidence from the
warmth of the fire, the cider, and a perception of the
narrative capabilities of the experience alluded to.
" My heart died within me, that time; but I kneeled
down and said the Lord's Prayer, and then the Belie
THE CHAT
right through, and then the Ten Commandments, in
earnest prayer. But no, the gate wouldn't open; and
then I went on with Dearly Beloved Brethren, and,
thinks I, this makes four, and 'tis all I know out of
book, and if this don't do it nothing will, and I'm a
lost man. Well, when I got to
Saying After Me, I
rose from my knees and found the gate would open
-- yes, neighbours, the gate opened the same as ever.'
A meditation on the obvious inference wsas indulged
in by all, and during its continuance each directed his
vision into the ashpit, which glowed like a desert in
the tropics under a vertical sun, shaping their eyes long
and liny, partly because of the light, partly from the
depth of the subject discussed.
Gabriel broke the silence. "What sort of a place
is this to live at, and what sort of a mis'ess is she to
work under?' Gabriel's bosom thrilled gently as he
thus slipped under the notice of the assembly the inner+
most subject of his heart.
"We d' know little of her -- nothing. She only
showed herself a few days ago. Her uncle was took
bad, and the doctor was called with his world-wide
skill; but he couldn't save the man. As I take it,
she's going to keep on the farm.
"That's abouyt the shape o't, 'a b'lieve,' said Jan
uncle was a very fair sort of man. Did ye know en,
be under 'em as under one here and there. Her
uncle was a very fair sort of man. Did ye know 'en,
shepherd -- a bachelor-man ? '
"Not at all.'
"I used to go to his house a-courting my first wife,
Charlotte, who was his dairymaid. Well, a very good+
hearted man were Farmer Everdene, and I being a
respectable young fellow was allowed to call and see
her and drink as much ale as I liked, but not to carry
away any -- outside my skin I mane of course.'
"Ay, ay, Jan Coggan; we know yer maning.'
"And so you see 'twas beautiful ale, and I wished
to value his kindness as much as I could, and not to
be so ill-mannered as to drink only a thimbleful, which
would have been insulting the man's generosity -- -- '
"True, Master Coggan, 'twould so,' corroborated
Mark Clark.
" -- -- And so I used to eat a lot of salt fish afore
going, and then by the time I got there I were as dry
as a lime-basket -- so thorough dry that that ale would
slip down -- ah, 'twould slip down sweet! Happy
times! heavenly times! Such lovely drunks as I
used to have at that house! You can mind, Jacob?
You used to go wi' me sometimes.'
"I can -- I can,' said Jacob. "That one, too, that
we had at Buck's Head on a White Monday was a
pretty tipple.'
"'Twas. But for a wet of the better class, that
brought you no nearer to the horned man than you were
afore you begun, there was none like those in Farmer
Everdene's kitchen. Not a single damn allowed; no,
not a bare poor one, even at the most cheerful moment
when all were blindest, though the good old word of
sin thrown in here and there at such times is a great
relief to a merry soul.'
"True,' said the maltster. "Nater requires her
swearing at the regular times, or she's not herself; and
unholy exclamations is a necessity of life.'
"But Charlotte,' continued Coggan -- "not a word of
the sort would Charlotte allow, nor the smallest item of
taking in vain.... Ay, poor Charlotte, I wonder if she
had the good fortune to get into Heaven when 'a died!.
But 'a was never much in luck's way, and perhaps 'a
went downwards after all, poor soul.'
"And did any of you know Miss Everdene's-father
and mother?' inquired the shepherd, who found some
difficulty in keeping the conversation in the desired
channel.
THE CHAT
"I knew them a little,' said Jacob Smallbury; "but
they were townsfolk, and didn't live here. They've
been dead for years. Father, what sort of people were
mis'ess' father and mother?'
"Well,' said the maltster, "he wasn't much to look
at; but she was a lovely woman. He was fond enough
of her as his sweetheart.'
"Used to kiss her scores and long-hundreds o times,
so 'twas said,' observed Coggan.
"He was very proud of her, too, when they were
married, as I've been told,' said the maltster.
"Ay,' said Coggan. "He admired her so much that
he used to light the candle three time a night to look
at her.'
"Boundless love; I shouldn't have supposed it in the
universe!' murmered Joseph Poorgrass, who habitually
spoke on a large scale in his moral reflections.
"Well, to be sure,' said Gabriel.
"Oh, 'tis true enough. I knowed the man and
woman both well. Levi Everdene -- that was the man's
name, sure. ""Man,''
saith I in my hurry, but he were
of a higher circle of life than that -- 'a was a gentleman+
tailor really, worth scores of pounds. And he became
a very celebrated bankrupt two or three times.'
"Oh, I thought he was quite a common man!.' said
Joseph.
"O no, no! That man failed for heaps of money;
hundreds in gold and silver.'
The maltster being rather short of breath, Mr. Coggan,
after absently scrutinising a coal which had fallen among
the ashes, took up the narrative, with a private twirl of
his eye: --
"Well, now, you'd hardly believe it, but that man --
husbands alive, after a while. Understand' 'a didn't
want to be fickle, but he couldn't help it. The poor
feller were faithful and true enough to her in his wish,
but his heart would rove, do what he would. He spoke
to me in real tribulation about it once. ""Coggan,''
he said, ""I could never wish for a handsomer woman
than I've got, but feeling she's ticketed as my lawful
wife, I can't help my wicked heart wandering, do what
I will.'' But at last I believe he cured it by making her
take off her wedding-ring and calling her by her maiden
name as they sat together after the shop was shut, and
so 'a would get to fancy she was only his sweetheart, and
not married to him at all. And as soon as he could
thoroughly fancy he was doing wrong and committing
the seventh, 'a got to like her as well as ever, and they
lived on a perfect picture of mutel love.'
"Well, 'twas a most ungodly remedy,' murmured
Joseph Poorgrass; "but we ought to feel deep cheerful+
ness that a 'happy Providence kept it from being any
worse. You see, he might have gone the bad road and
given his eyes to unlawfulness entirely -- yes, gross un+
lawfulness, so to say it.'
"You see,' said Billy Smallbury, "The man's will was
to do right, sure enough, but his heart didn't chime in.'
"He got so much better, that he was quite godly
in his later years, wasn't he, Jan ?' said Joseph Poor+
grass. "He got himself confirmed over again in a more
serious way, and took to saying ""Amen'' almost as loud
as the clerk, and he liked to copy comforting verses
from the tombstones. He used, too, to hold the money+
plate at Let Your Light so Shine, and stand
godfather
to poor little come-by-chance children; and he kept a
missionary' box upon his table to nab folks unawares
when they called; yes, and he would-box the charity+
boys' ears, if they laughed in church, till they could
hardly stand upright, and do other deeds of piety
natural to the saintly inclined.'
"Ay, at that time he thought of nothing but high
things,' added Billy Smallbury. "One day Parson Thirdly
met him and said, ""Good-Morning, Mister Everdene; 'tis
THE CHAT
a fine day!'' ""Amen'' said Everdene, quite absent+
like, thinking only of religion when he seed a parson+
"Their daughter was not at all a pretty chiel at that
time,' said Henery Fray. "Never should have. thought
she'd have growed up such a handsome body as she is.'
"'Tis to be hoped her temper is as good as her face.'
"Well, yes; but the baily will have most to do with
the business and ourselves. Ah!' Henery gazed into
the ashpit, and smiled volumes of ironical knowledge.
"A queer Christian, like the Devil's head in a cowl,
"He is,' said Henery, implying that irony must cease
at a certain point. "Between we two, man and man, I
believe that man would as soon tell a lie Sundays as
working-days -- that I do so.'
"Good faith, you do talk!' said Gabriel.
"True enough,' said the man of bitter moods, looking
round upon the company with the antithetic laughter
that comes from a keener appreciation of the miseries
of life than ordinary men are capable of. 'Ah, there's
people of one sort, and people of another, but that man
-- bless your souls!'
Gabriel thought fit to change the subject. "You
must be a very aged man, malter, to have sons growed
mild and ancient' he remarked.
"Father's so old that 'a can't mind his age, can ye,
father?' interposed Jacob. "And he growled terrible
crooked too, lately' Jacob continued, surveying his
father's figure, which
was rather more bowed than his own.
"Really one may say that father there is three-double.'
"Crooked folk will last a long while,' said the maltster,
grimly, and not in the best humour.
"Shepherd would like to hear the pedigree of yer
life, father -- wouldn't ye, shepherd ?
"Ay that I should,' said Gabriel with the heartiness
of a man who had longed to hear it for several months.
"What may your age be, malter?'
The maltster cleared his throat in an exaggerated
form for emphasis, and elongating his gaze to the
remotest point of the ashpit! said, in the slow speech
justifiable when the importance of a subject is so
generally felt that any mannerism must be tolerated
in getting at it, "Well, I don't mind the year I were
born in, but perhaps I can reckon up the places I've
lived at, and so get it that way. I bode at Upper Long+
puddle across there' (nodding to the north) "till I were
eleven. I bode seven at Kingsbere' (nodding to the
east) "where I took to malting. I went therefrom to
Norcombe, and malted there two-and-twenty years, and+
two-and-twenty years I was there turnip-hoeing and
harvesting. Ah, I knowed that old place, Norcombe,
years afore you were thought of, Master Oak' (Oak smiled
sincere belief in the fact). "Then I malted at Dur+
nover four year, and four year turnip-hoeing; and
I was fourteen times eleven months at Millpond St.
Jude's ' (nodding north-west-by-north). "Old Twills
wouldn't hire me for more than eleven months at a
time, to keep me from being chargeable to the parish
if so be I was disabled. Then I was three year at
Mellstock, and I've been here one-and-thirty year come
Candlemas. How much is that?"
"Hundred and seventeen,' chuckled another old
gentleman, given to mental arithmetic and little con+
versation, who had hitherto sat unobserved in a corner.
"Well, then, that's my age,' said the maltster, em+
phatically.
"O no, father!' said Jacob. "Your turnip-hoeing
were in the summer and your malting in the winter of
the same years, and ye don't ought to count-both halves
father.'
"Chok' it all! I lived through the summers, didn't
I? That's my question. I suppose ye'll say next I be
no age at all to speak of?'
"Sure we shan't,' said Gabriel, soothingly.
"Ye be a very old aged person, malter,' attested Jan
must have a wonderful talented constitution to be able
to live so long, mustn't he, neighbours?'
"True, true; ye must, malter, wonderful;' said the
meeting unanimously.
The maltster, being know pacified, was even generous
enough to voluntarily disparage in a slight degree the
virtue of having lived a great many years, by mentioning
that the cup they were drinking out of was three years
older than he.
While the cup was being examined, the end of
Gabriel Oak's flute became visible over his smock-frock
I seed you blowing into a great flute by now at Caster+
bridge?'
"You did,' said Gabriel, blushingh faintly. "I've been
in great trouble, neighbours, and was driven to it.
take it careless-like, shepherd and your time will come
tired?'
"Neither drum nor trumpet have I heard since
Christmas,' said Jan Coggan. "Come, raise a tune,
Master Oak!'
"That I will,' said Gabriel, pulling out his flute and
putting it together. "A poor tool, neighbours; but
such as I can do ye shall have and welcome.'
Oak then struck up "Jockey to the Fair,' and played
that sparkling melody three times through accenting the
notes in the third round in a most artistic and lively
manner by bending his body in small jerks and tapping
with his foot to beat time.
"He can blow the flute very well -- that 'a can,' said
a young married man, who having no individuality worth
mentioning was known as "Susan Tall's husband.' He
continued, "I'd as lief as not be able to blow into a
flute as well-as that.'
"He's a clever man, and 'tis a true comfort for us to
have such a shepherd,' murmured Joseph Poorgrass, in
a soft cadence. "We ought to feel full o' thanksgiving
that he's not a player of ba'dy songs 'instead of these
merry tunes; for 'twould have been just as easy for God
to have made the shepherd a loose low man -- a man of
iniquity, so to speak it -- as what he is. Yes, for our wives'
and daughters' sakes we should feel real thanks giving.'
"True, true, -- real thanksgiving!' dashed in Mark
Clark conclusively, not feeling it to be of any conse+
quence to his opinion that he had only heard about a
word and three-quarters of what Joseph had said.
"Yes,' added Joseph, beginning to feel like a man in
the Bible; "for evil do thrive so in these times that ye
may be as much deceived in the clanest shaved and
whitest shirted man as in the raggedest tramp upon the
turnpike, if I may term it so.'
"Ay, I can mind yer face now, shepherd,' said
Henery Fray, criticising Gabriel with misty eyes as he
entered upon his second tune. "Yes -- now I see 'ee
blowing into the flute I know 'ee to be the same man
I see play at Casterbridge, for yer mouth were scrimped
up and yer eyes a-staring out like a strangled man's --
just as they be now.'
"'Tis a pity that playing the flute should make a man
look such a scarecrow,' observed Mr. Mark Clark, with
additional criticism of Gabriel's countenance, the latter
person jerking out, with the ghastly grimace required by
the instrument, the chorus of "Dame Durden!
"I hope you don't mind that young man's bad
manners in naming your features?' whispered Joseph to
Gabriel.
"Not at all,' said Mr. Oak.
"For by nature ye be a very handsome man,
shepherd,' continued Joseph Poorgrass, with winning
sauvity.
"Ay, that ye be, shepard,' said the company.
"Thank you very much,' said Oak, in the modest
tone good
manners demanded, thinking, however, that
he would never let Bathsheba see him playing the
flute; in this severe showing s discretion equal to that
related to its sagacious inventress, the divine Minerva
herself.
"Ah, when I and my wife were married at Norcombe
Church,' said the old maltster, not pleased at finding
himself left out of the subject "we were called the
handsomest couple in the neighbourhood -- everybody
said so.'
"Danged if ye bain't altered now, malter,' said a voice
with the vigour natural to the enunciation of a remark+
ably evident truism. It came from the old man in the
background, whose offensiveness and spiteful ways were
barely atoned for by the occasional chuckle he con+
tributed to general laughs.
"O no, no,' said Gabriel.
"Don't ye play no more shepherd ' said Susan Tall's
husband, the young married man who had spoken once
before. "I must be moving and when there's tunes
going on I seem as if hung in wires. If I thought after
I'd left that music was still playing, and I not there, I
should be quite melancholy-like.'
"What's yer hurry then, Laban?' inquired Coggan+
"You used to bide as late as the latest.'
"Well, ye see, neighbours, I was lately married to a
woman, and she's my vocation now, and so ye see -- -- '
The young man hated lamely.
"New Lords new laws, as the saying is, I suppose,'
remarked Coggan.
"Ay, 'a b'lieve -- ha, ha!' said Susan Tall's husband,
in a tone intended to imply his habitual reception of
jokes without minding them at all. The young man
then wished them good-night and withdrew.
Henery Fray was the first to follow. Then Gabriel
arose and went off with Jan Coggan, who had offered
him a lodging. A few minutes later, when the remaining
ones were on their legs and about to depart, Fray came
back again in a hurry. Flourishing his finger ominously
he threw a gaze teeming with tidings just -- where his eye
alighted by accident, which happened to be in Joseph
Poorgrass's face.
"O -- what's the matter, what's the matter, Henery?'
said Joseph, starting back.
"What's a-brewing, Henrey?' asked Jacob and Mark
Clark.
"Baily Pennyways -- Baily Pennyways -- I said so; yes,
I said so!'
"What, found out stealing anything?'
"Stealing it is. The news is, that after Miss
Everdene got home she went out again to see all was
safe, as she usually do, and coming in found Baily
Pennyways creeping down the granary steps with half a
a bushel of barley. She fleed at him like a cat -- never
such a tomboy as she is -- of course I speak with closed
doors?'
"You do -- you do, Henery.'
"She fleed at him, and, to cut a long story short,
he owned to having carried off five sack altogether, upon
her promising not to persecute him. Well, he's turned
out neck and crop, and my question is, who's going to
be baily now?'
The question was such a profound one that Henery
was obliged to drink there and then from the large
cup till the bottom was distinctly visible inside. Before
he had replaced it on the table, in came the young man,
Susan Tall's husband, in a still greater hurry.
"Have ye heard the news that's all over parish?'
"About Baily Pennyways?'
"But besides that?'
"No -- not a morsel of it!' they replied, looking into
the very midst of Laban Tall as if to meet his words
half-way down his throat.
"What a night of horrors!' murmured Joseph Poor+
grass, waving his hands spasmodically. "I've had the
news-bell ringing in my left ear quite bad enough for a
murder, and I've seen a magpie all alone!'
"Fanny Robin -- Miss everdene's youngest servant --
can't be found. They've been wanting to lock up the
door these two hours, but she isn't come in. And they
don't know what to do about going to hed for fear of
locking her out. They wouldn't be so concerned if she
hadn't been noticed in such low spirits
these last few
days, and Maryann d'think the beginning of a crowner's
inquest has happened to the poor girl.'
"O -- 'tis burned -- 'tis burned!' came from Joseph
Poorgrass's dry lips.
"No -- 'tis drowned!' said 'Tall.
"Or 'tis her father's razor!' suggested Billy Smallbury,
with a vivid sense of detail.
"Well -- Miss Everdene wants to speak to one or two
of us before we go to bed. What with this trouble about
the baily, and now about the girl, mis'ess is almost wild.'
They all hastened up the lane to the farmhouse,
excepting the old maltster, whom neither news, fire,
rain, nor thunder could draw from his hole. There, as
the others' footsteps died away he sat down again and
continued gazing as usual into the furnace with his red,
bleared eyes.
From the bedroom window above their heads Bath+
sheba's head and shoulders, robed in mystic white, were
dimly seen extended into the air.
"Are any of my men among you?' she said anxiously.
"Yes, ma'am, several,' said Susan Tall's husband.
"Tomorrow morning I wish two or three of you to
make inquiries in the villages round if they have seen
such a person as Fanny Robin. Do it quietly; there is
no reason for alarm as yet. She must have left whilst
we were all at the fire.'
"I beg yer pardon, but had she any young man court+
ing her in the parish, ma'am?" asked Jacob Smallbury.
"I don't know,' said Bathsheba.
"I've never heard of any such thing, ma'am,' said
two or three.
"It is hardly likely, either,' continued Bathsheba.
"For any lover of hers might have come to the house if
he had been a respectable lad. The most mysterious
matter connected with her absence -- indeed, the only
thing which gives me serious alarm -- is that she was
seen to go out of the house by Maryann with only her
indoor working gown on -- not even a bonnet.'
"And you mean, ma'am, excusing my words, that a
young
woman would hardly go to see her young man
without dressing up,' said Jacob, turning his mental
vision upon past experiences. "That's true -- she would
not, ma'am.'
"She had, I think, a bundle, though I couldn't see
very well,' said a female voice from another window,
which seemed that of Maryann. "But she had no
young man about here. Hers lives in Casterbridge, and
I believe he's a soldier.'
"Do you know his name?' Bathsheba said.
"No, mistress; she was very close about it.'
"Perhaps I might be able to find out if I went to
Casterbridge barracks,' said William Smallbury.
"Very well; if she doesn't return tomorrow, mind
you go there and try to discover which man it is, and
see him. I feel more responsible than I should if she
had had any friends or relations alive. I do hope she
has come to no harm through a man of that kind....
And then there's this disgraceful affair of the bailiff --
but I can't speak of him now.'
Bathsheba had so many reasons for uneasiness that
it seemed she did not think it worth while to dwell
upon any particular one. "Do as I told you, then'
she said in conclusion, closing the casement.
"Ay, ay, mistress; we will,' they replied, and moved
away.
That night at Coggan's, Gabriel Oak, beneath the
screen of closed eyelids, was busy with fancies, and full
of movement, like a river flowing rapidly under its ice.
Night had always been the time at which he saw Bath+
sheba most vividly, and through the slow hours of
shadow he tenderly regarded her image now. It is
rarely that the pleasures of the imagination will compen+
sate for the pain of sleeplessness, but they possibly did
with Oak to-night, for the delight of merely seeing her
effaced for the time his perception of the great differ+
ence between seeing and possessing.
He also thought of Plans for fetching his few utensils
and books from Norcombe. The Young Man's Best
Companion, The Farrier's Sure Guide, The Veterinary
Surgeon, Paradise Lost, The Pilgrim's Progress, Robinson
Crusoe, Ash's Dictionary, the Walkingame's Arithmetic,
constituted his library;
and though a limited series, it was
one from which he had acquired more sound informa+
tion by diligent perusal than many a man of opportunities
has done from a furlong of laden shelves.
THE HOMESTEAD -- A VISITOR -- HALF-CONFIDENCES
By daylight, the Bower of Oak's new-found mistress,
Bathsheba Everdene, presented itself as a hoary build+
ing, of the early stage of Classic Renaissance as regards
its architecture, and of 'a proportion which told at a
glance that, as is so frequently the case, it had once
been the memorial hall upon a small estate around it,
now altogether effaced as a distinct property, and merged
in the vast tract of a non-resident landlord, which com+
prised several such modest demesnes.
Fluted pilasters, worked from the solid stone,
decorated its front, and above the roof the chimneys
were panelled or columnar, some coped gables with
finials and like features still retaining traces of their
Gothic extraction. Soft Brown mosses, like faded
velveteen, formed cushions upon the stone tiling, and
tufts of the houseleek or sengreen sprouted from the
eaves of the low surrounding buildings. A gravel walk
leading from the door to the road in front was encrusted
at the sides with more moss -- here it was a silver-green
variety, the nut-brown of the gravel being visible to the
width of only a foot or two in the centre. This circum+
stance, and the generally sleepy air of the whole prospect
here, together with the animated and contrasting state
of the reverse facade, suggested to the imagination that
on the adaptation of the building for farming purposes
the vital principle' of the house had turned round inside
its body to face the other way. Reversals of this kind,
strange deformities, tremendous paralyses, are often seen
to be inflicted by trade upon edifices -- either individual
or in the aggregate as streets and towns -- which were
originally planned for pleasure alone.
Lively voices were heard this morning in the upper
rooms, the main staircase to which was of hard oak, the
balusters, heavy as bed-posts, being turned and moulded
in the quaint
fashion of their century, the handrail as
stout as a parapet-top, and the stairs themselves con+
tinually twisting round like a person trying to look over
his shoulder. Going up, the floors above were found
to have a very irregular surface, rising to ridges, sinking
into valley; and being just then uncarpeted, the face
of the boards was seen to be eaten into innumerable
the opening and shutting of every door a tremble
followed every bustling movement, and a creak accom+
panied a walker about the house like a spirit, wherever+
he went.
In the room from which the conversation proceeded,
Bathsheba and her servant-companion, Liddy Small+
bury were to be discovered sitting upon the floor, and
sorting a complication of papers, books, bottles, and
rubbish spread out thereon -- remnants from the house+
hold stores of the late occupier. Liddy, the maltster's
great-granddaughter, was about Bathsheba's equal in
age, and her face was a prominent advertisement of the
features' might have lacked in form was amply made up
for by perfection of hue, which at this winter-time was
the softened ruddiness on a surface of high rotundity
and, like the presentations of those great colourists, it
was a face which kept well back from the boundary
between comeliness and the ideal. Though elastic in
nature she was less daring than Bathsheba, and occa+
sionally showed some earnestness, which consisted half
of genuine feeling, and half of mannerliness superadded
by way of duty.
Through a partly-opened door the noise of a scrubbing+
brush led up to the charwoman, Maryann Money, a person
who for a face had a circular disc, furrowed less by age
than by long gazes of perplexity at distant objects. To
think of her was to get good-humoured; to speak of
her was to raise the image of a dried Normandy
pippin.
"Stop your scrubbing a moment,' said Bathsheba
through the door to her. "I hear something.'
Maryann suspended the brush.
The tramp of a horse was apparent, approaching the
front of the building. The paces slackened, turned in
at the wicket, and, what was most unusual, came up
the mossy path close to the door. The door was
tapped with the end of a crop or stick.
"What impertinence!' said Liddy, in a low voice.
"To ride up the footpath like that! Why didn't he
stop at the gate? Lord! "tis a gentleman! I see the
top of his hat.'
"Be quiet!' said Bathsheba.
The further expression of Liddy's concern was con+
tinued by aspect instead of narrative.
"Why doesn't Mrs. Coggan go to the door?' Bath+
sheba continued.
Rat-tat-tat-tat, resounded more decisively from Bath+
sheba's oak.
"Maryann, you go!' said she, fluttering under the
onset ot a crowd of romantic possibilities.
"O ma'am -- see, here's a mess!'
The argument was unanswerable after a glance at
Maryann.
"Liddy -- you must,' said Bathsheba.
Liddy held up her hands and arms, coated with dust
from the rubbish they were sorting, and looked implor+
ingly at her mistress.
"There -- -Mrs. Coggan is going!' said Bathsheba,
exhaling her relief in the form of a long breath which
had lain in her bosom a minute or more.
The door opened, and a deep voice said --
"Is Miss Everdene at home?'
"I'll see, sir,' said Mrs. Coggan, and in a minute
appeared in the room.
"Dear, what a thirtover place this world is!' con+
tinued Mrs. Coggan (a wholesome-looking lady who
had a voice for each class of remark according to the
emotion involved; who could toss a pancake or twirl
a mop with the accuracy of pure mathematics, and
who at this moment showed hands shaggy with frag+
ments of dough and arms encrusted with flour). "I
am never up to my elbows, Miss, in making a pudding
but one of two things do happen -- either my nose must
needs begin
tickling, and I can't live without scratching
A woman's dress being a part of her countenance,
and any disorder in the one being of the same nature
with a malformation or wound in the other, Bathsheba
said at once --
"I can't see him in this state. Whatever shall I do?'
Not-at-homes were hardly naturalized in Weatherbury
farmhouses, so Liddy suggested -- "Say you're a fright
with dust, and can't come down.'
"Yes -- that sounds very well,' said Mrs. Coggan,
critically.
"Say I can't see him -- that will do.'
Mrs. Coggan went downstairs, and returned the
answer as requested, adding, however, on her own
responsibility, "Miss is dusting bottles, sir, and is quite
a object -- that's why 'tis.'
"Oh, very well,' said the deep voice,' indifferently.
"All I wanted to ask was, if anything had been heard
of Fanny Robin?'
"Nothing, sir -- but we may know to-night. William
Smallbury is gone to Casterbridge, where her young
man lives, as is supposed, and the other men be inquir+
ing about everywhere.'
The horse's tramp then recommenced and -retreated,
and the door closed.
"Who is Mr. Boldwood?' said Bathsheba.
"A gentleman-farmer at Little Weatherbury.'
"Married?'
"No, miss.'
"How old is he?'
"Forty, I should say -- very handsome -- rather stern+
looking -- and rich.'
"What a bother this dusting is! I am always in
some unfortunate plight or other;' Bathsheba said,
complainingly. "Why should he inquire aboat Fanny?'
"Oh, because, as she had no friends in her childhood,
he took her and put her to school, and got her her
place here under your uncle. He's a very kind man
that way, but Lord -- there!'
"What?'
"Never was such a hopeless man for a woman!
He's been
courted by sixes and sevens -- all the girls,
gentle and simple, for miles round, have tried him. Jane
Perkins worked at him for two months like a slave,
and the two Miss Taylors spent a year upon him,
and he cost Farmer Ives's daughter nights of tears
and twenty pounds' worth of new clothes; but Lord --
the money might as well have been thrown out of the
window.'
A little boy came up at this moment and looked in
upon them. This child was one of the Coggans who,
with the Smallburys, were as common among the
families of this district as the Avons and Derwents
among our rivers. He always had a loosened tooth or
a cut finger to show to particular friends, which he did
with an air of being thereby elevated above the common
herd of afflictionless humanity -- to which exhibition
of congratulation as well as pity.
"I've got a pen-nee!' said Master Coggan in a
scanning measure.
"Well -- who gave it you, Teddy?' said Liddy.
"Mis-terr Bold-wood! He gave it to me for opening
the gate.'
"What did he say?'
"He said "Where are you going, my little man?''
and I said, "To Miss Everdene's please;'' and he said,
"She is a staid woman, isn't she, my little man?' and
I said, ""Yes.'''
"You naughty child! What did you say that for?'
"Cause he gave me the penny!'
"What a pucker evrything is in!' said Bathsheba,
discontentedly when the child had gone. 'Get away,
thing! You ought to be married by this time, and not
here troubling me!'
"Ay, mistress -- so I did. But what between the poor
men I won't have, and the rich men who won't have me,
I stand as a pelicon in the wilderness!'
"Did anybody ever want to marry you miss?' Liddy
ventured to ask when they were again alone. "Lots of
'em, i daresay.?'
Bathsheba paused, as if about to refuse a reply, but
the temptation to say yes, since it was really in her
power was irresistible by aspiring virginity, in spite of
her spleen at having been published as old.
"A man wanted to once,' she said, in a highly experi+
enced tone and the image of Gabriel Oak, as the farmer,
rose before her.
"How nice it must seem!' said Liddy, with the fixed
features of mental realization. "And you wouldn't have
him?'
"He wasn't quite good enough for me.'
"How sweet to be able to disdain, when most of us
are glad to say, ""Thank you!'' I seem I hear it.
""No, sir -- I'm your better,'' or ""Kiss my foot, sir; my
face is for mouths of consequence.'' And did you love
him, miss?'
"Oh, no. But I rather liked him.'
"Do you now?'
"Of course not -- what footsteps are those I hear?'
Liddy looked from a back window into the courtyard
behind, which was now getting low-toned and dim with
the earliest films of night. A crooked file of men was
approaching the back door. The whole string of trailing
individuals advanced in the completest balance of inten+
tion, like the remarkable creatures known as Chain
Salpae, which, distinctly organized in other respects, have
one will common to a whole family. Some were, as
usual, in snow-white smock-frocks of Russia duck, and
some in whitey-brown ones of drabbet -- marked on the
wrists, breasts, backs, and sleeves with honeycomb-work.
Two or three womcn in pattens brought up the rear.
"The Philistines be upon us,' said Liddy, making her
nose white against the glass.
"Oh, very well. Maryann, go down and keep them
in the kitchen till I am dressed, and then show them in
to me in the hall.'
HALF-AN-HOUR later Bathsheba, in finished dress,
and followed by Liddy, entered the upper end of the old
hall to find that her men had all deposited themselves on
a long form and a settle at the lower extremity. She sat
down at a table and opened th e time-book, pen in her
hand, with a canvas money-bag beside her. From this
she poured a small heap of coin. Liddy chose a
position at her elbow and began to sew, sometimes
pausing and looking round, or with the air of a privileged
person, taking up one of the half-sovereigns lying before
her and surveying it merely as a work of art, while
strictly preventing her countenance from expressing any
wish to possess it as money.
"Now before I begin, men,' said Bathsheba, "I have
two matters to speak of. The first is that the bailiff is
dismissed for thieving, and that I have formed a resolu+
tion to have no bailiff at all, but to manage everything
with my own head and hands.'
The men breathed an audible breath of amazement.
"The next matter is, have you heard anything of
Fanny?'
"Nothing, ma'am.
"Have you done anything?'
"I met Farmer Boldwood,' said Jacob Smallbury, 'and
I went with him and two of his men, and dragged New+
mill Pond, but we found nothing.'
"And the new shepherd have been to Buck's Head,
by Yalbury, thinking she had gone there, but nobody
had seed her,' said Laban Tall.
"Hasn't William Smallbury been to Casterbridge?'
"Yes, ma'am, but he's not yet come home. He
promised to be back by six.'
"It wants a quarter to six at present,' said Bathsheba,
looking at her watch. "I daresay he'll be in directly.
Well, now then' -- she looked into the book -- "Joseph
Poorgrass, are you there?'
"Yes, sir -- ma'am I mane,' said the person addressed.
"I be the personal name of Poorgrass.'
"And what are you?'
"Nothing in my own eye. In the eye of other people
-- well, I don't say it; though public thought will out.'
"What do you do on the farm?'
"I do do carting things all the year, and in seed time I
shoots the rooks and sparrows, and helps at pig-killing, sir.'
"How much to you ?'
"Please nine and ninepence and a good halfpenny
where 'twas a bad one, sir -- ma'am I mane.'
"Quite correct. Now here are ten shillings in addi+
tion as a small present, as I am a new comer.'
Bathsheba blushed slightly at the sense of being
generous in public, and Henery Fray, who had drawn
up towards her chair, lifted his eyebrows and fingers to
express amazement on a small scale.
"How much do I owe you -- that man in the corner --
what's your name?' continued Bathsheba.
"Matthew Moon, ma'am,' said a singular framework of
clothes with nothing of any consequence inside them,
which advanced with the toes in no definite direction
forwards, but turned in or out as they chanced to swing.
"Matthew Mark, did you say? -- speak out -- I shall
not hurt you,' inquired the young farmer, kindly.
"Matthew Moon mem' said Henery Fray, correct+
ingly, from behind her chair, to which point he had
edged himself.
"Matthew Moon,' murmured Bathsheba, turning her
bright eyes to the book. "Ten and twopence halfpenny
is the sum put down to you, I see?'
"Yes, mis'ess,' said Matthew, as the rustle of wind
among dead leaves.
"Here it is and ten shillings. Now -the next -- Andrew
Randle, you are a new man, I hear. How come you to
leave your last farm?'
"P-p-p-p-p-pl-pl-pl-pl-l-l-l-l-ease, ma'am, p-p-p-p-pl-pl+
pl-pl-please, ma'am-please'm-please'm -- -- '
"'A's a stammering man, mem,' said Henery Fray in
an undertone, "and they turned him away because the
only time he ever did speak plain he said his soul was
his own, and other iniquities, to the squire. "A can cuss,
mem, as well as you or I, but 'a can't speak a common
speech to save his life.'
"Andrew Randle, here's yours -- finish thanking me
in a day or two. Temperance Miller -- oh, here's another,
Soberness -- both women I suppose?'
"Yes'm. Here we be, 'a b'lieve,' was echoed in shrill
unison.
"What have you been doing?'
"Tending thrashing-machine and wimbling haybonds,
and saying ""Hoosh!'' to the cocks and hens when they
go upon your seeds and planting Early Flourballs and
Thompson's Wonderfuls with a dibble.'
"Yes -- I see. Are they satisfactory women?' she
inquired softly of Henery Fray.
"O mem -- don't ask me! Yeilding women?' as
scarlet a pair as ever was!' groaned Henery under his
breath.
"Sit down.
"Who, mem?'
"Sit down,'
Joseph Poorgrass, in the background twitched, and
his lips became dry with fear of some terrible conse+
quences, as he saw Bathsheba summarily speaking, and
Henery slinking off to a corner.
"Now the next. Laban Tall, you'll stay on working
for me?'
"For you or anybody that pays me well, ma'am,'
replied the young married man.
"True -- the man must live!' said a woman in the
back quarter, who had just entered with clicking pattens.
"What woman is that?" Bathsheba asked.
"I be his lawful wife!' continued the voice with
greater prominence of manner and tone. This lady
called herself five-and-twenty, looked thirty, passed as
thirty-five, and was forty. She was a woman who never,
like some newly married, showed
conjugal tenderness in
public, perhaps because she had none to show.
"Oh, you are,' said Bathsheba. "Well, Laban, will
you stay on ?'
"Yes, he'll stay, ma'am!' said again the shrill tongue
of Laban's lawful wife.
"Well, he can speak for himself, I suppose.'
"O Lord, not he, ma'am! A simple tool. Well
enough, but a poor gawkhammer mortal,' the wife replied
"Heh-heh-heh!' laughed the married man with a
hideous effort of appreciation, for he was as irrepressibly
good-humoured under ghastly snubs as a parliamentary
candidate on the hustings.
The names remaining were called in the same
manner.
"Now I think I have done with you,' said Bathsheba,
closing the book and shaking back a stray twine of hair.
"Has William Smallbury returned?'
"No, ma'am.'
"The new shepherd will want a man under him,'
suggested Henery Fray, trying to make himself official
again by a sideway approach towards her chair.
"Oh -- he will. Who can he have?'
"Young Cain Ball is a very good lad,' Henery said,
"and Shepherd Oak don't mind his youth?' he added,
turning with an apologetic smile to the shepherd, who
had just appeared on the scene, and was now leaning
against the doorpost with his arms folded.
"No, I don't mind that,' said Gabriel.
"How did Cain come by such a name?' asked
Bathsheba.
"Oh you see, mem, his pore mother, not being a
Scripture-read woman made a mistake at his christening,
thinking 'twas Abel killed Cain, and called en Cain,
but 'twas too late, for the name could never be got rid
of in the parish. "Tis very unfortunate for the boy.'
"It is rather unfortunate.'
"Yes. However, we soften it down as much as we
can, and call him Cainey. Ah, pore widow-woman!
she cried her heart
out about it almost. She was
brought up by a very heathen father and mother, who
never sent her to church or school, and it shows how
the sins of the parents are visited upon the children,
mem.'
Mr. Fray here drew up his features to the mild degree
of melancholy required when the persons involved in
the given misfortune do not belong to your own family.
"Very well then, Cainey Ball to be under-shepherd
And you quite understand your duties? -- you I mean,
Gabriel Oak?'
"Quite well, I thank you Miss Everdene,' said
Shepard Oak from the doorpost. "If I don't, I'll
inquire.' Gabriel was rather staggered by the remark+
able coolness of her manner. Certainly nobody without
previous information would have dreamt that Oak and
the handsome woman before whom he stood had ever
been other than strangers. But perhaps her air was
the inevitable result of the social rise which had advanced
her from a cottage to a large house and fields. The
case is not unexampled in high places. When, in the
writings of the later poets, Jove and his family are found
to have moved from their cramped quarters on the peak
of Olympus into the wide sky above it, their words show
a proportionate increase of arrogance and reserve.
Footsteps were heard in the passage, combining in
their character the qualities both of weight and measure,
rather at the expense of velocity.
(All.) 'Here's Billy Smallbury come from Caster+
bridge.'
' And what's the news ? ' said Bathsheba, as William,
after marching to the middle of the hall, took a hand+
kerchief from his hat and wiped his forehead from its
centre to its remoter boundaries.
'I should have been sooner, miss,' he said, 'if it
hadn't been for the weather.' He then stamped with
each foot severely, and on looking down his boots were
perceived to be clogged with snow.
'Come at last, is it ?' said Henery.
" Well, what about Fanny ? ' said Bathsheba.
"Well, ma'am, in round numbers, she's run away with
the soldiers,' said William.
" No; not a steady girl like Fanny ! '
"I'll tell ye all particulars. When I got to Caster,
bridge Barracks, they said, " The Eleventh Dragoon+
Guards be gone away, and new troops have come."
The Eleventh left last week for Melchester and onwards.
The Route came from Government like a thief in the
night, as is his nature to, and afore the Eleventh knew
it almost, they wem on the march. They passed near
here.'
Gabriel had listened with interest. 'I saw them go,'
he said.
' Yes,' continued William, ' they pranced down the
street playing "The Girl I Left Behind Me,' so 'tis
said, in glorious notes of triumph. Every looker-on's
inside shook with the blows of the great drum to his
deepest vitals, and there was not a dry eye throughout
the town among the public-house people and the name+
less women !.'
'But they're not gone to any war?'
'No, ma'am; but they be gone to take the places
of them who may, which is very close connected. And
so I said to myself, Fanny's young man was one of the
regiment, and she's gone after him. There, ma'am,
that's it in black and white.'
Gabriel remained musing and said nothing, for he
was in doubt.
'Well, we are not likely to know more to-night, at
any rate,' said Bathsheba. 'But one of you had better
run across to Farmer Boldwood's and tell him that
much.'
She then rose; but before retiring, addressed a few
words to them with a pretty dignity, to which her
mourning dress added a soberness that was hardly to
be found in the words themselves.
'Now mind, you have a mistress instead of a master
I don't yet know my powers or my talents in farming;
but I shall do my best, and if you serve me well, so
shall I serve you. Don't any unfair ones among you
(if there are any such, but I hope not) suppose that
because I'm a woman I don't understand the difference
between bad goings-on and good.'
(All.) 'Nom!.
(Liddy.) 'Excellent well said.'
'I shall be up before you are awake; I shall be
afield before you are up ; and I shall have breakfasted
before you are afield. In short, I shall astonish you all.
(All.) 'Yes'm!'
'And so good-night.'
(All.) 'Good-night, ma'am.'
Then this small-thesmothete stepped from the table,
and surged out of the hall, her black silk dress licking
up a few straws and dragging them along with a scratch+
ing noise upon the floor. biddy, elevating her feelings
to the occasion from a sense of grandeur, floated off
behind Bathsheba with a milder dignity not entirely
free from travesty, and the door was closed.
OUTSIDE THE BARRACKS -- SNOW -- A MEETING
FOR dreariness nothing could surpass a prospect in the
outskirts of a certain town and military station, many
miles north of Weatherbury, at a later hour on this
same snowy evening -- if that may be called a prospect
of which the chief constituent was darkness.
It was a night when sorrow may come to the
brightest without causing any great sense of incongruity :
when, with impressible persons, love becomes solicitous+
ness, hope sinks to misgiving, and faith to hope : when
the exercise of memory does not stir feelings of regret
at opportunities for ambition that have been passed by,
and anticipation does not prompt to enterprise.
The scene was a public path, bordered on the left
hand by a river, behind which rose a high wall. On
the right was a tract of land, partly meadow'and partly
moor, reaching, at its remote verge, to a wide undulating
uplan.
The changes of the seasons are less obtrusive on
spots of this kind than amid woodland scenery. Still,
to a close observer, they are just as perceptible ; the
difference is that their media of manifestation are less
trite and familiar than such well-known ones as the
bursting of the buds or the fall of the leaf. Many are
not so stealthy and gradual as we may be apt to
imagine in considering the general torpidity of a moor
or waste. Winter, in coming to the country hereabout,
advanced in well-marked stages, wherein might have
been successively observed the retreat of the snakes,
the transformation of the ferns, the filling of the pools,
a rising of fogs, the embrowning by frost, the collapse
of the fungi, and an obliteration by snow.
This climax of the series had been reached to-night on
the aforesaid moor, and for the first time in the season
its
irregularities were forms without features ; suggestive
of anything, proclaiming nothing, and without more
character than that of being the limit of something
else -- the lowest layer of a firmament of snow. From
this chaotic skyful of crowding flakes the mead and
moor momentarily received additional clothing, only
to appear momentarily more naked thereby. The vast
arch of cloud above was strangely low, and formed as
it were the roof of a large dark cavern, gradually sinking
in upon its floor; for the instinctive thought was that
the snow lining the heavens and that encrusting the
earth would soon unite into one mass without any
intervening stratum of air at all.
We turn our attention to the left-hand characteristics ;
which were flatness in respect of the river, verticality
in respect of the wall behind it, and darkness as to
both. These features made up the mass. If anything
could be darker than the sky, it was the wall, and if any
thing could be gloomier than the wall it was the river
beneath. The indistinct summit of the facade was
notched and pronged by chimneys here and there, and
upon its face were faintly signified the oblong shapes
of windows, though only in the upper part. Below,
down to the water's edge, the flat was unbroken by
hole or projection.
An indescribable succession of dull blows, perplexing
in their regularity, sent their sound- with difficulty
through the fluffy atmosphere. It was a neighbouring
clock striking ten The bell was in the open air, and
being overlaid with several inches of muffling snow, had
lost its voiee for the time.
About this hour the snow abated : ten flakes fell
where twenty had fallen, then one had the room of
ten. Not long after a form moved by the brink of
the river.
By its outline upon the colourless background, a close
observer might have seen 'that it was small. This was
all that was positively discoverable, though it seemed
human.
The shape went slowly along, but without much
exertion, for the snow, though sudden, was not as yet
more than two inches deep. At this time some words
were spoken aloud : --
' One. Two. 'Three. Four. Five.'
Between each utterance the little shape advanced
about half a dozen yards. It was evident now that
the windows high
in the wall were being counted.
The word 'Five' represented the fifth window from
the end of the wall.
Here the spot stopped, and dwindled smaller. The
figure was stooping. Then a morsel of snow flew
across the river towards the fifth window. It smacked
against the wall at a point several yards from its mark.
The throw was the idea of a man conjoined with the
execution of a woman. No man who had ever seen bird,
rabbit, or squirrel in his childhood, could possibly have
thrown with such utter imbecility as was shown here.
Another attempt, and another ; till by degrees the
wall must have become pimpled with the adhering
lumps of snow At last one fragment struck the fifth
window.
The river would have been; seen by day to be of
that deep smooth sort which races middle and' sides
with the same gliding precision, any irregularities of
speed being immediately corrected by a small whirl+
pool. Nothing was heard in reply to the signal but
the gurgle and cluck of one of these invisible wheels --
together with a few small sounds which a sad man
would have called moans, and a happy man laughter --
caused by the flapping of the waters against trifling
objects in other parts of the stream.
The window was struck again in the same manner.
Then a noise was heard, apparently produced by
the opening of the window. This was followed by a
voice from the same quarter.
'Who's there ? '
The tones were masculine, and not those of surprise.
The high wall being that of a barrack, and marriage
being looked upon with disfavour in the army, assigna+
tions and communications had probably been made
across the river before tonight.
"Is it Sergeant Troy?' said the blurred spot in the
snow, tremulously.
This person was so much like a mere shade upon
the earth, and the other speaker so much a part of
the building, that one would have said the wall was
holding a conversation with the snow.
'Yes,' came suspiciously from the shadow. ' What
girl are you ? '
'O, Frank -- don't you know me ?' said the spot.
'Your wife, Fanny Robin.'
' Fanny !.' said the wall, in utter astonishment.
'Yes,' said the girl, with a half-suppressed gasp of
emotion.
There was something in the woman's tone which is
not that of the wife, and there was a mannerin the man
which is rarely a husband's. The dialogue went on:
'How did you come here ?'
'I asked which was your window. Forgive me !. '
"I did not expect you to-night. Indeed, I did not
think you would come at all. It was a wonder you
found me here. I am orderly to-morrow.'
'You said I was to come.'
' Well -- I said that you might.'
'Yes, I mean that I might. You are glad to see me,
Frank ? '
' O yes -- of course.'
' Can you -- come to me !.'
'My dear Fan, no .! The bugle has sounded, the
barrack gates are closed, and I have no leave. We are
all of us as good as in the county gaol till to-morrow
morning.'
' Then I shan't see you till then .! ' The words- were
in a faltering tone of disappointment.
' How did you get here from Weatherbury ? '
'I walked -- some part of the way -- the rest by the
carriers.'
' I am surprised.'
' Yes -- so am I. And Frank, when will it 'be ? '
' What ? '
' That you promised.'
" I don't quite recollect.'
'0 You do! Don't speak like that. It weighs me
to the earth. It makes me say what ought to be said
first by you.'
' Never mind -- say it.'
'0, must I? -- it is, when shall we be married,
Frank ? '
" Oh, I " see. Well -- you have to get proper
clothes.'
"I have money. Will it be by banns or license ?'
" Banns, I should think.'
" And we live in two parishes.'
"Do we ? What then?'
"My lodgings are in St. Mary's, and this is not. So
they will have to be published in both.'
"Is that the law?'
" Yes. O Frank -- you think me forward, I am
afraid .! Don't, dear Frank -- will you -- for I love you so.
And you said lots of times you would marry me, and
and -- I -- I -- I -- -- '
"Don't cry, now! It is foolish. If i said so, of
course I will.'
'And shall I put up the banns in my parish, and will
you in yours?'
"Yes'
"To-morrow?'
"Not tomorrow. We'll settle in a few days.'
"You have the permission of the officers?'
"No, not yet.'
"O -- how is it? You said you almost had before
you left Casterbridge.'
"The fact is, I forgot to ask. Your coming like this
I'll go away now. Will you qoDe,and seq be to-morroy
is so sudden and unexpected.'
"Yes -- yes -- it is. It was wrong of me to worry you.
I'll go away now. Will you come and see me to-morrow,
at Mrs. Twills's, in North Street? I don't like to come
to the Barracks. There are bad women about, and they
think me one.'
"Quite,so. I'll come to you, my dean Good-night.'
"Good-night, Frank -- good-night!'
And the noise was again heard of a window closing
The little spot moved away. When she passed the
corner a subdued exclamation was heard inside the
wall.
"Ho -- ho -- Sergeant -- ho -- ho!' An expostulation
followed, but it was indistinct; and it became lost amid
a low peal of laughter, which was hardly distinguishable
from the gurgle of the tiny whirlpools outside.
FARMERS -- A RULE -- IN EXCEPTION
THE first public evidence of Bathsheba's decision to
be a farmer in her own person and by proxy no more
was her appearance the following market-day in. the
cornmarket at Casterbridge.
The low though extensive hall, supported by beams
and pillars, and latterly dignified by-the name of Corn Ex+
change, was thronged with hot men who talked among
each other in twos and threes, the speaker of the minute
looking sideways into his auditor's face and concentrating
his argument by a contraction of one eyelid during de+
livery. The greater number carried in their hands
ground-ash saplings, using them partly as walking-sticks
and partly for poking up pigs, sheep, neighbours with
their backs turned, and restful things in general, which
seemed to require such treatment in the course of their
peregrinations. During conversations each subjected
his sapling to great varieties of usage -- bending it round
his back, forming an"arch of it between his two hands,
overweighting it on the ground till it reached nearly a
semicircle; or perhaps it was hastily tucked under the
arm whilst the sample-bag was pulled forth and a hand+
ful of corn poured into the palm, which, after criticism,
was flung upon the floor, an issue of events perfectly
well known to half-a-dozen acute town-bred fowls which
had as usual crept into the building unobserved, and
waited the fulfilment of their anticipations with a high+
stretched neck and oblique eye.
Among these heavy yeomen a feminine figure glided,
the single one of her sex that the room contained. She
was prettily and even daintily dressed. She moved
between them as a chaise between carts, was heard after
them as a romance after sermons, was felt among them
like a breeze among furnaces. It had required a little
determination -- far more than she had at
first imagined
-- to take up a position here, for at her first entry the
lumbering dialogues had ceased, nearly every face had
been turned towards her, and those that were already
turned rigidly fixed there.
Two or three only of the farmers were personally
known to Bathsheba, and to these she had made her
way. But if she was to be the practical woman she had
intended to show herself, business must be carried on,
introductions or none, and she ultimately acquired con+
fidence enough to speak and reply boldly to men merely
known to her by hearsay. Bathsheba too had her
sample-bags, and by degrees adopted the professional
pour into the hand -- holding up the grains in her narrow
palm for inspection, in perfect Casterbridge manner.
Something in the exact arch of her upper unbroken
row of teeth, and in the keenly pointed corners of her
red mouth when, with parted lips, she somewhat
defiantly turned up her face to argue a point with a
tall man, suggested that there was potentiality enough
in that lithe slip of humanity for alarming exploits of
sex, and daring enough to carry them out. But her eyes
had a softness -- invariably a softness -- which, had they
not been dark, would have seemed mistiness; as they
were, it lowered an expression that might have been
piercing to simple clearness,
Strange to say of a woman in full bloom and vigor,
she always allowed her interlocutors to finish their state+
ments before rejoining with hers. In arguing on prices,
he held to her own firmly, as was natural in a dealer,
and reduced theirs persistently, as was inevitable in a
oman. But there was an elasticity in her firmness
which removed it from obstinacy, as there was a naivete
in her cheapening which saved it from meanness.
Those of the farmers with whom she had no dealings
by far the greater part) were continually asking each
other, "Who is she?' The reply would be --
"Farmer Everdene's niece; took on Weatherbury
Upper Farm; turned away the baily, and swears she'll do
verything herself.'
The other man would then shake his head.
"Yes, 'tis a pity she's so headstrong,' the first would
say. "But we ought to be proud of her here -- she
lightens up the old place. 'Tis such a shapely maid,
however, that she'll soon get picked up.'
It would be ungallant to suggest that the novelty of
her engagement in such an occupation had almost as
much to do with the magnetism as had the beauty of
her face and movements. However, te interest was
eneral, and this Saturday's debut in the forum, whatever
it may have been to Bathsheba as the buying and selling
farmer, was unquestionably a triumph to her as the
maiden. Indeed, the sensation was so pronounced that
her instinct on two or three occasions was merely to
valk as a queen among these gods of the fallow, like a
little sister of a little Jove, and"to neglect closing prices
altogether.
The numerous evidences of-her power to attract were
only thrown into greater relief by a marked exception.
Women seem to have eyes in their ribbons for such
matters as these. Bathsheba, without looking within
a right angle of him, was conscious of a black sheep
among the flock.
It perplexed her first. If there had been a respect+
able minority on either side, the case would have been
most natural. If nobody had regarded her, she would
have -- -taken the matter indifferently -- such cases had
occurred. If eveybody, this man included, she would
have taken it as a matter of course -- people had done
so before. But the smallness of the exception made the
mystery.
She soon knew thus much of the recusant's appear+
ance. He was a gentlemanly man, with full and
distinctly outlined Roman features, the prominences
of which glowed in the sun with a bronze-like richness
of tone. He was erect in attitude, and quiet in
demeanour. One characteristic pre-eminently marked
him -- dignity.
Apparently he had some time ago reached that
entrance to middle age at which a man's aspect naturally
ceases to alter for the term of a dozen years or so; and,
artificially, a woman't does likewise. Thirty-five and
fifiy were his limits of variation -- he might have been
either, or anywhere between the two.
It may be said that married men of forty are usually
ready
and generous enough to fling passing glances at
any specimen of moderate beauty they may discern by
the way. Probably, as with persons playing whist for
love, the consciousness of a certain immunity under
any circumstances from that worst possible ultimate,
the having to pay, makes them unduly speculative.
Bathsheba was convinced that this unmoved person
was not a married man.
When marketing was over, she rushed off to Liddy,
who was waiting for her -- beside the yellowing in which
they had driven to town. The horse was put in, and
on they trotted Bathsheba's sugar, tea, and drapery
parcels being packed behind, and expeessing in some
indescribable manner, by their colour, shape, and
general lineaments, that they were that youmg lady+
farmer's property, and the grocer's and drapers no
more.
" I've been through it, Liddy, and it is over. I shan't
mind it again, for they will all have grown accustomed
to seeing me there; but this morning it was as bad as
being married -- eyes everywhere!'
"I knowed it would. be,' Liddy said "Men be such
a terrible class of society to look at a body.'
"But there was one man who had more sense than
to waste his time upon me.' The information was put
in this form that Liddy might not for a moment suppose
her mistress was at all piqued. "A very good-looking
man,' she continued, "upright; about forty, I should
think. Do you know at all who he could be?'
Liddy couldn't think.
"Can't you guess at all?' said Bathsheba with some
disappointment.
"I haven't a notion; besides, 'tis no difference, since
he took less notice of you than any of the rest. Now,
if he'd taken more, it would have mattered a great deal.'
Bathsheba was suffering from the reverse feeling just
then, and they bowled along in silence. A low carriage,
bowling along still more rapidly behind a horse of un+
impeachable breed, overtook and passed them.
"Why, there he is!' she said.
Liddy looked. "That! That's Farmer Boldwood --
of course
'tis -- the man you couldn't see the other day
when he called.'
"Oh, Farmer Boldwood,' murmured Bathsheba, and
looked at him as he outstripped them. The farmer had
never turned his head once, but with eyes fixed on the
most advanced point along the road, passed as uncon+
sciously and abstractedly as if Bathshea and her charms
were thin air.
"He's an interesting man -- don't you think so?' she
remarked.
"O yes, very. Everybody owns it,' replied Liddy.
"I wonder why he is so wrapt up and indifferent, and
seemingly so far away from all he sees around him,'
"It is said -- but not known for certain -- that he met
with some bitter disappointment when he was a young
man and merry. A woman jilted him, they say.'
"People always say that -- and we know very well
women scarcely ever jilt men; 'tis the men who jilt us.
I expect it is simply his nature to be so reserved.'
"Simply his nature -- I expect so, miss -- nothing else
in the world.'
"Still, 'tis more romantic to think he has been served
cruelly, poor thing'! Perhaps, after all, he has! I
"Depend upon it he has. O yes, miss, he has!
feel he must have.'
"However, we are very apt to think extremes of
people. I -- shouldn't wonder after all if it wasn't a
little of both -- just between the two -- rather cruelly
used and rather reserved.'
"O dear no, miss -- I can't think it between the
two!'
"That's most likely.'
"Well, yes, so it is. I am convinced it is most likely.
You may -- take my word, miss, that that's what's the
matter with him.'
SORTES SANCTORUM -- THE VALENTINE
IT was Sunday afternoon in the farmhouse, on the
thirteenth of February. Dinner being over, Bathsheba,
for want of a better companion, had asked Liddy to
come and sit with her. The mouldy pile was dreary
in winter-time before the candles were lighted and the
shutters closed ; the atmosphere of the place seemed
as old as the walls; every nook behind the furniture
had a temperature of its own, for the fire was not
kindled in this part of the house early in the day;
and Bathsheba's new piano, which was an old one
in other annals, looked particularly sloping and out
of level on the warped floor before night threw a
shade over its less prominent angles and hid the
unpleasantness. Liddy, like a little brook, though
shallow, was always rippling; her presence had not so
much weight as to task thought, and yet enough to
exercise it.
On the table lay an old quarto Bible, bound in
leather. Liddy looking at it said, --
"Did you ever find out, miss, who you are going to
marry by means of the Bible and key ?,
"Don't be so foolish, Liddy. As if such things
could be.'
" Well, there's a good deal in it, all the same.'
' Nonsense, child.'
" And it makes your heart beat fearful. Some believe
in it; some don't; I do.'
"Very well, let's try it,' said Bathsheba, bounding
from her seat with that total disregard of consistency
which can be indulged in towards a dependent, and
entering into the spirit of divination at once. 'Go and
get the front door key.'
Liddy fetched it. 'I wish it wasn't Sunday,' she
said, on returning. ' Perhaps 'tis wrong.'
' What's right week days is right Sundays,' replied her
mistress in a tone which was a proof in itself.
The book was opened -- the leaves, drab with age,
being quite worn away at much-read verses by the fore'
fingers "of unpractised readers in former days, where they
were moved along under the line as an aid to the vision.
The special verse in the Book of Ruth was sought out
by Bathsheba, and the sublime words met her eye. They
slightly thrilled and abashed her. It was Wisdom in
the abstract facing Folly in the concrete. Folly in the
concrete blushed, persisted in her intention, and placed
the key on -the book. A rusty patch immediately upon
the verse, caused by previous pressure of an iron
substance thereon, told that this was not the first time
the old volume had been used for the purpose.
'Now keep steady, and be silent,' said Bathsheba.
The 'verse was repeated; the book turned round ;
Bathsheba blushed guiltily.
'Who did you try ?' said Liddy curiously.
'I shall not tell you.'
'Did you notice Mr. Boldwood's doings in church
this morning, miss ? 'Liddy continued, adumbrating by
the remark the track her thoughts had taken.
'No, indeed,' said Bathsheba, with serene indifference
" His pew is exactly opposite yours, miss.'
"I know it.'
"And you did not see his goings on !,'
Certainly I did not, I tell you.'
Liddy assumed a smaller physiognomy, and shut
her lips decisively.
This move was unexpected, and proportionately dis
concerting. " What did he do?' Bathsheba said perforce.
"Didn't turn his head to look at you once all the
service.
"Why should he?' again demanded her mistress,
wearing a nettled look. "I didn't ask him to.
'Oh no. But everybody else was noticing you ; and
it was odd he didn't. There, 'tis like him. Rich and
gentlemanly, what does he care ? '
Bathsheba dropped into a silence intended to ex+
press that she had opinions on the matter too abstruse
for Liddy's comprehension, rather than that she had
nothing to say.
"
Dear me -- I had nearly forgotten the valentine
I bought yesterday,' she exclaimed at length.
"Valentine ! who for, miss ? ' said Liddy. " Farmer
Boldwood ?'
It was the single name among all possible wrong
ones that just at this moment seemed to Bathsheba
more pertinent than the right.
"Well, no. It is only for little Teddy Coggan.
have promised him something, and this will be a pretty
surprise for him. Liddy, you may as well bring me
my desk and I'll direct it at once.'
Bathsheba took from her desk a gorgeously illumin+
ated and embossed design in post-octavo, which had
been "bought on the previous market-day at the chief
stationer's in Casterbridge. In the eentre was a small
oval enclosure ; this was left blank, that the sender
might insert tender words more appropriate to the
special occasion than any generalities by a printer
could possibly be.
" Here's a place for writing,' said Bathsheba. 'What
shall I put ?'
" Something of this sort, I should think', returned
Liddy promptly : --
" The rose is red,
The violet blue,
Camation's sweet,
And so are you.'
" Yes, that shall be it. It just suits itself to a chubby+
faced child like him,' said Bathsheba. She ins.erted the
words in a small though legible handwriting; enelosed
the sheet in an envelope, and dipped her pen for the
direction.
"What fun it would be to send it to the stupid old
Boldwood, and how he would wonder.! ' said the
irrepressible Liddy, lifting her eyebrows, and indulging
in an awful mirth on the verge of fear as she thought
of the moral and social magnitude of the man contem+
plated.
Bathsheba paused to regard the idea at full length.
Boldwood's had begun to be a troublesome image -- a
species of Daniel in her kingdom who persisted in
kneeling eastward
when reason and common sense
said that he might just as well follow suit with the
rest, and afford her the official glance of admiration
which cost nothing at all. She was far from being
seriously concerned about his nonconformity. Still,
it was faintly depressing that the most dignified and
valuable man in the parish should withhold his eyes,
and that a girl like Liddy should talk about it. So
Liddy's idea was at first rather harassing than piquant.
" No, I won't do that. He wouldn't see any humour
in it.'
" He'd worry to death,' said the persistent Liddy.
" Really, I don't care particularly to send it to
Teddy,' remarked her mistress. " He's rather a naughty
child sometimes.'
" Yes -- that he is.'
" Let's toss as men do,' said Bathsheba, idly. 'Now
then, head, Boldwood ; tail, Teddy. No, we won't toss
money on a Sunday that would be tempting the devil
indeed.'
"Toss this hymn-book; there can't be no sinfulness
in that, miss.'
'Very well. Open, Boldwood -- shut, Teddy. No;
it's more likely to fall open. Open, Teddy -- shut,
Boldwood.'
The book went fluttering in the air and came down shut.
Bathsheba, a small yawn upon her mouth, took the
pen, and with off-hand serenity directed the missive to
Boldwood.
'Now light a candle, Liddy. Which seal shall we
use? Here's a unicorn's head -- there's nothing in
that. What's this ? -- two doves -- no. It ought to be
something extraodinary, ought it not, Lidd? Here's
one with a motto -- I remember it is some funny one,
but I can't read it. We'll try this, and if it doen't
do we'll have another.'
A large red seal was duly affixed. Bathsheba looked
closely at the hot wax to discover the words.
'Capital!' she exclaimed, throwing down the letter
frolicsomely. " 'Twould upset the solemnity of a parson
The same evening the letter was sent, and was duly
returned to Weatherbury again in the morning.
Of love as a spectacle Bathsheba had a fair knowledge;
but of love subjectively she knew nothing.
EFFECT OF THE LETTER -- SUNRISE
AT dusk, on the evening of St. Valentine's Day, Bold+
wood sat down to supper as usual, by a beaming fire
of aged logs. Upon the matel-shelf before him was
a time-piece, surmounted by a spread eagle, and upon
the eagle's wings was the letter Bathsheba had sent.
Here the bachelor's gaze was continually fastening
itself, till the large red seal became as a blot of blood
on the retina of his eye; and as he ate and drank he
still read in fancy the words thereon, although they
were too remote for his sight --
" MARRY ME.'
The pert injunction was like those crystal substances
which, colourless themselves, assume the tone of objects
about them. Here, in the quiet of Boldwood's parlour,
where everything that ,was not grave was extraneous,
and where the atmosphere was that of a Puritan Sunday
lasting all the week, the letter and its dictum changed'
their tenor from the thoughtlessness of their origin to
a deep solemnity, imbibed from their accessories
now.
Since the receipt of the missive in the morning,
Boldwood had felt the symmetry of his existence to
be slowly getting distorted in the direction of an ideal
passion. The disturbance was as the first floating
weed to Columbus -- the eontemptibly little suggesting
possibilities of the infinitely great.
The letter must have had an origin and a motive.
That the latter was of the smallest magnitude com+
patible with its existence at all, Boldwood, of course,
did not know. And such an explanation did not
strike him as a possibility even. It is foreign to a
mystified condition of mind to realize of the mystifier
that the processes of approving a course suggested by
circumstance, and of striking out a course from inner
impulse, would look the same in the result. The vast
difference between
starting a train of events, and direct+
ing into a particular groove a series already started, is
rarely apparent to the person confounded by the
issue.
When Boldwood went to bed he placed the valen+
tine in the corner of the looking-glass. He was
conscious of its presence, even when his back was
turned upon it. It was the first time in Boldwood's
life that such an event had occurred. The same
fascination that caused him to think it an act which had
a deliberate motive prevented him from regarding it as
an impertinence. He looked again at the direction.
The mysterious influences of night invested the writing
with the presence of the unknown writer. Somebody's
some woman's -- hand had travelled softly over the
paper bearing his name ; her unrevealed eyes had
watched every curve as she formed it ; her brain had
seen him in imagination the while. Why should
she have imagined him ? Her mouth -- were the lips
red or pale, plump or creased? -- had curved itself to a
certain expression as the pen went on -- the corners had
moved with all their natural tremulousness : what had
been the expression ?
The vision of the woman writing, as a supplement to
the words written, had no individuality. She was a
misty shape, and well she might be, considering that
her original was at that moment sound asleep and
oblivious of all love and letter-writing under the sky.
Whenever Boldwood dozed she took a form, and com+
paratively ceased to be a vision : when he awoke there
was the letter justifying the dream.
The moon shone to-night, and its light was not of
a customary kind. His window admitted only a
reflection of its rays, and the pale sheen had that
reversed direction which snow gives, coming upward
and lighting up his ceiling in an unnatural way, casting
shadows in strange places, and putting lights where
shadows had used to be.
The substance of the epistle had occupied him but
little in comparison with the fact of its arrival. He
suddenly wondered if anything more might be found in
the envelope than what he had withdrawn. He jumped
out of bed in the weird light, took the letter, pulled out
the flimsy sheet, shook the envelope -- searched it.
Nothing more was there. Boldwood looked, as he
had a hundred times the preceding day, at the insistent red
seal : " Marry me,' he said aloud.
The solemn and reserved yeoman again closed the
letter, and stuck it in the frame of the glass. In doing
so he caught sight of his reflected features, wan in
expression, and insubstantial in form. He saw how
closely compressed was his mouth, and that his eyes
were wide-spread and vacant. Feeling uneasy and dis+
satisfied with himself for this nervous excitability, he
returned to bed.
Then the dawn drew on. The full power of the
clear heaven was not equal to that of a cloudy sky at
noon, when Boldwood arose and dressed himself. He
descended the stairs and went out towards the gate of
a field to the east, leaning over which he paused and
looked around.
It was one of the usual slow sunrises of this time of
the year, and the sky, pure violet in the zenith, was
leaden to the northward, and murky to the east, where,
over the snowy down or ewe-lease on Weatherbury
Upper Farm, and apparently resting upon the ridge, the
only half of the sun yet visible burnt rayless, like a red
and flameless fire shining over a white hearthstone.
The whole effect resembled a sunset as childhood
resembles age.
In other directions, the fields and sky were so much
of one colour by the snow, that it was difficult in a
hasty glance to tell whereabouts the horizon occurred ;
and in general there was here, too, that before-mentioned
preternatural inversion of light and shade which attends
the prospect when the garish brightness commonly in
the sky is found on the earth, and the shades of earth
are in the sky. Over the west hung the wasting moon,
now dull and greenish-yellow, like tarnished brass.
Boldwood was listlessly noting how the frost had
hardened and glazed the surface of the snow, till it
shone in the red eastern light wit-h the polish of marble;
how, in some portions of the slope, withered grass-bents,
encased in icicles, bristled through the smooth wan
coverlet in the twisted and curved shapes of old
Venetian glass; and how the footprints of a few birds,
which had hopped over the snow whilst it lay in the
state of a soft fleece, were now frozen to a short perma+
nency. A half-muffled noise of light wheels interrupted
him. Boldwood turned back into the road. It was
the mail-cart -- a crazy, two-wheeled vehicle, hardly
heavy enough to resist a puff of wind. The driver held
out a letter. Boldwood seized it and opened it, ex+
pecting another anonymous one -- so greatly are people's
ideas of probability a mere sense that precedent will
repeat itself.
"I don't think it is for you, sir,' said the man, when
he saw Boldwood's action. "Though there is no name
I think it is for your shepherd.'
Boldwood looked then at the address --
To the New Shepherd,
Weatherbury Farm,
Near Casterbridge.
"Oh -- what a mistake !. -- it is not mine. Nor is it
for my shepherd. It is for Miss Everdene's.' You had
better take it on to him -- Gabriel Oak -- and say I opencd
it in mistake."
At this moment, on the ridge, up against the blazing
sky, a figure was visible, like the black snuff in the
midst of a candle-flame. Then it moved and began to
bustle about vigorously from place to place, carrying
square skeleton masses, which were riddled by the same
rays. A small figure on all fours followed behind. The
tall form was that of Gabriel Oak ; the small one that
of George ; the articles in course of transit were hurdles.
'Wait, 'said Boldwood. " That's the man on the hill.
I'll take the letter to him myself."
To Boldwood it was now no longer merely a letter to
I another man. It was an opportunity. Exhibiting a
face pregnant with intention, he entered the snowy field.
Gabriel, at that minute, descended the hill towards
the right. The glow stretched down in this direction
now, and touched the distant roof of Warren's Malthouse
whither the shepherd was apparently bent : Boldwood
followed at a distance.
THE scarlet and orange light outside the malthouse did
not penetrate to its interior, which was, as usual, lighted
by a rival glow of similar hue, radiating from the hearth.
The maltster, after having lain down in his clothes
for a few hours, was now sitting beside a three-leggcd
table, breakfasting of bread and bacon. This was
eaten on the plateless system, which is performed by
placing a slice of bread upon the table, the meat flat
upon the bread, a mustard plaster upon the meat, and
a pinch of salt upon the whole, then cutting them
vertically downwards with a large pocket-knife till wood
is reached, when the severed lamp is impaled on the
knife, elevated, and sent the proper way of food.
The maltster's lack of teeth appeared not to sensibly
diminish his powers as a mill. He had been without
them for so many years that toothlessness was felt less
to be a defect than hard gums an acquisition. Indeed,
he seemed to approach the grave as a hyperbolic curve
approaches a stmight line -- less directly as he got nearer,
till it was doubtful if he would ever reach it at all.
In the ashpit was a heap of potatoes roasting, and a
boiling pipkin of charred bread, callcd 'coffee,' for the
benefit of whomsoever should call, for Warren's was a
sort of clubhouse. used as an alternative to the in!.
"I say, says I, we get a fine day, and then down
comes a snapper at night,' was a remark now suddenly
heard spreading into the malthouse from the door, which
had been opened the previous moment. The form of
Henery Fray advanced to the fire, stamping the snow
from his boots when about half-way there. The speech
and entry had not seemed to be at all an abrupt begin+
ning to the maltster, introductoy matter being often
omitted in this neighbourhood, both from word and
deed, and the maltster having the same latitude allowed
him, did not hurry to reply. He picked up a fragment
of cheese, by pecking upon it with his knife, as a butcher
picks up skewers.
Henery appeared in a drab kerseymere great-coat,
buttoned over his smock-frock, the white skirts of the
latter being visible to the distance of about a foot below
the coat-tails, which, when you got used to the style of
dress, looked natural enough, and even ornamental -- it
certainly was comfortable.
Matthew Moon, Joseph Poorgrass, and other carters
and waggoners followed at his heels, with great lanterns
dangling from their hands, which showed that they had
just come from the cart-horse stables, where they had
been busily engaged since four o'clock that morning.
"And how is she getting on without a baily?' the
maltster inquired.
Henery shook his head, and smiled one of the bitter
smiles, dragging all the flesh of his forehead into a
corrugated heap in the centre.
" She'll rue it -- surely, surely ! ' he said " Benjy
Pennyways were not a true man or an honest baily --
as big a betrayer as Joey Iscariot himself. But to think
she can carr' on alone! ' He allowed his head to swing
laterally three or four times in silence. " Never in all my
creeping up -- never! '
This was recognized by all as the conclusion of some
gloomy speech which had been expressed in thought
alone during the shake of the head; Henery meanwhile
retained several marks of despair upon his face, to
imply that they would be required for use again directly
he should go on speaking.
'All will be ruined, and ourselves too, or there's no
meat in gentlemen's houses!' said Mark Clark.
'A headstrong maid, that's what she is -- and won't
listen to no advice at all. Pride and vanity have ruined
many a cobbler's dog. Dear, dear, when I think o' it,
I sorrows like a man in travel ! '
'True, Henery, you do, I've heard ye,' said Joseph
Poorgrass in a voice of thorough attestation, and with
a wire-drawn smile of misery.
"'Twould do a martel man no harm to have what's
under
her bonnet,' said Billy Smallbury, who had just
entered, bearing his one tooth before him. "She can
spaik real language, and must have some sense some+
where. Do ye foller me ?'
"I do: but no baily -- I deserved that place,' wailed
Henery, signifying wasted genius by gazing blankly at
visions of a high destiny apparently visible to him on
Billy Smallbury's smock-frock. " There, 'twas to be, I
suppose. Your lot is your lot, and Scripture is nothing;
for if you do good you don't get rewarded according to
your works, but be cheated in some mean way out of
your recompense.'
"No, no; I don't agree with'ee there,' said Mark
Clark. God's a perfect gentleman in that respect.'
"Good works good pay, so to speak it,' attested
Joseph Poorgrass.
A short pause ensued, and as a sort of entr'acte
Henery turned and blew out the lanterns, which the
increase of daylight rendered no longer necessary even
in the malthouse, with its one pane of glass.
"I wonder what a farmer-woman can want with a
harpsichord, dulcimer, pianner, or whatever 'tis they d'call
it?' said the maltster. 'Liddy saith she've a new one.'
"Got a pianner?'
"Ay. Seems her old uncle's things were not good
enough for her. She've bought all but everything new.
There's heavy chairs for the stout, weak and wiry ones
for the slender; great watches, getting on to the size
of clocks, to stand upon the chimbley-piece.'
Pictures, for the most part wonderful frames.'
" And long horse-hair settles for the drunk, with horse+
hair pillows at each end,' said Mr. Clark. " Likewise
looking-glasses for the pretty, and lying books for the
wicked.'
A firm loud tread was now heard stamping outside;
the door was opened about six inches, and somebody on
the other side exclaimed --
"Neighbours, have ye got room for a few new-born
lambs?'
" Ay, sure, shepherd,' said the conclave.
The door was flung back till it kicked the wall and
trembled from top to bottom with the blow. Mr.
Oak appeared in the
entry with a steaming face, hay+
bands wound about his ankles to keep out the snow, a
leather strap round his waist outside the smock-frock,
and looking altogether an epitome of the world's health
and vigour. Four lambs hung in various embarrassing
attitudes over his shoulders, and the dog George, whom
Gabriel had contrived to fetch from Norcombe, stalked
solemnly behind.
" Well, Shepherd Oak, and how's lambing this year,
if I mid say it?' inquired Joseph Poorgrass.
"Terrible trying," said Oak. "I've been wet through
twice a-day, either in snow or rain, this last fortnight.
Cainy and I haven't tined our eyes to-night.'
"A good few twins, too, I hear ?'
"Too many by half. Yes ; 'tis a very queer lambing
this year. We shan't have done by Lady Day.'
"And last year 'twer all over by Sexajessamine
Sunday,' Joseph remarked.
"Bring on the rest Cain,' said Gabriel, " and then run
back to the ewes. I'll follow you soon.'
Cainy Ball -- a cheery-faced young lad, with a small
circular orifice by way of mouth, advanced and deposited
two others, and retired as he was bidden. Oak lowered
the lambs from their unnatural elevation, wrapped them
in hay, and placed them round the fire.
" We've no lambing-hut here, as I used to have at
Norcombe,' said Gabriel, " and 'tis such a plague to bring
the weakly ones to a house. If 'twasn't for your place
here, malter, I don't know what I should do! this keen
weather. And how is it with you to-day, malter? '
" Oh, neither sick nor sorry, shepherd ; 'but no
younger.'
" Ay -- I understand.
"Sit down, Shepherd Oak', continued the ancient man
of malt. " And how was the old place at Norcombe,
when ye went for your dog? I should like to see the
old familiar spot ; but faith, I shouldn't" know a soul
there now.'
" I suppose you wouldn't. 'Tis' altered very much.'
"Is it true that Dicky Hill's wooden cider-house is
pulled down?'
" O yes -- years ago, and Dicky's cottage just above it.'
"Well, to be sure!,
" Yes ; and Tompkins's old apple-tree is rooted that
used to bear two hogsheads of cider; and no help from
other trees.'
'Rooted? -- you don't say it! Ah! stirring times we
live in -- stirring times.'
"And you can mind the old well that used to be in
the middle of the place? That's turned into a solid
iron pump with a large stone trough, and all complete.'
"Dear, dear -- how the face of nations alter, and
what we live to see nowadays! Yes -- and 'tis the same
here. They've been talking but now of the mis'ess's
strange doings.'
" What have you been saying about her?' inquired
Oak, sharply turning to the rest, and getting very
warm.
" These middle-aged men have been pulling her over
the coals for pride and vanity,' said Mark Clark; "but
I say, let her have rope enough. Bless her pretty face
shouldn't I like to do so -- upon her cherry lips!'
The gallant Mark Clark here made a peculiar and well
known sound with his own.
" Mark,' said Gabriel, sternly, 'now you mind this !
none of that dalliance-talk -- that smack-and-coddle style
of yours -- about Miss Everdene. I don't allow it. Do
you hear? '
" With all my heart, as I've got no chance,' replied
Mr. Clark, cordially.
' I suppose you've been speaking against her? ' said
Oak, turning to Joseph Poorgrass with a very grim
look.
"No, no -- not a word I -- 'tis a real joyful thing that
she's no worse, that's what I say,' said Joseph, trembling
and blushing with terror. " Matthew just said -- -- '
" Matthew Moon, what have you been saying ? ' asked
Oak.
'I? Why ye know I wouldn't harm a worm -- no,
not one underground worm ?' said Matthew Moon,
looking very uneasy.
"Well, somebody has -- and look here, neighbours.'
Gabriel, though one of the quietest and most gentle
men on earth, rose to the occasion, with martial
promptness and vigour. "That's my fist.' Here he
placed his fist, rather smaller in size than a common
loaf, in the mathemarical centre of the maltster's little
table, and with it gave a bump or two thereon, as if
to ensure that their eyes all thoroughly took in the
idea of fistiness before he went further. "Now -- the
first man in the parish that I hear prophesying bad of
our mistress, why' (here the fist was raised and let fall
as T'hor might have done with his hammer in assaying
it) -- "he'll smell and taste that -- or I'm a Dutchman.'
All earnestly expressed by their features that their
minds did not wander to Holland for a moment on
account of this statement, but were deploring the
difference which gave rise to the figure ; and Mark
Clark cried "Hear, hear; just what I should ha' said.'
The dog George looked up at the same time after the
shepherd's menace, and though he understood English
but imperfectly, began to growl.
" Now, don't ye take on so, shepherd, and sit down!'
said Henery, with a deprecating peacefulness equal to
anything of the kind in Christianity.
"We hear that ye bc a extraordinary good and
clever man, shepherd,' said Joseph Poorgrass with
considerable anxiety from behind the maltster's bed+
stead whither he had retired for safety. "'Tis a great
thing to be clever, I'm sure,' he added, making move+
ments associated with states of mind rather than body ;
" we wish we were, don't we, neighbours ? '
"Ay, that we do, sure,' said Matthew Moon, with
a small anxious laugh towards Oak, to show how very
friendly disposed he was likewise.
" Who's been telling you I'm clever?' said Oak.
"'Tis blowed about from pillar to post quite common,'
said Matthew. " We hear that ye can tell the t1me as
well by the stars as we can by the sun and moon,
shepherd.'
" Yes, I can do a little that way,' said Gabriel, as a
man of medium sentiments on the subject.
names upon their waggons almost like copper-plate,
with beautiful flourishes, and great long tails. A
excellent fine thing for ye to be such a clever man,
shepherd. Joseph Poorgrass used to prent to Farmer
James Everdene's waggons before you came, and 'a
could never mind which way to turn the J's and E's
-- could ye, Joseph?' Joseph shook his head to express
how absolute was
the fact that he couldn't. "And so
you used to do 'em the wrong way, like this, didn't ye,
Joseph ?' Matthew marked on the dusty floor with his
whip-handle
LAMES
"And how Farmer James would cuss, and call thee a
fool, wouldn't he, Joseph, when 'a seed his name
looking so inside-out-like ?' continued Matthew Moon
with feeling.
'Ay -- 'a would,' said Joseph, meekly. " But, you see,
I wasn't so much to blame, for them J's and E's be
such trying sons o' witches for the memory to mind
whether they face backward or forward ; and I always
had such a forgetful memory, too.'
"'Tis a bad afiction for ye, being such a man of
calamities in other ways.'
" Well, 'tis ; but a happy Providence ordered that it
should be no worse, and I feel my thanks. As to
shepherd, there, I'm sure mis'ess ought to have made
ye her baily -- such a fitting man for't as you be.'
"I don't mind owning that I expected it,' said Oak,
frankly. ' Indeed, I hoped for the place. At the same
time, Miss Everdene has a right to be own baily if
she choose -- and to keep me down to be a common
shepherd only.' Oak drew a slow breath, looked sadly
into the bright ashpit, and seemed lost in thoughts not
of the most hopeful hue.
The genial warmth of the fire now began to stimulate
the nearly lifeless lambs to bleat and move their limbs
briskly upon the hay, and to recognize for the first time
the fact that they were born. Their noise increased to a
chorus of baas, upon which Oak pulled the milk-can from
before the fire, and taking a small tea-pot from the pocket
of his smock-frock, filled it with milk, and taught those of
the helpless creatures which were not to be restored to
their dams how to drink from the spout -- a trick they
acquired with astonishing aptitude.
"And she don't even let ye have the skins of the
dead lambs, I hear?' resumed Joseph Poorgrass, his
eyes lingering on the operations of Oak with the neces+
sary melancholy.
"I don't have them,' said Gabriel.
"Ye be very badly used, shepherd,' hazardcd Joseph
again, in
the hope of getting Oak as an ally in lamenta+
tion after all. "I think she's took against ye -- that
I do.'
'O no -- not at all,' replied Gabriel, hastily, and a
sigh escaped him, which the deprivation of lamb skins
could hardly have caused.
Before any further remark had been added a shade
darkened the door, and Boldwood entered the malthouse,
bestowing upon each a nod of a quality between friendli+
ness and condescension.
"Ah! Oak, I thought you were here,' he said. 'I
met the mail-cart ten minutes ago, and a letter was put
into my hand, which I opened without reading the
address. I believe it is yours. You must excuse the
accident please.'
"O yes -- not a bit of difference, Mr. Boldwood --
not a bit,' said Gabriel, readily. He had not a corre+
spondent on earth, nor was there a possible letter coming
to him whose contents the whole parish would not have
been welcome to persue.
Oak stepped aside, and read the following in an
unknown hand: --
" DEAR FRIEND, -- I do not know your name, but l think
these few lines will reach you, which I wrote to thank you
for your kindness to me the night I left Weatherbury in a
reckless way. I also return the money I owe you, which
you will excuse my not keeping as a gift. All has ended
well, and I am happy to say I am going to be married to
the young man who has courted me for some time -- Sergeant
Troy, of the 11th Dragoon Guards, now quartered in this
town. He would, I know, object to my having received
anything except as a loan, being a man of great respecta+
bility and high honour -- indeed, a nobleman by blood.
"I should be much obliged to you if you would keep the
contents of this letter a secret for the present, dear friend.
We mean to surprise Weatherbury by coming there soon
as husband and wife, though l blush to state it to one nearly
a strangen The sergeant grew up in Weatherbury. Thank+
ing you again for your kindness,
"I am, your sincere well-wisher,
" FANNV ROBIN.'
' Have you read it, Mr. Boldwood?' said Gabriel;
"if not, you had better do so. I know you are interested
in Fanny Robin.'
Boldwood read the letter and looked grieved.
"Fanny -- poor Fanny! the end she is so confident
of has not yet come, she should remember -- and may
never come. I see she gives no address.'
"What sort of a man is this Sergeant Troy?' said
Gabriel.
"H'm -- I'm afraid not one to build much hope upon
in such a case as this,' the farmer murmured, "though
he's a clever fellow, and up to everything. A slight
romance attaches to him, too. His mother was a French
governess, and it seems that a secret attachment existed
between her and the late Lord Severn. She was married
to a poor medical man, and soon after an infant was
horn; and while money was forthcoming all went on
well. Unfortunately for her boy, his best friends died;
and he got then a situation as second clerk at a lawyer's
in Casterbridge. He stayed there for some time, and
might have worked himself into a dignified position of
some sort had he not indulged in the wild freak of
enlisting. I have much doubt if ever little Fanny will
surprise us in the way she mentions -- very much doubt
A silly girl! -- silly girl!'
The door was hurriedly burst open again, and in
came running Cainy Ball out of breath, his mouth red
and open, like the bell of a penny trumpet, from which
he coughed with noisy vigour and great distension of face.
"Now, Cain Ball,' said Oak, sternly, "why will you
run so fast and lose your breath so? I'm always telling
you of it.'
'Oh -- I -- a puff of mee breath -- went -- the -- wrong
way, please, Mister Oak, and made me cough -- hok --
hok!'
"Well -- what have you come for?'
"I've run to tell ye,' said the junior shepherd,
supporting his exhausted youthful frame against the
doorpost, ' that you must come directly'. Two more ewes
have twinned -- that's what's the matter, Shepherd Oak.'
" Oh, that's it,' said Oak, jumping up, and dimissing
for the present his thoughts on poor Fanny. " You are
a good boy to run and tell me, Cain, and you shall
smell a large plum pudding some day as a treat. But,
before we go, Cainy, bring the tarpot, and we'll mark
this lot and have done with 'em.'
Oak took from his illimitable pockets a marking iron,
dipped it into the pot, and imprintcd on the buttocks
of the infant sheep the initials of her he delighted to
muse on -- "B. E.,' which signified to all the region
round that henceforth the lambs belonged to Farmer
Bathsheba Everdene, and to no one else.
" Now, Cainy, shoulder your two, and off Good
morning, Mr. Boldwood.' The shepherd lifted the
sixteen large legs and four small bodies he had himself
brought, and vanished with them in the direction of
the lambing field hard by -- their frames being now in a
sleek and hopeful state, pleasantly contrasting with their
death's-door plight of hialf an hour before.
Boldwood followed him a little way up the field,
hesitated, and turned back. He followed him again
with a last resolve, annihilating return. On approaching
the nook in which the fold was constructed, the farmer
drew out-his pocket-book, unfastened-it, and allowed it
to lie open on his hand. A letter was revealed -- Bath+
sheba's.
"I was going to ask you, Oak,' he said, with unreal
carelessness, "if you know whose writing this is? '
Oak glanced into the book, and replied instantly,
with a flushed face, " Miss Everdene's.'
Oak had coloured simply at the consciousness of
sounding her name. He now felt a strangely distressing
qualm from a new thought. ' The letter could of course
be no other than anonymous, or the inquiry would not
have been necessary.
Boldwood mistook his confusion : sensitive persons
are always ready with their "Is it I ? ' in prefercnce to
objective reasoning.
" The question was perfectly fair,' he returned -- and
there was something incongruous in the serious eamest+
ness with which he applied himself to an argument on
a valentine. " You know it is always expected that
privy inquiries will be made : that's where the -- fun
lies.' If the word "fun' had been "torture,' it could
not have been uttered with a more constrained and
restless countenance than was Boldwood's then.'
Soon parting from Gabriel, the lonely and reserved
man returned to his house to breakfast -- feeling twinges
of shame and regret at having so far exposed his mood
by those fevered
questions to a stranger. He again
placed the letter on the mantelpiece, and sat down to
think of the circumstances attending it by the light of
Gabriel's information.
ALL SAINTS' AND ALL SOULS"
ALL SAINTS' AND ALL SOULS'
ON a week-day morning a small congregation, con+
sisting mainly of women and girls, rose from its knees
in the mouldy nave of a church called All Saints', in
the distant barrack-town before mentioned, at the end
of a service without a sermon. They were about to
disperse, when a smart footstep, entering the porch and
coming up the central passage, arrested their attention.
The step echoed with a ring unusual in a church; it
was the clink of spurs. Everybody looked. A young
cavalry soldier in a red uniform, with the three chevrons
of a sergeant upon his sleeve, strode up the aisle, with
an embarrassment which was only the more marked
by the intense vigour of his step, and by the deter+
mination upon his face to show none. A slight flush
had mounted his cheek by the time he had run the
gauntlet between these women ; but, passing on through
the chancel arch, he never paused till he came close
to the altar railing. Here for a moment he stood
alone.
The officiating curate, who had not yet doffed his
surplice, perceived the new-comer, and followed him
to the communion-space. He whispered to the soldier,
and then beckoned to the clerk, who in his turn
whispered to an elderly woman, apparently his wife, and
they also went up the chancel steps.
"'Tis a wedding!' murmured some of the women,
brightening. " Let's wait!'
The majority again sat down.
There was a creaking of machinery behind, and
some of the young ones turned their heads. From the
interior face of the west wall of the tower projected a
little canopy with a quarter-jack and small bcll beneath
it, the automaton being driven by the same clock
machinery that struck the large bell in the tower. Be+
tween the tower and the church was a close sereen, the
door of which was kept shut during services, hiding
this
grotesque clockwork from sight. At present, how+
ever, the door was open, and the egress of the jack, the
blows on the bell, and the mannikin's retreat intc.the
nook again, were visible to many, and audible through+
out the church.
The jack had struck half-past eleven.
" Where's the woman ?" whispered some of the
spectators.
The young sergeant stood still with the abnormal
rigidity of the old pillars around. He faced the south+
east, and was as silent as he was still.
The silence grew to be a noticeable thing as the
minutes went on, and nobody else appeared, and not a
soul moved. The rattle of the quarter-jack again from
its niche, its blows for three-quarters, its fussy retreat,
were almost painfully abrupt, and caused many of the
congregation to start palpably.
"I wonder where the woman is!' a voice whispered
again.
There began now that slight shifting of feet, that
artificial coughing among several, which betrays a
nervous suspense. At length there was a titter. But
the soldier never moved. There he stood, his face to
the south-east, upright as a column, his cap in his hand.
The clock ticked on. The women threw off their
nervousness, and titters and giggling became more
frequent. Then came a dead silence. Every one was
waiting for the end. Some persons may have noticed
how extraordinarily the striking of quarters. seems to
quicken the flight of time. It was hardly credible that
the jack had not got wrong with the minutes when the
rattle began again, the puppet emerged, and the four
quarters were struck fitfully as before: One could al+
most be positive that there was a malicious leer upon
the hideous creature's face, and a mischievous delight
in its twitchings. Then, followed the dull and remote
resonance of the twelve heavy strokes in the tower
above. The women were impressed, and there was no
giggle this time.
The clergyman glided into the vestry, and the clerk
vanished. The sergeant had not yet turned ; every
woman in the church was waiting to see his face, and
he appeared to know it. At last he did turn, and
stalked resolutely down the nave, braving them all,
with a compressed lip. Two bowed and toothless old
almsmen then looked at each other and chuckled,
innocently enough ; but the sound had a strange weird
effect in that place.
Opposite to the church was a paved square, around
which several overhanging wood buildings of old time
cast a picturesque shade. The young man on leaving
the door went to cross the square, when, in the middle,
he met a little woman. The expression of her face,
which had been one of intense anxiety, sank at the
sight of his nearly to terror.
" Well ? ' he said, in a suppressed passion, fixedly
looking at her.
" O, Frank -- I made a mistake! -- I thought that
church with the spire was All Saints', and I was at the
door at half-past eleven to a minute as you said.
waited till a quarter to twelve, and found then that I
was in All Souls'. But I wasn't much frightened, for
I thought it could be to-morrow as well.'
"You fool, for so fooling me! But say no more.'
" Shall it be to-monow, Frank ? ' she asked blankly.
"To-morrow !' and he gave vent to a hoarse laugh.
"I don't go through that experience again for some
time, I warrant you ! '
" But after all,' she expostulated in a trembling voice,
"the mistake was not such a terrible thing! Now, dear
Frank, when shall it be?'
"Ah, when ? God knows !' he said, with a light
irony, and turning from her walked rapidly away.
IN THE MARKET-PLACE
ON Saturday Boldwood was in Casterbridge market
house as usual, when the disturber of his dreams entered
and became visible to him. Adam had awakened from
his deep sleep, and behold! there was Eve. The
farmer took courage, and for the first time really looked
at her.
Material causes and emotional effects are not to be
arranged in regular equation. The result from capital
employed in the production of any movement of a
mental nature is sometimes as tremendous as the cause
itself is absurdly minute. When women are in a freakish
mood, their usual intuition, either from carelessness or
inherent defect, seemingly fails to teaeh them this, and
hence it was that Bathsheba was fated to be astonished
today.
Boldwood looked at her -- not slily, critically, or
understandingly, but blankly at gaze, in the way a
reaper looks up at a passing train -- as something foreign
to his element, and but dimly understood. To Bold+
wood women had been remote phenomena rather than
necessary complements -- comets of such uncertain
aspeet, movement, and permanence, that whether
their orbits were as geometrical, unchangeable, and
as subject to laws as his own, or as absolutely erratic
as they superficially appeared, he had not deemed it
his duty to consider.
He saw her black hair, her correct facial curves
and profile, and the roundness of her chin and throat.
He saw then the side of her eyelids, eyes, and lashes,
and the shape of her ear. Next he noticed her figure,
her skirt, and the very soles of her shoes.
Boldwood thought her beautiful, but wondered
whether he was right in his thought, for it seemed
impossible that this romance in the flesh, if so sweet
as he imagined, could have
been going on long without
creating a commotion of delight among men, and pro+
voking more inquiry than Bathsheba had done, even
though that was not a little. To the best of his judg+
ment neither nature nor art could improve this perfect
one of an imperfect many. His heart began to move
within him. Boldwood, it must be remembered, though
forty years of age, had never before inspected a woman
with the very centre and force of his glance; they had
struck upon all his senses at wide angles.
Was she really beautiful? He could not assure
himself that his opinion was true even now. He fur+
tively said to a neighbour, 'Is Miss Everdene considered
handsome?'
"0 yes; she was a good deal 'notied the first
time she came, if you remember. A very handsome
girl indeed.'
A man is never more credulous than in receiving
favourable opinions on the beauty of a woman he is
half, or quite, in love with; a mere child's word on the
point has the weight of an R.A.'s. Boldwood was
satisfied now.
And this charming woman had in effect said to
him, "Marry me.' Why should she have done that
strange thing ? Boldwood's blindness to the difference
between approving of what circumstances suggest, and
originating what they do not suggest, was well matched
by Bathsheba's insensibility to the possibly great issues
of little beginnings.
She was at this moment coolly dealing with a dashing
young farmer, adding up accounts with him as indiffer+
ently as if his face had been the pages of a ledger. It
was evident that such a nature as his had no attraction
for a woman of Bathsheba's taste. But Boldwood grew
hot down to his hands with an incipient jealousy; he
trod for the first time the threshold of "the injured
lover's hell.' His first impulse was to go and thrust
himself between them. This could be done, but only
in one way -- by asking to see a sample of her corn.
Boldwood renounced the idea. He could not make
the request; it was debasing loveliness to ask it to
buy and sell, and jarred with his conceptions of her.
All this time Bathsheba was conscious of having
broken into that dignified stronghold at last. His
eyes, she knew, were
following her everywhere. This
was a triumph; and had it come naturally, such a
triumph would have been the sweeter to her for this
piquing delay. But it had been brought about by
misdirected ingenuity, and she valued it only as she
valued an artificial flower or a wax fruit.
Being a woman with some good sense in reasoning
on subjects wherein her heart was not involved, Bath+
sheba genuinely repented that a freak which had owed
its existence as much to Liddy as to herself, should
ever have been undertaken, to disturb the placidity of
a man she respected too highly to deliberately tease.
She that day nearly formed the intention of begging
his pardon on the very next occasion of their meeting.
The worst features of this arrangement were that, if
he thought she ridiculed him, an apology would in+
crease the offence by being disbelieved; and if he
thought she wanted him to woo her, it would read
like additional evidence of her forwardness.
BOLDWOOD IN MEDITATION -- REGRET
BOLDWOOD was tenant of what was called Little
Weatherbury Farm, and his person was the nearest ap+
proach to aristocracy that this remoter quarter of the
parish could boast of. Genteel strangers, whose god
was their town, who might happen to be compelled to
linger about this nook for a day, heard the sound of
light wheels, and prayed to see good society, to the
degree of a solitary lord, or squire at the very least,
but it was only Mr. Boldwood going out for the day.
They heard the sound of wheels yet once more, and
were re-animated to expectancy : it was only Mr. Bold+
wood coming home again.
His house stood recessed from the road, and the
stables, which are to a farm what a fireplace is to a
room, were behind, their lower portions being lost
amid bushes of laurel. Inside the blue door, open
half-way down, were to be seen at this time the backs
and tails of half-a-dozen warm and contented horses
standing in their stalls; and as thus viewed, they pre+
sented alternations of roan and bay, in shapes like a
Moorish arch, the tail being a streak down the midst
of each. Over these, and lost to the eye gazing in
from the outer light, the mouths of the same animals
could be heard busily sustaining the above-named
warmth and plumpness by quantities of oats and hay.
The restless and shadowy figure of a colt wandered
about a loose-box at the end, whilst the steady grind
of all the eaters was occasionally diversified by the
rattle of a rope or the stamp of a foot.
Pacing up and down at the heels of the animals was
Farmer Boldwood himself. This place was his almonry
and cloister in one : here, after looking to the feeding
of his four-footed dependants, the celibate would walk
and meditate of an evening till the moon's rays streamed
in through the cobwebbed windows, or total darkness
enveloped the scene.
His square-framed perpendicularity showed more fully
now than in the crowd and bustle of the market-house.
In this meditative walk his foot met the floor with heel
and toe simultaneously, and his fine reddish-fleshed face
was bent downwards just enough to render obscure the
still mouth and the well-rounded though rather prominent
and broad chin. A few clear and thread-like horizontal
lines were the only interruption to the otherwise smooth
surface of his large forehead.
The phases of Boldwood's life were ordinary enough,
but his was not an ordinary nature. That stillness,
which struck casual observers more than anything else
in his character and habit, and seemed so precisely
like the rest of inanition, may have been the perfect
balance of enormous antagonistic forces -- positives and
negatives in fine adjustment. His equilibrium disturbed,
he was in extremity at once. If an emotion possessed
him at all, it ruled him; a feeling not mastering him
was entirely latent. Stagnant or rapid, it was never
slow. He was always hit mortally, or he was missed.
He had no light and careless touches in his constitu+
tion, either for good or for evil. Stern in the outlines of
action, mild in the details, he was serious throughout all.
He saw no absurd sides to the follies of life, and thus,
though not quite companionable in the eyes of merry
men and scoffers, and those to whom all things show
life as a jest, he was not intolerable to the earnest and
those acquainted with grief. Being a man -who read
all the dramas of life seriously, if he failed to please
when they were comedies, there was no frivolous treat+
ment to reproach him for when they chanced to end
tragically.
Bathsheba was far from dreaming that the dark and
silent shape upon which she had so carelessly thrown a
seed was a hotbed of tropic intensity. Had she known
Boldwood's moods, her blame would have been fearful,
and the stain upon her heart ineradicable. Moreover,
had she known her present power for good or evil over
this man, she would have trembled at her responsibility.
Luckily for her present, unluckily for her future tran+
quillity, her understanding had not yet told her what
Boldwood was. Nobody knew entirely ; for though it
was possible to form guesses concerning his wild 'capa+
bilities from old floodmarks faintly visible, he had never
been seen at the high tides which caused them.
Farmer Boldwood came to the stable-door and looked
forth across the level fields. Beyond the first enclosure
was a hedge, and on the other side of this a meadow
belonging to Bathsheba's farm.
It was now early spring -- the time of going to grass
with the sheep, when they have the first feed of the
meadows, before these are laid up for mowing. The
wind, which had been blowing east for several weeks,
had veered to the southward, and the middle of spring
had come abruptly -- almost without a beginning. It
was that period in the vernal quarter when we map
suppose the Dryads to be waking for the season. The
vegetable world begins to move and swell and the saps
to rise, till in the completest silence of lone gardens
and trackless plantations, where- everything seems -help+
less and still after the bond and slavery of frost, there
are bustlings, strainings, united thrusts, and pulls-all+
together, in comparison with which the powerful tugs of
cranes and pulleys in a noisy city are but. pigmy efforts.
"Boldwood, looking into the distant meadows, saw
there three figures. They were those of Miss' Everdene,
Shepherd Oak, and Cainy Ball.
When Bathsheba's figure shone upon the farmer's
eyes it lighted him up as the moon lights up a great
tower. A man's body is as the shell; or the tablet, of
his soul, as he is reserved or ingenuous, overflowing or
self-contained. There was a change in Boldwood's
exterior from its former impassibleness ; and his face
showed that he was now living outside his defences
for the first time, and with a fearful sense of exposure.
It is the usual experience of strong natures when they
love.
At last he arrived at a conclusion. It was to go
across and inquire boldly of her.
The insulation of his heart by reserve during these
many years, without a channel of any kind for disposable
emotion, had worked its effect. It has been observed
more than once that the causes of love are chiefly
subjective, and Boldwood was a living testimony to
the truth of the proposition. No mother existed to
absorb his devotion, no sister for his tenderness, no
idle ties for sense. He became surcharged with the
compound, which was genuine lover's love.
He approached the gate of the meadow. Beyond
it the ground was melodious with ripples, and the sky
with larks; the low bleating of the flock mingling with
both. Mistress and man were engaged in the operation
of making a lamb "take,' which is performed whenever
an ewe has lost her own offspring, one of the twins of
another ewe being given her as a substitute. Gabriel
had skinned the dead lamb, and was tying the skin
over the body of the live lamb, in the customary manner,
whilst Bathsheba was holding open a little pen of four
hurdles, into which the Mother and foisted lamb were
driven, where they would remain till the old sheep
conceived an affection for the young one.
Bathsheba looked up at the completion of the
manouvre, and saw the farmer by the gate, where he
was overhung by a willow tree in full bloom. Gabriel,
to whom her face was as the uncertain glory of an April
day, was ever regardful of its faintest changes, and
instantly discerned thereon the mark of some influence
from without, in the form of a keenly self-conscious
reddening. He also turned and beheld Boldwood.
At onee connecting these signs with the letter Bold+
wood had shown him, Gabriel suspected her of some
coquettish procedure begun by that means, and carried
on since, he knew not how.
Farmer Boldwood had read the pantomime denoting
that they were aware of his presence, and the perception
was as too much light turned upon his new sensibility.
He was still in the road, and by moving on he hoped
that neither would recognize that he had originally
intended to enter the field. He passed by with an
utter and overwhelming sensation of ignorance, shyness,
and doubt. Perhaps in her manner there were signs
that she wished to see him -- perhaps not -- he could not
read a woman. The cabala of this erotic philosophy
seemed to consist of the subtlest meanings expressed in
misleading ways.
Every turn, look, word, and accent
contained a mystery quite distinct from its obvious
import, and not one had ever been pondered by him
until now.
As for Bathsheba, she was not deceived into the
belief that Farmer Boldwood had walked by on business
or in idleness. She collected the probabilities of the
case, and concluded that she was herself responsible for
Boldwood's appearance there. It troubled her much
to see what a great flame a little Wildfire was likely to
kindle. Bathsheba was no schemer for marriage, nor
was she deliberately a trifler with the affections of men,
and a censor's experience on seeing an actual flirt after
observing her would have been a feeling of surprise
that Bathsheba could be so different from such a one,
and yet so like what a flirt is supposed to be.
She resolved never again, by look or by sign, to
interrupt the steady flow of this man's life. But a
resolution to avoid an evil is seldom framed till the evil
is so far advanced as to make avoidance impossible.
THE SHEEP-WASHING -- THE OFFER
BOLDWOOD did eventually call upon her. She was
not at home. " Of course not,' he murmured. In con+
templating Bathsheba as a woman, he had forgotten the
accidents of her position as an agriculturist -- that being
as much of a farmer, and as extensive a farmer, as
himself, her probable whereabouts was out-of-dooTs at
this time of the year. This, and the other oversights
Boldwood was guilty of, were natural to the mood, and
still more natural to the circumstances. The great aids
to idealization in love were present here : occasional
observation of her from a distance, and the absence of
social intercourse with her -- visual familiarity, oral
strangeness. The smaller human elements were kept
out of sight ; the pettinesses that enter so largely into
all earthly living and doing were disguised by the
accident of lover and loved-one not being on visiting
terms ; and there was hardly awakened a thought in
Boldwood that sorry household realities appertained to
her, or that she, like all others, had moments of
commonplace, when to be least plainly seen was to be
most prettily remembered. Thus a mild sort of
apotheosis took place in his fancy, whilst she still lived
and breathed within his own horizon, a troubled creature
like himself.
It was the end of May when the farmer determined
to be no longer repulsed by trivialities or distracted by
suspense. He had by this time grown used to being in
love; the passion now startled him less even when it
tortured him more, and he felt himself adequate to the
situation. On inquiring for her at her house they had
told him she was at the sheepwashing, and he went off
to seek her there.
The sheep-washing pool was a perfectly circular basin
of brickwork in the meadows, full of the clearest water.
To birds on the wing its glassy surface, reflecting the
light sky, must have been
visible for miles around as a
glistening Cyclops' eye in a green face. The grass
about the margin at this season was a sight to remember
long -- in a minor sort of way. Its activity in sucking
the moisture from the rich damp sod. was almost a pro+
cess observable by the eye. The outskirts of this level
water-meadow were diversified by rounded and hollow
pastures, where just now every flower that was not a
buttercup was a daisy. The river slid along noiselessly
as a shade, the swelling reeds and sedge forming a
flexible palisade upon its moist brink. To the north
of the mead were trees, the leaves of which were new,
soft, and moist, not yet having stiffened and darkened
under summer sun and drought, their colour being
yellow beside a green -- green beside a yellow.
From the recesses of this knot of foliage the loud
notes of three cuckoos were resounding through the
still air.
Boldwood went meditating down the slopes with his
eyes on his boots, which the yellow pollen from the
buttercups had bronzed in artistic gradations. A tribu+
tary of the main stream flowed through the basin of the
pool by an inlet and outlet at opposite points of its
diameter. Shepherd Oak, Jan Coggan, Moon, Poor+
grass, Cain Ball, and several others were assembled
here, all dripping wet to the very roots of their hair,
and Bathsheba was standing by in a new riding-habit --
the most elegant she had ever worn -- the reins of her
horse being looped over her arm. Flagons of cider
were rolling about upon the green. The meek sheep
were pushed into the pool by Coggan and Matthew
Moon, who stood by the lower hatch, immersed to their
waists; then Gabriel, who stood on the brink, thrust
them under as they swam along, with an instrument
like a crutch, formed for the purpose, and also for
assisting the exhausted animals when the wool became
saturated and they began to sink. They were let out
against the stream, and through the upper opening, all
impurities flowing away below. Cainy Ball and Joseph,
who performed this latter operation, were if possible
wetter than the rest ; they resembled dolphins under a
fountain, every protuberance and angle of their clothes
dribbling forth a small rill.
Boldwood came close and bade her good-morning, with
such constraint that she could not but think he had
stepped across to the washing for its own sake, hoping
not to find her there ; more, she fancied his brow severe
and his eye slighting. Bathsheba immediately contrived
to withdraw, and glided along by the river till she was
a stone's throw off. She heard footsteps brushing the
grass, and had a consciousness that love was encircling
her like a perfume. Instead of turning or waiting,
Bathsheba went further among the high sedges, but
Boldwood seemed determined, and pressed on till they
were completely past the bend of the river. Here,
without being seen, they could hear the splashing and
shouts of the washers above.
"Miss Everdene!' said the farmer.
She trembled, turned, and said 'Good morning.'
His tone was so utterly removed from all she had
expected as a beginning. It was lowness and quiet
accentuated : an emphasis of deep meanings, their form,
at the same time, being scarcely expressed. Silence
has sometimes a remarkable power of showing itself as
the disembodied soul of feeling wandering without its
carcase, and it is then more impressive than speech.
In the same way, to say a little is often to tell more
than to say a great deal. Boldwood told everything in
that word.
As the conseiousness expands on learning that what
was fancied to be the rumble of wheels is the reverbera+
tion of thunder, so did Bathsheba's at her intuitive
conviction.
'I feel -- almost too much -- to think,' he said, with a
solemn simplicity. "I have come to speak to you with+
out preface. My life is not my own since I have beheld
you clearly, Miss Everdene -- I come to make you an
offer of marriage.'
Bathsheba tried to preserve an absolutely neutral
countenance, and all the motion she made was that of
closing lips which had previously been a little parted.
"I am now forty-one years old,' he went on. "I may
have been called a confirmed bachelor, and I was a
confirmed bachelor. I had never any views of myself
as a husband in my earlier days, nor have I made any
calculation on the subject since I have been older.
But we all change, and my change, in this matter,
came
with seeing you. I have felt lately, more and more,
that my present way of living is bad in every respect.
Beyond all things, I want you as my wife.'
"I feel, Mr. Boldwood, that though I respect you
much, I do not feel -- what would justify me to -- in
accepting your offer,' she stammered.
This giving back of dignity for dignity seemed to
open the sluices of feeling that Boldwood had as yet
kept closed.
" My life is a burden without you,' he exclaimed, in
a low voice. "I want you -- I want you to let me say
I love you again and again!'
Bathsheba answered nothing, and the mare upon
her arm seemed so impressed that instead of cropping
the herbage she looked up.
"I think and hope you care enough for me to listen
to what I have to tell!"
Bathsheba's momentary impulse at hearing this was
to ask why he thought that, till she remembered that,
far from being a conceited assumption on Boldwood's
part, it was but the natural conclusion of serious reflec+
tion based on deceptive premises of her own offering.
"I wish I could say courteous flatteries to you,' the
farmer continued in an easier tone, " and put my rugged
feeling into a graceful shape: but I have neither power
nor patience to learn such things. I want you for my
wife -- so wildly that no other feeling can abide in me;
but I should not have spoken out had I not been led
to hope.'
"The valentine again! O that valentine!' she
said to herself, but not a word to him.
"If you can love me say so, Miss Everdene. If not
-- don't say no!'
"Mr. Boldwood, it is painful to have to say I am
surprised, so that I don't know how to answer you with
propriety and respect -- but am only just able to speak
out my feeling -- I mean my meaning; that I am afraid
I can't marry you, much as I respect you. You are too
dignified for me to suit you, sir.'
"But, Miss Everdene!'
"I -- I didn't -- I know I ought never to have dreamt
of sending
that valentine -- forgive me, sir -- it was a
wanton thing which no woman with any self-respect
should have done. If you will only pardon my thought+
lessness, I promise never to -- -- '
" No, no, no. Don't say thoughtlessness! Make me
think it was something more -- that it was a sort of
prophetic instinct -- the beginning of a feeling that you
would like me. You torture me to say it was done in
thoughtlessness -- I never thought of it in that light, and
I can't endure it. Ah ! I wish I knew how to win you!
but that I can't do -- I can only ask if I have already got
you. If I have not, and it is not true that you have
come unwittingly to me as I have to you, I can say no
more.'
"I have not fallen in love with you, Mr. Boldwood --
certainly I must say that.' She allowed a very small
smile to creep for the first time over her serious face in
saying this, and the white row of upper teeth, and keenly+
cut lips already noticed, suggested an idea of heartless+
ness, which was immediately contradicted by the pleasant
eyes.
"But you will just think -- in kindness and conde+
scension think -- if you cannot bear with me as a husband!
I fear I am too old for you, but believe me I will take
more care of you than would many a man of your own
age. I will protect and cherish you with all my strength
-- I will indeed! You shall have no cares -- be worried
by no household affairs, and live quite at ease, Miss
Everdene. The dairy superintendence shall be done by
a man -- I can afford it will -- you shall never have so
much as to look out of doors at haymaking time, or to
think of weather in the harvest. I rather cling; to the
chaise, because it is he same my poor father and mother
drove, but if you don't like it I will sell it, and you shall
have a pony-carriage of your own. I cannot say how
far above every other idea and object on earth you seem
to me -- nobody knows -- God only knows -- how much
you are to me!'
Bathsheba's heart was young, and it swelled with
sympathy for the deep-natured man who spoke so
simply.
"Don't say it! don't! I cannot bear you to feel so
much, and me to feel nothing. And I am afraid they
will notice us, Mr. Boldwood. Will you let the matter
rest now? I cannot think
collectedly. I did not know
you were going to say this to me. 0, I am wicked to
have made you suffer so!' She was frightened as well
as agitated at his vehemence.
"Say then, that you don't absolutely refuse. Do not
quite refuse?'
"I can do nothing. I cannot answer.'
"I may speak to you again on the subject?'
"Yes.'
"I may think of you?'
"Yes, I suppose you may think of me.'
"And hope to obtain you?'
"No -- do not hope! Let us go on.'
"I will call upon you again to-morrow.'
"No -- please not. Give me time.'
"Yes -- I will give you any time,' he said earnestly and
gratefully. "I am happier now.'
"No -- I beg you! Don't be happier if happiness
only comes from my agreeing. Be neutral, Mr. Bold+
wood! I must think.'
"I will wait,' he said.
And then she turned away. Boldwood dropped his
gaze to the ground, and stood long like a man who did not
know where he was. Realities then returned upon him
like the pain of a wound received in an excitement
which eclipses it, and he, too, then went on.
PERPLEXITy -- GRINDING THE SHEARS -- A QUARREL
"HE is so disinterested and kind to offer me all that I
can desire,' Bathsheba mused.
Yet Farmer Boldwood, whether by nature kind or
the reverse to kind, did not exercise kindness, here.
The rarest offerings of the purest loves are but a self+
indulgence, and no generosity at all.
Bathsheba, not being the least in love with him, was
eventually able to look calmly at his offer. It was one
which many women of her own station in the neighbour+
hood, and not a few of higher rank, would have been
wild to accept and proud to publish. In every point of
view, ranging from politic to passionate, it was desirable
that she, a lonely girl, should marry, and marry this
earnest, well-to-do, and respected man. He was close
to her doors: his standing was sufficient: his qualities
were even supererogatory. Had she felt, which she did
not, any wish whatever for the married state in the
abstract, she could not reasonably have rejected him,
being a woman who frequently appealed to her under,
standing for deliverance from her whims. Boldwood as
a means to marriage was unexceptionable: she esteemed
and liked him, yet she did not want him. It appears
that ordinary men take wives because possession is not
possible without marriage, and that ordinary women
accept husbands because marriage is not possible with,
out possession; with totally differing aims the method is
the same on both sides. But the understood incentive
on the woman's part was wanting here. Besides, Bath+
sheba's position as absolute mistress of a farm and house
was a novel one, and the novelty had not yet begun to
wear off.
But a disquiet filled her which was somewhat to her
credit, for it would have affected few. Beyond the men+
tioned reasons with which she combated her objections,
she had a strong
feeling that, having been the one who
began the game, she ought in honesty to accept the conse,
quences. Still the reluctance remained. She said in the
same breath that it would be ungenerous not to marry
Boldwood, and that she couldn't do it to save her life.
Bathsheba's was an impulsive nature under a delibera,
tive aspect. An Elizabeth in brain and a Mary Stuart
in spirit, she often performed actions of the greatest
temerity with a manner of extreme discretion. Many of
her thoughts were perfect syllogisms; unluckily they
always remained thoughts. Only a few were irrational
assumptions; but, unfortunately, they were the ones
which most frequently grew into deeds.
The next day to that of the declaration she found
Gabriel Oak at the bottom of her garden, grinding his
shears for the sheep-shearing. All the surrounding
cottages were more or less scenes of the same operation;
the scurr of whetting spread into the sky from all parts
of the village as from an armury previous to a campaign.
Peace and war kiss each other at their hours of prepara+
tion -- sickles, scythes, shears, and pruning-hooks, ranking
with swords, bayonets, and lances, in their common
necessity for point and edge.
Cainy Ball turned the handle of Gabriel's grinstone,
his head performing a melancoly see-saw up and down
with each turn of the wheel. Oak stood somewhat as
Eros is represented when in the act of sharpening his
arrows: his figure slightly bent, the weight of his body
thrown over on the shears, and his head balanced side+
ways, with a critical compression of the lips and contrac+
tion of the eyelids to crown the attitude.
His mistress came up and looked upon them in
silence for a minute or two; then she said --
"Cain, go to the lower mead and catch the bay mare.
I'll turn the winch of the grindstone. I want to speak
to you, Gabriel.
Cain departed, and Bathsheba took the handle.
Gabriel had glanced up in intense surprise, quelled its
expression, and looked down again. Bathsheba turned
the winch, and Gabriel applied the shears.
The peculiar motion involved in turning a wheel
has a wonderful tendency to benumb the mind. It
is a sort of
attenuated variety of Ixion's punishment,
and contributes a dismal chapter to the history of
heavy, and the body's centre of gravity seems to
settle by degrees in a leaden lump somewhere be+
tween the eyebrows and the crown. Bathsheba felt
the unpleasant symptoms after two or three dozen
turns.
"Will you turn, Gabriel, and let me hold the shears?"
she said. "My head is in a'whirl, and I can't talk.
Gabriel turned. Bathsheba then began, with some
awkwardness, allowing her thoughts to stray occasion+
ally from her story to attend to the shears, which
required a little nicety in sharpening.
"I wanted to ask you if the men made any observa+
tions on my going behind the sedge with Mr. Boldwood
yesterday?'
"Yes, they did,' said Gabriel. "You don't hold
the shears right, miss -- I knew you wouldn't know the
way -- hold like this.'
He relinquished the winch, and inclosing her two
hands completely i his own (taking each as we some+
times slasp a child's hand in teaching him to write),
grasped the shears with her. "Incline the edge so,'
he said.
Hands and shears were inclined to suit the words,
and held thus for a peculiarly long time by the in+
structor as he spoke.
"That will do,' exclaimed Bathsheba. "Loose my
hands. I won't have them held! Turn the winch.'
Gabriel freed her hands quietly, retired to his
handle, and the grinding went on.
"Did the men think it odd?' she said again.
"Odd was not the idea, miss.'
"What did they say?'
"That Farmer Boldwood's name and your own
were likely to be flung over pulpit together before the
year was out.'
"I thought so by the look of them! Why, there's
nothing in it. A more foolish remark was never made,
and I want you to contradict it! that's what I came for.'
Gabriel looked incredulous and sad, but between
his moments of incredulity, relieved.
"They must have heard our conversation,' she
continued.
"Well, then, Bathsheba!' said Oak, stopping the
handle, and gazing into her face with astonishment.
"Miss Everdene, you mean," she said, with dignity.
"I mean this, that if Mr. Boldwood really spoke of
marriage, I bain't going to tell a story and say he
didn't to please you. I have already tried to please
you too much for my own good!'
Hathsheba regarded him with round-eyed perplexity.
She did not know whether to pity him for disappointed
love of her, or to be angry with him for having got
over it -- his tone being ambiguous.
"I said I wanted you just to mention that it was
not true I was going to be married to him,' she mur+
mured, with a slight decline in her assurance.
"I can say that to them if you wish, Miss Everdene.
And I could likewise give an opinion to 'ee on what
you have done.'
"I daresay. But I don't want your opinion.'
"I suppose not,' said Gabriel bitterly, and going on
with his turning, his words rising and falling in a
regular swell and cadence as he stooped or rose with
the winch, which directed them, according to his
position, perpendiculary into the earth, or horizontally
along the garden, his eyes being fixed on a leaf upon
the ground.
With Bathsheba a hastened act was a rash act;
but, as does not always happen, time gained was
prudence insured. It must be added, however, that
time was very seldom gained. At this period the
single opinion in the parish on herself and her doings
that she valued as sounder than her own was Gabriel
Oak's. And the outspoken honesty of his character
was such- that on any subject even that of her love
for, or marriage with, another man, the same disinter+
estedness of opinion might be calculated on, and be
had for the asking. Thoroughly convinced of the
impossibility of his own suit, a high resolve constrained
him not to injure that of another. This is a lover's
most stoical virtue, as the lack of it is a lover's most
venial sin. Hnowing he would reply truly, she asked
the question, painful as she must have known the sub+
ject would be. Such is the selfishness of some charm+
ing women. Perhaps it was some excuse for her thus
torturing honesty to her own advantage, that she had
absolutely no other sound judgment within easy reach.
"Well, what is your opinion of my conduct,' she
said, quietly.
"That it is unworthy of any thoughtful, and meek,
and comely woman.'
In an instant Bathsheba's face coloured with the
angry crimson of a danby sunset. But she forbore
to utter this feeling, and the reticence of her tongue
only made the loquacity of her face the more notice+
able.
The next thing Gabriel did was to make a mistake.
"Perhaps you don't like the rudeness of my repri+
manding you, for I know it is rudeness; but I thought
it would do good.'
She instantly replied sarcastically --
"On the contrary, my opinion of you is so low, that
I see in your abuse the praise of discerning people!'
"I am glad you don't mind it, for I said it honestly
and with every serious meaning.'
"I see. But, unfortunately, when you try not to
speak in jest you are amusing -- just as when you wish
to avoid seriousness you sometimes say a sensible word
It was a hard hit, but Bathsheba had unmistakably
lost her temper, and on that account Gabriel had
never in his life kept his own better. He said nothing.
She then broke out --
"I may ask, I suppose, where in particular my
unworthiness lies? In my not marrying you, perhaps!
"Not by any means,' said Gabriel quietly. "I have
long given up thinking of that matter.'
"Or wishing it, I suppose,' she said; and it was
apparent that she expected an unhesitating denial of
this supposition.
Whatever Gabriel felt, he coolly echoed her words --
"Or wishing it either.'
A woman may be treated with a bitterness which
is sweet to her, and with a rudeness which is not
offensive. Bathsheba would have submitted to an
indignant chastisement for her levity had Gabriel pro+
tested that he was loving her at the same time; the
impetuosity of passion unrequited is bearable, even if
it stings and anathematizes there is a triumph in the
humiliation, and a tenderness in the strife. This was
what she had been expecting, and what she had not
got. To be lectured
because the lecturer saw her in
the cold morning light of open-shuttered disillusion
was exasperating. He had not finished, either. He
continued in a more agitated voice: --
"My opinion is (since you ask it) that you are
greatly to blame for playing pranks upon a man like
Mr. Boldwood, merely as a pastime. Leading on a
man you don't care for is not a praiseworthy action.
And even, Miss Everdene, if you seriously inclined
towards him, you might have let him find it out in
some way of true loving-kindness, and not by sending
him a valentine's letter.'
Bathsheba laid down the shears.
"I cannot allow any man to -- to criticise my private
Conduct!' she exclaimed. "Nor will I for a minute.
So you'll please leave the farm at the end of the week!'
It may have been a peculiarity -- at any rate it was
a fact -- that when Bathsheba was swayed by an emotion
of an earthly sort her lower lip trembled: when by a
refined emotion, her upper or heavenward one. Her
nether lip quivered now.
"Very well, so I will,' said Gabriel calmly. He had
been held to her by a beautiful thread which it pained
him to spoil by breaking, rather than by a chain he
could not break. "I should be even better pleased to
go at once,' he added.
"Go at once then, in Heaven's name!' said she,her
eyes flashing at his, though never meeting them.
"Don't let me see your face any more.'
"Very well, Miss Everdene -- so it shall be.'
And he took his shears and went away from her in
placid dignity, as Moses left the presence of Pharaoh.
TROUBLES IN THE FOLD -- A MESSAGE
GABRIEL OAK had ceased to feed the Weatherbury
flock for about four-and-twenty hours, when on Sunday
afternoon the elderly gentlemen Joseph Poorgrass,
Matthew Moon, Fray, and half-a-dozen others, came
running up to the house of the mistress of the Upper
Farm.
"Whatever is the matter, men?' she said, meeting
them at the door just as she was coming out on her
way to church, and ceasing in a moment from the close
compression of her two red lips, with which she had
accompanied the exertion of pelling on a tight glove.
"Sixty!' said Joseph Poorgrass.
"Seventy!' said Moon.
"Fifty-nine!' said Susan Tall's husband.
" -- Sheep have broke fence,' said Fray.
" -- And got into a field of young clover,' said Tall.
" -- Young clover!' said Moon.
" -- Clover!' said Joseph Poorgrass.
"And they be getting blasted,' said Henery Fray.
"That they be,' said Joseph.
"And will all die as dead as nits, if they bain't got
out and cured!'said Tall.
Joseph's countenance was drawn into lines and
puckers by his concern. Fray's forehead was wrinkled
both perpendicularly and crosswise, after the pattern of
a portcullis, expressive of a double despair. Laban
Tall's lips were thin, and his face were rigid. Matthew's
jaws sank, and his eyes turned whichever way the
strongest muscle happened to pull them.
"Yes,' said Joseph, "and I was sitting at home,
looking for Ephesians, and says I to myself, "'Tis
nothing but Corinthians and Thessalonians in this
danged Testament,'' when
who should come in but
Henery there: ""Joseph,'' he said, ""the sheep have
With Bathsheba it was a moment when thought was
blasted theirselves -- -'''
With Bathsheba it was a moment when thought was
speech and speech exclamation. Moreover, she had
hardly recovered her equanimity since the disturbance
which she had suffered from Oak's remarks.
'Thats enought -- that's enough! -- oh, you fools!'
she cried, throwing the parasol and Prayer-book into
the passage, and running out of doors in the direction
signified. "To come to me, and not go and get them
out directly! Oh, the stupid numskulls!'
Her eyes were at their darkest and brightest now.
Bathsheba's beauty belonged rather to the demonian
than to the angelic school, she never looked so well as
when she was angry -- and particularly when the effect
was heightened by a rather dashing velvet dress, care+
fully put on before a glass.
All the ancient men ran in a jumbled throng after
her to the clover-field, Joseph sinking down in the
midst when about half-way, like an individual withering
in a world which was more and more insupportable.
Having once received the stimulus that her presence
always gave them they went round among the sheep
with a will. The majority of the afflicted animals were
lying down, and could not be stirred. These were
bodily lifted out, and the others driven into the adjoining
field. Here, after the lapse of a few minutes, several
more fell down, and lay helpless and livid as the rest.
Bathsheba, with a sad, bursting heart, looked at these
primest specimens of her prime flock as they rolled
there --
Swoln with wind and the rank mist they drew.
Many of them foamed at the mouth, their breathing
being quick and short, whilst the bodies of all were
fearfully distended.
"O, what can I do, what can I do!' said Bathsheba,
helplessly. "Sheep are such unfortunate animals! --
there's always something happening to them! I never
knew a flock pass a year without getting into some scrape
or other.'
"There's only one way of saving them,' said Tall.
"What way? Tell me quick!'
"They must be pierced in the side with a thing made
on purpose.'
"Can you do it? Can I?'
"No, ma'am. We can't, nor you neither. It must
be done in a particular spot. If ye go to the right or
left but an inch you stab the ewe and kill her. Not
even a shepherd can do it, as a rule.'
"Then they must die,' she said, in a resigned tone.
"Only one man in the neighbourhood knows the way,'
said Joseph, now just come up. "He could cure 'em
all if he were here.'
"Who is he? Let's get him!'
"Shepherd Oak," said Matthew. "Ah, he's a clever
man in talents!'
"Ah, that he is so!' said Joseph Poorgrass.
"True -- he's the man,' said Laban Tall.
"How dare you name that man in my presence!' she
said excitedly. "I told you never to allude to him, nor
shall you if you stay with me. Ah!' she added, brighten+
ing, "Farmer Boldwood knows!'
"0 no, ma'am' said Matthew. "Two of his store
ewes got into some vetches t'other day, and were just
like these. He sent a man on horseback here post-haste
for Gable, and Gable went and saved 'em, Farmer
Boldwood hev got the thing they do it with. 'Tis a
holler pipe, with a sharp pricker inside. Isn't it,
Joseph?'
"Ay -- a holler pipe,' echoed Joseph. "That's what
'tis.'
"Ay, sure -- that's the machine,' chimed in Henery
Fray, reflectively, with an Oriental indifference to the
flight of time.
"Well," burst out Bathsheba, "don't stand there with
your ""ayes'' and your ""sures,'' talking at me! Get
somebody to cure the sheep instantly!'
All then stalked or in eonsternation, to get some+
body as directed, without any idea of who it was to be.
In a minute they had vanished through the gate,.and
she stood alone with the dying flock.
"Never will I send for him never!' she said firmly.
One of the ewes here contracted its muscles horribly,
extended itself, and jumped high into the air. The
leap was an astonishing one. The ewe fell heavily, and
lay still.
Bathsheba went up to it. The sheep was dead.
"O, what shall I do -- what shall I do!' she again
exclaimed, wringing her hands. "I won't send for him.
No, I won't!'
The most vigorous expression of a resolution does
not always coinicide with the greatest vigour of the
resolution itself. It is often flung out as a sort of prop
to support a decaying conviction which, whilst strong,
required no enunciation to prove it so. The "No, I
won't' of Bathsheba meant virtually, "I think I must.'
She followed her assistants through the gate, and
lifted her hand to one of them. Laban answered to her
signal.
"Where is Oak staying?'
"Across the valley at Nest Cottage!'
"Jump on the bay mare, and ride across, and say he
must return instantly -- that I say so.'
Tall scrambled off to the field, and in two minutes
was on Poll, the bay, bare-backed, and with only a
halter by way of rein. He diminished down the
hill.
Bathsheba watched. So did all the rest. Tall
cantered along the bridle-path through Sixteen Acres,
Sheeplands, Middle Field The Flats, Cappel's Piece,
shrank almost to a point, crossed the bridge, and
ascended from the valley through Springmead and
Whitepits on the other side. The cottage to which
Gabriel had retired before taking his final departure
from the locality was visible as a white spot on the
opposite hill, backed by blue firs. Bathsheba walked
up and down. The men entered the field and
endeavoured to ease the anguish of the dumb creatures
by rubbing them. Nothing availed.
Bathsheba continued walking. The horse was seen
descending the hill, and the wearisome series had to be
repeated in reverse order: Whitepits, Springmead,
Cappel's Piece, The Flats, Middle Field, Sheeplands,
Sixteen Acres. She hoped Tall had had presence of
mind enough to give the mare up to Gabriel, and return
himself on foot. The rider neared them. It was Tall.
"O, what folly!' said Bathsheba.
Gabriel was not visible anywhere.
"Perhaps he is already gone!' she said.
Tall came into the inclosure, and leapt off, his face
tragic as Morton's after the battle of Shrewsbury.
"Well?' said Bathsheba, unwilling to believe that
her verbal lettre-de-cachet could possibly have miscarried.
"He says beggars mustn't be choosers,' replied Laban.
"What!' said the young farmer, opening her eyes
and drawing in her breath for an outburst. Joseph
Poorgrass retired a few steps behind a hurdle.
"He says he shall not come onless you request en
to come civilly and in a proper manner, as becomes any
'ooman begging a favour.'
"Oh, oh, that's his answer! Where does he get his
airs? Who am I, then, to be treated like that? Shall
I beg to a man who has begged to me?'
Another of the flock sprang into the air, and fell
dead.
The men looked grave, as if they suppressed opinion.
Bathsheba turned aside, her eyes full of tears. The
strait she was in through pride and shrewishness could
not be disguised longer: she burst out crying bitterly;
they all saw it; and she attempted no further concealment.
"I wouldn't cry about it, miss,' said William Small+
bury, compassionately. "Why not ask him softer like?
I'm sure he'd come then. Gable is a true man in that
way.'
Bathsheba checked her grief and wiped her eyes.
"O, it is a wicked cruelty to me -- it is -- it is!' she
murmured. "And he drives me to do what I wouldn't;
yes, he does ! -- Tall, come indoors.'
After this collapse, not very dignified for the head
of an establishment, she went into the house, Tall at
her heels. Here she sat down and hastily scribbled a
note between the small convulsive sobs of convalescence
which follow a fit of crying as a ground-swell follows a
storm. The note was none the less polite for being
written in a hurry. She held it at a distance, was
about to fold it, then added these words at the
bottom: --
"Do not desert me, Gabriel!'
She looked a little redder in refolding it, and closed
her lips, as if thereby to suspend till too late the action
of conscience in examining whether such strategy were
justifiable. The note was despatched as the message
had been, and Bathsheba waited indoors for the result.
It was an anxious quarter of an hour that intervened
between the messenger's departure and the sound of the
horse's tramp again outside. She- could not watch this
time, but, leaning over the old bureau at which she had
written the letter, closed her eyes, as if to keep out both
hope and fear.
The case, however, was a promising one. Gabriel
was not angry: he was simply neutral, although her first
command had been so haughty. Such imperiousness
would have damned a little less beauty; and on the
other hand, such beauty would have redeemed a little
less imperiousness.
She went out when the horse was heard, and looked
up. A mounted figure passed between her and the
sky, and drew on towards the fleld of sheep, the rider
turning his face in receding. Gabriel looked at her.
It was a moment when a woman's eyes and tongue tell
distinctly opposite tales. Bathsheba looked full of
gratitude, and she said: --
"O, Gabriel, how could you serve me so unkindly!'
Such a tenderly-shaped reproach for his previous
delay was the one speech in the language that he could
pardon for not being commendation of his readiness
now.
Gabriel murmured a confused reply, and hastened
on. She knew from the look which sentence in her
note had brought him. Bathsheba followed to the
field.
Gabriel was already among the turgid, prostrate forms.
He had flung off his coat, rolled up his shirt-sleeves,
and taken from his pocket the instrument of salvation.
It was a small tube or trochar, with a lance passing
down the inside; and Gabriel began to use it with a
dexterity that would have graced a hospital surgeon.
Passing his hand over the sheep's left flank, and
selecting the proper point, he punctured the skin and
rumen with the lance as it stood in the tube; then he
suddenly withdrew the lance, retaining the tube in its
place. A current of air rushed up the tube, forcible
enough to have extinguished a candle held at the
orifice.
It has been said that mere ease after torment is de+
light for a time; and the countenances of these poor
creatures expressed it now. Forty-nine operations were
successfully performed. Owing to the great hurry
necessitated by the far-gone state of some of the flock,
Gabriel missed his aim in one case, and in one only --
striking wide of the mark, and inflicting a mortal blow
at once upon the suffering ewe. Four had died; three
recovered without an operation. The total number of
sheep which had thus strayed and injured themselves
so dangerously was fifty-seven.
When the love-led man had ceased from his labours,
Bathsheba came and looked him in the face.
"Gabriel, will you stay on with me?' she, said,
smiling winningly, and not troubling to bring her lips
quite together again at the end, because there was going
to be another smile soon.
"I will,' said Gabriel.
And she smiled on him again.
THE GREAT BARN AnD THE SHEEP-SHEARERS
MEN thin away to insignificance and oblivion quite as
often by not making the most of good spirits when they
have them as by lacking good spirits when they are
indispensable. Gabriel lately, for the first time since
his prostration by misfortune, had been independent in
thought and vigorous in action to a marked extent --
conditions which, powerless without an opportunity as
an opportunity without them is barren, would have
given him a sure lift upwards when the favourable-con+
junction should have occurred. But this incurable
loitering beside Bathsheba Everdene stole his time
ruinously. The spring tides were going by without
floating him off, and the neap might soon come which
could not.
It was the first day of June, and the sheep-shearing
season culminated, the landscape, even to the leanest
pasture, being all health and colour. Every green was
young, every pore was open, and every stalk was swollen
with racing currents of juice. God was palpably present
in the country, and the devil had gone with the world
to town. Flossy catkins of the later kinds, fern-sprouts
like bishops' croziers, the square-headed moschatel, the
odd cuckoo-pint, -- like an apoplectic saint in a niche
of malachite, -- snow-white ladies'-smocks, the toothwort,
approximating to human flesh, the enchanter's night+
shade, and the black-petaled doleful-bells, were among
the quainter objects of the vegetable world in and about
Weatherbury at this teeming time; and of the animal,
the metamorphosed figures of Mr. Jan Coggan, the
master-shearer; the second and third shearers, who
travelled in the exercise of their calling, and do not re+
quire definition by name; Henery Fray the fourth
shearer, Susan Tall's husband the fifth, Joseph Poorgrass
the sixth, young Cain Ball as assistant-shearer, and
Gabriel Oak as general supervisor. None of these were
clothed
to any extent worth mentioning, each appearing
to have hit in the matter of raiment the decent mean
between a high and low caste Hindoo. An angularity
of lineament, and a fixity of facial machinery in general,
proclaimed that serious work was the order of the day.
They sheared in the great barn, called for the nonce
the Shearing-barn, which on ground-plan resembled a
church with transepts. It not only emulated the form
of the neighbouring church of the parish, but vied with
it in antiquity. Whether the barn had ever formed one
of a group of conventual buildings nobody seemed to be
aware; no trace of such surroundings remained. The
vast porches at the sides, lofty enough to admit a waggon
laden to its highest with corn in the sheaf, were spanned
by heavy-pointed arches of stone, broadly and boldly cut,
whose very simplicity was the origin of a grandeur not
apparent in erections where more ornament has been
attempted. The dusky, filmed, chestnut roof, braced
and tied in by huge collars, curves, and diagonals, was
far nobler in design, because more wealthy in material,
than nine-tenths of those in our modern churches.
Along each side wall was a range of striding buttresses,
throwing deep shadows on the spaces between them,
which were perforated by lancet openings, combining
in their proportions the precise requirements both of
beauty and ventilation.
One could say about this barn, what could hardly
be said of either the church or the castle, akin to it in
age and style, that the purpose which had dictated its
original erection was the same with that to which it
was still applied. Unlike and superior to either of
those two typical remnants of mediaevalism, the old
barn embodied practices which had suffered no mutila+
tion at the hands of time. Here at least the spirit of
the ancient builders was at one with the spirit of the
modern beholder. Standing before this abraded pile,
the eye regarded its present usage, the mind-dwelt upon
its past history, with a satisfied sense of functional
continuity throughout -- a feeling almost of gratitude,
and quite of pride, at the permanence of the idea
which had heaped it up. The fact that four centuries
had neither proved it to be founded on a mistake,
inspired any hatred of its purpose, nor given rise to
any reaction that had battered it down, invested this
simple grey effort of old minds with a repose, if not a
grandeur, which a too curious reflection was apt to
disturb in its ecclesiastical and military compeers. For
once medievalism and modernism had a common stand+
point. The lanccolate windows, the time-eaten arch+
stones and chamfers, the orientation of the axis, the
misty chestnut work of the rafters, referred to no exploded
fortifying art or worn-out religious creed. The defence
and salvation of the body by daily bread is still a study,
a religion, and a desire.
To-day the large side doors were thrown open
towards the sun to admit a bountiful light to the
immediate spot of the shearers' operations, which was
the wood threshing-floor in the centre, formed of thick
oak, black with age and polished by the beating of flails
for many generations, till it had grown as slippery and
as rich in hue as the state-room floors of an Elizabethan
mansion. Here the shearers knelt, the sun slanting in
upon their bleached shirts, tanned arms, and the polished
shears they flourished, causing these to bristle with a
thousand rays strong enough to blind a weak-eyed man.
Beneath them a captive sheep lay panting, quickening
its pants as misgiving merged in terror, till it quivered
like the hot landscape outside.
This picture of to-day in its frame of four hundred
years ago did not produce that marked contrast between
ancient and modern which is implied by the contrast
of date. In comparison with cities, Weatherbury was
immutable. The citizen's Then is the rustic's Now.
In London, twenty or thirty-years ago are old times;
in Paris ten years, or five; in Weatherbury three or
four score years were included in the mere present,
and nothing less than a century set a mark on its
face or tone. Five decades hardly modified the cut of
a gaiter, the embroidery of a smock-frock, by the breadth
of a hair. Ten generations failed to alter the turn of
a single phrase. In these Wessex nooks the busy out+
sider's ancient times are only old; his old times are still
new; his present is futurity.
So the barn was natural to the shearers, and the
shearers were in harmony with the barn.
The spacious ends of the building, answering ecclesi+
astically
to nave and chancel extremities, were fenced
off with hurdles, the sheep being all collected in a crowd
within these two enclosures; and in one angle a catching+
pen was formed, in which three or four sheep were
continuously kept ready for the shearers to seize without
loss of time. In the background, mellowed by tawny
shade, were the three women, Maryann Money, and
Temperance and Soberness Miller, gathering up the
fleeces and twisting ropes of wool with a wimble for
tying them round. They were indifferently well assisted
by the old maltster, who, when the malting season from
October to April had passed, made himself useful upon
any of the bordering farmsteads.
"Behind all was Bathsheba, carefully watching the
men to see that there was no cutting or wounding
through carelessness, and that the animals were shorn
close. Gabriel, who flitted and hovered under her
bright eyes like a moth, did not shear continuously,
half his time being spent in attending to the others
and selecting the sheep for them. At the present
moment he was engaged in handing round a mug of
mild liquor, supplied from a barrel in the corner,
and cut pieces of bread and cheese.
Bathsheba, after throwing a glance here, a caution
there, and lecturing one of the younger operators who
had allowed his last finished sheep to go off among
the flock without re-stamping it with her initials, came
again to Gabriel, as he put down the luncheon to drag
a frightened ewe to his shear-station, flinging it over
upon its back with a dexterous twist of the arm
He lopped off the tresses about its head, and opened
up the neck and collar, his mistress quietly looking
on:
"She blushes at the insult,' murmured Bathsheba,
watching the pink flush which arose and overspread
the neck and shoulders of the ewe where they were
left bare by the clicking shears -- a flush which was
enviable, for its delicacy, by many queens of coteries,
and would have been creditable, for its promptness, to
any woman in the world.
Poor Gabriel's soul was fed with a luxury of content
by having her over him, her eyes critically regarding
his skilful shears, which apparently were going to gather
up a piece of the flesh at every close, and yet never did
so. Like Guildenstern,
Oak was happy in that he was
not over happy. He had no wish to converse with her:
that his bright lady and himself formed one group,
exclusively their own, and containing no others in the
world, was enough.
So the chatter was all on her side. There is a
loquacity that tells nothing, which was Bathsheba's;
and there is a silence which says much: that was
Gabriel's. Full of this dim and temperate bliss, he
went on to fling the ewe over upon her other side,
covering her head with his knee, gradually running
the shears line after line round her dewlap; thence
about her flank and back, and finishing over the tail.
"Well done, and done quickly!' said Bathsheba,
looking at her watch as the last snip resounded.
"How long, miss?' said Gabriel, wiping his brow.
"Three-and-twenty minutes and a half since you took
the first lock from its forehead. It is the first time that
I have ever seen one done in less than half an hour.'
The clean, sleek creature arose from its fleece -- how
perfectly like Aphrodite rising from the foam should
have been seen to be realized -- looking startled and
shy at the loss of its garment, which lay on the floor
in one soft cloud, united throughout, the portion visible
being the inner surface only, which, never before exposed,
was white as snow, and without flaw or blemish of the
minutest kind.
"Cain Ball!'
"Yes, Mister Oak; here I be!'
Cainy now runs forward with the tar-pot. "B. E.' is
newly stamped upon the shorn skin, and away the simplc
dam lcaps, panting, over the board into the shirtless
flock outside. Then up comes Maryann; throws the
loose locks into the middle of the fleece, rolls it up,
and carries it into the background as three-and-a-half
pounds of unadulterated warmth for the winter enjoy+
ment of persons unknown and far away, who will,
however, never experience the superlative comfort
derivable from the wool as it here exists, new and pure
-- before the unctuousness of its nature whilst in a
living state has dried, stiffened, and been washed out
-- rendering it just now as superior to anything woollen
as cream is superior to milk-and-water.
But heartless circumstance could not leave entire
Gabriel's happiness of this morning. The rams, old
ewes, and two-shear ewes had duly undergone their
stripping, and the men were proceeding with the shear+
lings and hogs, when Oak's belief that she was going to
stand pleasantly by and time him through another
performance was painfully interrupted by Farmer Bold+
wood's appearance in the extremest corner of the barn.
Nobody seemed to have perceived his entry, but there
he certainly was. Boldwood always carried with him a
social atmosphere of his own, which everybody felt who
came near him; and the talk, which Bathsheba's
presence had somewhat suppressed, was now totally
suspended.
He crossed over rowards Bathsheba, who turned to
greet him with a carriage of perfect ease. He spoke to
her in low tones, and she instinctively modulated her
own to the same pitch, and her voice ultimately even
caught the inflection of his. She was far from having
a wish to appear mysteriously connected with him; but
woman at the impressionable age gravitates to the larger
body not only in her choice of words, which is apparent
every day, but even in her shades of tone and humour,
when the influence is great.
What they conversed about was not audible to
Gabriel, who was too independent to get near, though
too concerned to disregard. The issue of their dialogue
was the taking of her hand by the courteous farmer to
help her over the spreading-board into the bright June
sunlight outside. Standing beside the sheep already
shorn, they went on talking again. Concerning the
flock? Apparently not. Gabriel theorized, not without
truth, that in quiet discussion of any matter within reach
of the speakers' eyes, these are usually fixed upon it.
Bathsheba demurely regarded a contemptible straw lying
upon the ground, in a way which suggested less ovine
criticism than womanly embarrassment. She became
more or less red in the cheek, the blood wavering in
uncertain flux and reflux over the sensitive space between
ebb and flood. Gabriel sheared on, constrained and
sad.
She left Boldwood's side, and he walked up and
down alone for nearly a quarter of an hour. Then she
reappeared in her
new riding-habit of myrtle-green, which
fitted her to the waist as a rind fits its fruit; and young
Bob Coggan led -on -her mare, Boldwood fetching his
own horse from the tree under which it had been tied.
Oak's eyes could not forsake them; and in en+
deavouring to continue his shearing at the same time
that he watched Boldwood's manner, he snipped the
sheep in the groin. The animal plunged; Bathsheba
instantly gazed towards it, and saw the blood.
"O, Gabriel!' she exclaimed, with severe remon+
strance you who are so strict with the other men -- see
what you are doing yourself!'
To an outsider there was not much to complain of
in this remark ; but to Oak, who "knew Bathsheba to be
well aware that she herself was the cause of the poor
ewe's wound, because she had wounded the ewe's shearer
in a -- still more vital part, it had a sting which the abiding
sense of his inferiority to both herself and Boldwood was
not calculated to heal. But a manly resolve to recognize
boldly that he had no longer a lover's interest in her,
helped him oceasionally to conceal a feeling.
" Bottle .! ' he shouted, in an unmoved voice of routine.
Cainy Ball ran up, the wound was anointed, and the
shearing continued.
Boldwood gently tossed Bathsheba into the saddle,
and before they turned away she again spoke out to Oak
with the same dominative and tantalizing graciousness.
"I am going now to see Mr. Boldwood's Leicesters.
Take my place in the barn, Gabriel, and keep the men
carefully to their work.'
The horses' heads were put about, and they trotted
away.
Boldwood's deep attachment was a matter of great
interest among all around him ; but, after having been
pointed out for so many years as the perfect exemplar
of thriving bachelorship, his lapse was an anticlimax
somewhat resembling that of St. John Long's death by
consumption in the midst of his proofs that it was not
a fatal disease.
" That means matrimony,' said Temperance Miller,
following them out of sight with her eyes.
"I reckon that's the size o't,' said Coggan, working
along without looking up.
" Well, better wed over the mixen than over the moor,'
said Laban Tall, turning his sheep.
Henery Fray spoke, exhibiting miserable eyes at the
same time: "I don't see why a maid should take a
husband when she's bold enough to fight her own
battles, and don't want a home ; for 'tis keeping another
woman out. But let it be, for 'tis a pity he and she
should trouble two houses.'
As usual with decided characters, Bathsheba invari+
ably provoked the criticism of individuals like Henery
Fray. Her emblazoned fault was to be too pronounced
in her objections, and not sufficiently overt in her
likings. We learn that it is not the rays which bodies
absorb, but those which they reject, that give them the
colours they are known by ; and win the same way people
are specialized by their dislikes and antagonisms, whilst
their goodwill is looked upon as no attribute at all.
Henery continued in a more complaisant mood : "I
once hinted my mind to her on a few things, as nearly
as a battered frame dared to do 'so to such a froward
piece. You all know, neighbours, what a man I be,
and how I come down with my powerful words when
my pride is boiling wi' scarn ?'
" We do, we do, Henery.'
" So I said, "" Mistress Everdene, there's places empty,
and there's gifted men willing ; but the spite '' -- no. not
the spite -- I didn't say spite -- ""but the villainy of the
contrarikind,'' I said (meaning womankind), "" keeps 'em
out.'' That wasn't too strong for her, say ? '
" Passably well put.'
"Yes; and I would have said it, had death and
salvation overtook me for it. Such is my spirit when I
have a mind.'
"A true man, and proud as a lucifer.'
"You see the artfulness ? Why, 'twas about being
baily really; but I didn't put it so plain that she could
understand my meaning, so I could lay it on all the
stronger. That was my depth .! ... However, let her
marry an she will. Perhaps 'tis high time. I believe
Farmer Boldwood kissed her behind the spear-bed at the
sheep-washing t'other day -- that I do.'
" What a lie !.' said Gabriel.
" Ah, neighbour Oak -- how'st know ? ' said, Henery,
mildly.
" Because she told me all that passed,' said Oak, with
a pharisaical sense that he was not as other shearers in
this matter.
"Ye have a right to believe it,' said Henery, with
dudgeon; "a very true right. But I mid see a little
distance into things !. To be long-headed enough for a
baily's place is a poor mere trifle -- yet a trifle more than
nothing. However, I look round upon life quite cool.
Do you heed me, neighbours ? My words, though made
as simple as I can, mid be rather deep for some heads.'
" O yes, Henery, we quite heed ye.'
" A strange old piece, goodmen -- whirled about from
here to yonder, as if I were nothing ! A little warped,
too. But I have my depths; ha, and even my great
depths ! I might gird at a certain shepherd, brain to
brain. But no -- O no !.'
" A strange old piece, ye say .! ' interposed the maltster,
in a querulous voice. "At the same time ye be no old
man worth naming -- no old man at all. Yer teeth
bain't half gone yet ; and what's a old man's standing
if se be his teeth bain't gone? Weren't I stale in
wedlock afore ye were out of arms ? 'Tis a poor thing
to be sixty, when there's people far past four-score -- a
boast'weak as water.'
It was the unvaying custom in Weatherbury to
sink minor differences when the maltster had to be
pacified.
" Weak as-water .! yes,' said Jan Coggan.- "Malter,
we feel ye to be a wonderful veteran man, and nobody
can gainsay it.'
" Nobody,' said Joseph Poorgrass. "Ye be a very
rare old spectacle, malter, and we all admire ye for that
gift. '
"Ay, and as a young man, when my senses were in
prosperity, I was likewise liked by a good-few who
knowed me,' said the maltster.
" 'Ithout doubt you was -- 'ithout doubt.'
The bent and hoary 'man was satisfied, and so
apparently was Henery Frag. That matters should
continue pleasant Maryann
spoke, who, what with her
brown complexion, and the working wrapper of rusty
linsey, had at present the mellow hue of an old sketch
in oils -- notably some of Nicholas Poussin's: --
" Do anybody know of a crooked man, or a lame, or
any second-hand fellow at all that would do for poor
me ?' said Maryann. "A perfect one I don't expect to
at my time of life. If I could hear of such a thing
twould do me more good thantoast and ale.'
Coggan furnished a suitable reply. Oak went on
with his shearing, and said not another word. Pestilent
moods had come, and teased away his quiet. Bathsheba
had shown indications of anointing him above his
fellows by installing him as the bailiff that the farm
imperatively required. He did not covet the post
relatively to the farm : in relation to herself, as beloved
by him and unmarried to another, he had coveted it.
His readings of her seemed now to be vapoury and
indistinct. His lecture to her was, he thought, one of
the absurdest mistakes. Far from coquetting with
Boldwood, she had trifled with himself in thus feigning
that she had trifled with another. He was inwardly
convinced that, in accordance with the anticipations of
his easy-going and worse-educated comrades, that day
would see Boldwood the accepted husband of Miss
Everdene. Gabriel at this time of his life had out+
grown the instinctive dislike which every Christian
boy has for reading the Bible, perusing it now quite
frequently, and he inwardly said, " ''I find more bitter
than death the woman whose heart is snares and
nets .! '' ' This was mere exclamation -- the froth of the
storm. He adored Bathsheba just the same.
" We workfolk shall have some lordly- junketing
to-night,' said Cainy Ball, casting forth his thoughts in
a new direction. "This morning I see'em making the
great puddens in the milking-pails -- lumps of fat as big
as yer thumb, Mister Oak ! I've never seed such
splendid large knobs of fat before in the days of my
life -- they never used to be bigger then a horse-bean.
And there was a great black crock upon the brandise
with his legs a-sticking out, but I dont know what was
in within."
'And there's two bushels of biffins for apple-pies,'
said Maryann.
"Well, I hope to do my duty by it all,' said Joseph
Poorgrass, in a pleasant, masticating manner of anticipa+
tion. " Yes ; victuals and drink is a cheerful thing,
and gives nerves to the nerveless, if the form of words
may be used. 'Tis the gospel of the body, without
which we perish, so to speak it.'
EVENTIDE -- A SECOND DECLARATION
FOR the shearing-supper a long table was placed on the
grass-plot beside the house, the end of the table being
thrust over the sill of the wide parlour window and a
foot or two into the room. Miss Everdene sat inside
the window, facing down the table. She was thus at
the head without mingling with the men.
This evening Bathsheba was unusually excited, her
red cheeks and lips contrasting lustrously with the mazy
skeins of her shadowy hair. She seemed to expect
assistance, and the seat at the bottom of the table was
at her request left vacant until after they had begun
and the duties appertaining to that end, which he did
with great readiness.
At this moment Mr. Boldwood came in at the gate,
and crossed the green to Bathsheba at the window.
He apologized for his lateness : his arrival was evidently
by arrangement.
" Gabriel,' said she, " will you move again, please,
and let Mr. Boldwood come there ?'
Oak moved in silence back to his original seat.
The gentleman-farmer was dressed in cheerful style,
in a new coat and white waistcoat, quite contrasting
with his usual sober suits of grey. Inwardy, too, he
was blithe, and consequently chatty to an exceptional
degree. So also was Bathsheba now that he had come,
though the uninvited presence of Pennyways, the bailiff
who had been dismissed for theft, disturbed her equan+
imity for a while.
Supper being ended, Coggan began on his own
private account, without reference to listeners : --
l've lost my love and l care not,
I've lost my love, and l care not;
I shall soon have another
That's better than t'other!
I've lost my love, and I care not.
This lyric, when concluded, was received with a
silently appreciative gaze at the table, implying that the
performance, like a work by those established authors
who are independent of notices in the papers, was a
well-known delight which required no applause.
"Now, Master Poorgass, your song!' said Coggan.
"I be all but in liquor, and the gift is wanting in
me,' said Joseph, diminishing himself.
"Nonsense; wou'st never be so ungrateful, Joseph --
never!' said Coggan, expressing hurt feelings by an
inflection of voice. "And mistress is looking hard at
ye, as much as to say, ""Sing at once, Joseph Poor+
grass.'' '
"Faith, so she is; well, I must suffer it! ... Just
eye my features, and see if the tell-tale blood overheats
me much, neighbours?'
"No, yer blushes be quite reasonable,' said Coggan.
"I always tries to keep my colours from rising when
a beauty's eyes get fixed on me,' said Joseph, differently;
"but if so be 'tis willed they do, they must.'
"Now, Joseph, your song, please,' said Bathsheba,
from the window.
"Well, really, ma'am,' he replied, in a yielding tone,
"I don't know what to say. It would be a poor plain
ballet of my own composure.'
'Hear, hear! ' said the supper-party.
Poorgrass, thus assured, trilled forth a flickering yet
commendable piece of sentiment, the tune of which
consisted of the key-note and another, the latter being
the sound chiefly dwelt upon. This was so successful
that he rashly plunged into a second in the same
breath, after a few false starts : --
I sow'-ed th'-e
I sow'-ed
I sow'-ed the'-e seeds' of love',
I-it was' all' i'-in the'-e spring',
I-in A'-pril', Ma'-ay, a'-nd sun'-ny' June',
When sma'-all bi'-irds they' do' sing.
" Well put out of hand,' said Coggan, at the end of the
verse. ' "" They do sing '' was a very taking paragraph.'
"Ay; and there was a pretty place at "seeds of
love,'' and 'twas well heaved out. Though "love '' is
a nasty high corner when a man's voice is getting
crazed. Next verse, Master Poorgrass.'
But during this rendering young Bob Coggan ex+
hibited one of those anomalies which will afflict little
people when other persons are particularly serious : in
trying to check his laughter, he pushed down his throat
as much of the tablecloth as he could get hold of, when,
after continuing hermetically sealed for a short time, his
mirth burst out through his nose. Joseph perceived it,
and with hectic cheeks of indignation instantly ceased
singing. Coggan boxed Bob's ears immediately.
"Go on, Joseph -- go on, and never mind the young
scamp,' said Coggan. "'Tis a very catching ballet.
Now then again -- the next bar; I'll help ye to flourish
up the shrill notes where yer wind is rather wheezy : --
O the wi'-il-lo'-ow tree' will' twist',
And the wil'-low' tre'-ee wi'ill twine'.
But the singer could not be set going again. Bob
Coggan was sent home for his ill manners, and tran+
quility was restored by Jacob Smallbury, who volunteered
a ballad as inclusive and interminable as that with which
the worthy toper old Silenus amused on a similar occasion
the swains Chromis and Mnasylus, and other jolly dogs
of his day.
It' was still the beaming time .of evening, though
night was stealthily making itself visible low down upon
the ground, the western lines of light taking the earth
without alighting upon it to any extent, or illuminating
the dead levels at all. The sun had crept round the
tree as a last effort before death, and then began to
sink, the shearers' lower parts becoming steeped in
embrowning twilight, whilst their heads and shoulders
were still enjoying day, touched with a yellow of self+
sustained brilliancy that seemed inherent rather than
acquired.
The sun went down in an ochreous mist; but they
sat, and
talked on, and grew as merry as the gods in
Homer's heaven. Bathsheba still remained enthroned
inside the window, and occupied herself in knitting,
from which she sometimes looked up to view the fading
scene outside. The slow twilight expanded and enveloped
them completely before the signs of moving were shown.
Gabriel suddenly missed Farmer Boldwood from his
place at the bottom of the table. How long he had
been gone Oak did not know; but he had apparently
withdrawn into the eneircling dusk. Whilst he was
thinking of this, Liddy brought candles into the back
part of the room overlooking the shearers, and their
lively new flames shone down the table and over the
men, and dispersed among the green shadows behind.
Bathsheba's form, still in its original position, was now
again distinct between their eyes and the light, which
revealed that Boldwood had gone inside the room, and
was sitting near her.
Next came the question of the evening. Would Miss
Everdene sing to them the song she always sang so
charmingly -- " The Banks of Allan Water ' -- before they
went home ?
After a moment's consideration Bathsheba assented,
beckoning to Gabriel, who hastened up into the coveted
atmosphere.
" Have you brought your flute ? " she whispered.
" Yes, miss.'
" Play to my singing, then.'
She stood up in the window-opening, facing the
men, the candles behind her, Gabriel on her right hand,
immediately outside the sash-frame. Boldwood had
drawn up on her left, within the room. Her singing
was soft and rather tremulous at first, but it soon swelled
to a steady clearness. Subsequent events caused one
of the verses to be remembered for many months, and
even years, by more than one of those who were gathered
there : --
For his bride a soldier sought her,
And a winning tongue had he :
On the banks of Allan Water
None was gay as she !.
In addition to the dulcet piping of Gabriel's flute,
Boldwood supplied a bass in his customary profound
voice, uttering his notes so softly, however, as to abstain
entirely from making anything like an ordinary duet of
the song ; they rather formed a rich unexplored shadow,
which threw her tones into relief. The shearers reclined
against each other as at suppers in the early ages of the
world, and so silent and absorbed were they that her
breathing could almost be heard between the bars ; and
at the end of the ballad, when the last tone loitered on
to an inexpressible close, there arose that buzz of
pleasure which is the attar of applause.
It is scarcely necessary to state that Gabriel could
not avoid noting the farmer's bearing to-night towards
their entertainer. Yet there was nothing exceptional in
his actions beyond what appertained to his time of
performing them. It was when the rest were all looking
away that Boldwood observed her ; when they regarded
her he turned aside; when they thanked or praised he
was silent; when they were inattentive he murmured
his thanks. The meaning lay in the difference between
actions, none of which had any meaning of itself;
and the necessity of being jealous, which lovers are
troubled with, did not lead Oak to underestimate these
signs.
Bathsheba then wished them good-night, withdrew
from the window, and retired to the back part of the
room, Boldwood thereupon closing the sash and the
shutters, and remaining inside with her. Oak wandered
away under the quiet and scented trees. Recovering
from the softer impressions produced by Bathsheba's
voice, the shearers rose to leave, Coggan turning to
Pennyways as he pushed back the bench to pass out : --
"I like to give praise where praise is due, and the
man deserves it -- that 'a do so,' he remarked, looking at
the worthy thief, as if he were the masterpiece of some
world-renowned artist.
"I'm sure I should never have believed it if we hadn t
proved it, so to allude,' hiccupped Joseph Poorgrass, " that
every cup, every one of the best knives and forks, and
every empty bottle be in their place as perfect now as
at the beginning, and not one stole at all.
"I'm sure I don't deserve half the praise you give
me,' said the virtuous thief, grimly.
" Well, I'll say this for Pennyways,' added Coggan,
"that whenever he do really make up his mind to do a
noble thing in the shape of a good action, as I could
see by his face he. did to-night afore sitting down, he's
generally able to carry it out. Yes, I'm proud to say.
neighbours, that he's stole nothing at all.
"Well,' -- 'tis an honest deed, and we thank ye for it,
Pennyways,' said Joseph; to which opinion the remainder
of the company subscribed unanimously.
At this time of departure, when nothing more was
visible of the inside of the parlour than a thin and still
chink of light between the shutters, a passionate scene
was in eourse of enactment there.'
Miss Everdene and Boldwood were alone. Her
cheeks had lost a great deal of their healthful fire from
the very seriousness of her position ; but her eye was
bright with the excitement of a triumph -- though it was
a triumph which had rather been contemplated than
desired.
She was standing behind a low arm-chair, from which
she had just risen, and he was kneeling in it -- inclining
himself over its back towards her, and holding her hand
in both his own. His body moved restlessly, and it was
with what Keats daintily calls a too happy happiness.
This unwonted abstraction by love of all dignity from
a man of whom it had ever seemed the chief component,
was, in its distressing incongruity, a pain to her which
quenched much of the pleasure she derived from the
proof that she was idolized.
" I will try to love you,' she was saying, in a trembling
voice quite unlike her usual self-confidence. " And if I
can believe in any way that I shall make you a good
wife I shall indeed be willing to marry you. But, Mr.
Boldwood, hesitation on so high a matter is honourable
in any woman, and I don't want to give a solemn
promise to-night. I would rather ask you to wait a few
weeks till I can see my situation better.'
"But you have every reason to believe that then -- -- '
'I have every reason to hope that at the end of the
five or
six weeks, between this time and harvest, that
you say you are going to be away from home, I shall be
able to promise to be your wife,' she said, firmly. "But
remember this distinctly, I don't promise yet.'
"It is enough I don't ask more. I can wait on
those dear words. And now, Miss Everdene, good+
night!'
" Good-night,' she said, graciously -- almost tenderly;
and Boldwood withdrew with a serene smile.
Bathsheba knew more of him now ; he had entirely
bared his heart before her, even until he had almost
worn in her eyes the sorry look of a grand bird without
the feathers that make it grand. She had been awe+
struck at her past temerity, and was struggling to make
amends without thinking whether the sin quite deserved
the penalty she was schooling herself to pay. To have
brought all this about her ears was terrible; but after a
while the situation was not without a fearful joy. The
facility with which even the most timid woman some+
times acquire a relish for the dreadful when that is
amalgamated with a little triumph, is marvellous.
THE SAME NIGHT -- THE FIR PLANTATION
AMONG the multifarious duties which Bathsheba had
voluntarily imposed upon herself by dispensing with the
services of a bailiff, was the particular one of looking
round the homestead before going to bed, to see that
all was right and safe for the night. Gabriel had almost
constantly preceded her in this tour every evening,
watching her affairs as carefully as any specially appointed
officer of surveillance could have done; but this tender
devotion was to a great extent unknown to his mistress,
and as much as was known was somewhat thanklessly
received. Women are never tired of bewailing man's
fickleness in love, but they only seem to snub his con+
stancy.
As watching is best done invisibly, she usually carried
a dark lantern in her hand, and every now and then
turned on the light to examine nooks and corners with
the coolness of a metropolitan policeman. This cool+
ness may have owed its existence not so much to her
fearlessness of expected danger as to her freedom from
the suspicion of any; her worst anticipated discovery
being that a horse might not be well bedded, the fowls
not all in, or a door not closed.
This night the buildings were inspected as usual,
and she went round to the farm paddock. Here the
only sounds disturbing the stillness were steady munch+
ings of many mouths, and stentorian breathings from all
but invisible noses, ending in snores and puffs like the
blowing of bellows slowly. Then the munching would
recommence, when the lively imagination might assist
the eye to discern a group of pink-white nostrils, shaped
as caverns, and very clammy and humid on their sur+
faces, not exactly pleasant to the touch until one got
used to them; the mouths beneath having a great
partiality for closing upon any loose end of Bathsheba's
apparel which came within
reach of their tongues.
Above each of these a still keener vision suggested a
brown forehead and two staring though not unfriendly
eyes, and above all a pair of whitish crescent-shaped
horns like two particularly new moons, an occasional
stolid " moo!' proclaiming beyond the shade of a doubt
that these phenomena were the features and persons of
Daisy, Whitefoot, Bonny-lass, Jolly-O, Spot, Twinkle-eye,
etc., etc. -- the respectable dairy of Devon cows belonging
to Bathsheba aforesaid.
Her way back to the house was by a path through a
young plantation of tapering firs, which had been planted
some years earlier to shelter the premises from the north
wind. By reason of the density of the interwoven foliage
overhead, it was gloomy there at cloudless noontide,
twilight in the evening, dark as midnight at dusk, and
black as the ninth plague of Egypt at midnight. To
describe the spot is to call it a vast, low, naturally formed
hall, the plumy ceiling of which was supported by slender
pillars of living wood, the floor being covered with a soft
dun carpet of dead spikelets and mildewed cones, with
a tuft of grass-blades here and there.
This bit of the path was always the crux of the
night's ramble, though, before starting, her apprehen+
sions of danger were not vivid enough to lead her to
take a companion. Slipping along here covertly as
Time, Bathsheba fancied she could hear footsteps enter+
ing the track at the opposite end. It was certainly a
rustle of footsteps. Her own instantly fell as gently as
snowflakes. She reassured herself by a remembrance
that the path was public, and that the traveller was
probably some villager returning home ; regetting, at
the same time, that the meeting should be about to
occur in' the darkest point of her route, even though
only just outside her own door.
The noise approached, came close, and a figure was
apparently on the point of gliding past her when some+
thing tugged at her skirt and pinned it forcibly to the
ground. The instantaneous check nearly threw Bath+
sheba off her balance. In recovering she struck against
warm clothes and buttons.
'A rum start, upon my soul!' said a masculine voice,
a foot or so above her head. 'Have I hurt you, mate?'
"No,' said Bathsheba, attempting to shrink a way.
" We have got hitched together somehow, I think.'
" Yes.'
"Are you a woman ?'
'Yes.'
"A lady, I should have said.'
"It doesn't matter.'
"I am a man.'
"Oh!'
Bathsheba softly tugged again, but to no purpose.
"Is that a dark lantern you have ? I fancy so,' said
the man.
'Yes.'
"If you'll allow me I'll open it, and set you free.'
A hand seized the lantern, the door was opened, the
rays burst out from their prison, and Bathsheba beheld
her position with astonishment.
The man to whom she was hooked was brilliant in
brass and scarlet. He was a soldier. His sudden
appearance was to darkness what the sound of a trumpet
is to silense. Gloom, the genius loci at all times hitherto,
was now totally overthrown, less by the lantern-light
than by what the lantern lighted. The contrast of this
revelation with her anticipations of some sinister figure
in sombre garb was so great that it had upon her the
effect of a fairy transformation.
It was immediately apparent that the military man's
spur had become entangled in the gimp which decorated
the skirt of her dress. He caught a view of her face.
"I'll unfasten you in one moment, miss,' he said,
with new-born gallantry.
" O no -- I can do it, thank you,' she hastily replied,
and stooped for the performance.
The unfastening was not such a trifling affair. The
rowel of the spur had so wound itself among the gimp
cords in those few moments, that separation was likely
to be a matter of time.
He too stooped, and the lantern standing on the
ground betwixt them threw the gleam from its open side
among the fir-tree needles and the blades of long damp
grass with the effect of a large glowworm. It radiated
upwards into their
faces, and sent over half the planta+
tion gigantic shadows of both man and woman, each
dusky shape becoming distorted and mangled upon the
tree-trunks till it wasted to nothing.
He looked hard into her eyes when she raised them
for a moment; Bathsheba looked down again, for his
gaze was too strong to be received point-blank with her
own. But she had obliquely noticed that he was young
and slim, and that he wore three chevrons upon his
sleeve.
Bathsheba pulled again.
" You are a prisoner, miss; it is no use blinking the
matter,' said the soldier, drily. " I must cut your dress
if you are in such a hurry.'
" Yes -- please do!' she exclaimed, helplessly. '
"It wouldn't be necessary if you could wait a
moment;' and he unwound a cord from the little
wheel. She withdrew her own hand, but, whether by
accident or design, he touched it. Bathsheba was
vexed; she hardly knew why.
His unravelling went on, but it nevertheless seemed
coming to no end. She looked at him again.
'Thank you for the sight of such a beautiful face!'
said the young sergeant, without ceremony.
She coloured with embarrassment. "'Twas un+
willingly shown,' she replied, stiffly, and with as much
dignity -- which was very little -- as she could infuse into
a position of captivity
"I like you the better for that incivility, miss,' he
said.
" I should have liked -- I wish -- you had never shown
yourself to me by intruding here!' She pulled again,
and the gathers of her dress began to give way like
liliputian musketry.
" I deserve the chastisement your words give me.
But why should such a fair and dutiful girl have such
an aversion to her father's sex ? '
"Go on your way, please.'
' What, Beauty, and drag you after me ? Do but
look; I never saw such a tangle!'
'O, 'tis shameful of you ; you have been making
it worse on purpose to keep me here -- you have ! '
"Indeed, I don't think so,' said the sergeant, with a
merry twinkle.
"I tell you you have!' she exclaimed, in high
temper. I insist upon undoing it. Now, allow me!'
"Certainly, miss; I am not of steel.' He added a
sigh which had as much archness in it as a sigh could
possess without losing its nature altogether. 'I am
thankful for beauty, even when 'tis thrown to me like
a bone to a dog. These moments will be over too
soon!'
She closed her lips in a determined silence.
Bathsheba was revolving in her mind whether by a
bold and desperate rush she could free herself at the
risk of leaving her skirt bodily behind her. The
thought was too dreadful. The dress -- which she had
put on to appear stately at the supper -- was the head
and front of her wardrobe ; not another in her stock
became her so well. What woman in Bathsheba's
position, not naturally timid, and within call of her
retainers, would have bought escape from a dashing
soldier at so dear a price ?
"All in good time ; it will soon be done, I perceive,'
said her cool friend.
" This trifling provokes, and -- and -- -- '
" Not too cruel!'
" -- Insults me.!'
"It is done in order that I may have the pleasure
of apologizing to so charming a woman, which I
straightway do most humbly, madam,' he said, bowing
low.
Bathsheba really knew not what to say.
"I've seen a good many women in my time,
continued the young man in a murmur, and more
thoughtfully than hitherto, critically regarding her bent
head at the same time; "but I've never seen a woman
so beautiful as you. Take it or leave it -- be offended
or like it -- I don't care.'
" Who are you, then, who can so well afford to
despise opinion ? '
" No stranger. Sergeant Troy. I am staying in
this place. -- There ! it is undone at last, you see.
Your light fingers were more eager than mine. I wish it
had been the knot of knots, which there's no untying !. '
This was worse and worse. She started up, and so
did he.
How to decently get away from him -- that
was her difficulty now. She sidled off inch by inch,
the lantern in her hand, till she could see the redness
of his coat no longer.
" Ah, Beauty ; good-bye !. ' he said.
She made no reply, and, reaching a distance of
twenty or thirty yards, turned about, and ran indoors.
Liddy had just retired to rest. In ascending to her
own chamber, Bathsheba opened the girl's door an
inch or two, and, panting, said --
" Liddy, is any soldier staying in the village --
sergeant somebody -- rather gentlemanly for a sergeant,
and good looking -- a red coat with blue facings ?'
'No, miss ... No, I say; but really it might be
Sergeant Troy home on furlough, though I have not
seen him. He was here once in that way when the
regiment was at Casterbridge.'
" Yes; that's the name. Had he a moustache -- no
whiskers or beard ?'
" He had.'
" What kind of a person is he ?'
"O ! miss -- I blush to name it -- a gay man! But
I know him to be very quick and trim, who might have
made his thousands, like a squire. Such a clever
young dand as he is! He's a doctor's son by name,
which is a great deal; and he's an earl's son by
nature!'
" Which is a great deal more. Fancy! Is it true ? '
" Yes. And, he was brought up so well, and sent to
Casterbridge Grammar School for years and years.
Learnt all languages while he was there ; and it was
said he got on so far that he could take down Chinese
in shorthand ; but that I don't answer for, as it was
only reported. However, he wasted his gifted lot,
and listed a soldier; but even then he rose to be a
sergeant without trying at all. Ah! such a blessing it
is to be high-born ; nobility of blood will shine out even
in the ranks and files. And is he really come home,
miss ?"
' I believe so. Good-night, Liddy.'
After all, how could a cheerful wearer of skirts
be permanently offended with the man ? There are
occasions when girls like Bathsheba will put up with
a great deal of
unconventional behaviour. When they
want to be praised, which is often, when they want to
be mastered, which is sometimes ; and when they want
no nonsense, which is seldom. Just now the first
feeling was in the ascendant with Bathsheba, with a dash
of the second. Moreover, by chance or by devilry, the
ministrant was antecedently made interesting by being
a handsome stranger who had evidently seen better
days.
So she could not clearly decide whether it was her
opinion that he had insulted her or not. '
"Was ever anything so odd! ' she at last exclaimed
to herself, in her own room. "And was ever anything
so meanly done as what I did to to sulk away like that
from a man who was only civil and kind!' Clearly she
did not think his barefaced praise of her person an
insult now.
It was a fatal omission of Boldwood's that he had
never once told her she was beautiful.
THE NEW ACQUAINTANCE DESCRIBED
IDIOSYNCRASY and vicissitude had combined to
stamp Sergeant Troy as an exceptional being.
He was a man to whom memories were an in+
cumbrance, and anticipations a superfluity. Simply
feeling, considering, and caring for what was before his
eyes, he was vulnerable only in the present. His out+
look upon time was as a transient flash of the eye now
and then : that projection of consciousness into days
gone by and to come, which makes the past a synonym
for the pathetic and the future a word for circum+
spection, was foreign to Troy. With him the past
was yesterday ; the future, to-morrow ; never, the day
after.
On this account he might, in certain lights, have
been regarded as one of the most fortunate of his
order. For it may be argued with great plausibility
that reminiscence is less an endowment than a disease,
and that expectation in its only comfortable form -- that
of absolute faith -- is practically an impossibility; whilst
in the form of hope and the secondary compounds,
patience, impatience, resolve, curiosity, it is a constant
fluctuation between pleasure and pain.
Sergeant Troy, being entirely innocent of the
practice of expectation, was never disappointed. To
set against this negative gain there may have been
some positive losses from a certain narrowing of the
higher tastes and sensations which it entailed. But
limitation of the capacity is never recognized as a loss
by the loser therefrom : in this attribute moral or
aesthetic poverty contrasts plausibly with material, since
those who suffer do not mind it, whilst those who mind
it soon cease to suffer. It is not a denial of anything
to have been always without it, and what Troy had
never enjoyed he did not miss; but, being fully
conscious that what sober
people missed he enjoyed,
his capacity, though really less, seemed greater than
theirs.
He was moderately truthful towards men, but to
women lied like a Cretan -- a system of ethics above all
others calculated to win popularity at the first flush of
admission into lively society ; and the possibility of the
favour gained being transitory had reference only to
the future.
He never passed the line which divides the spruce
vices from the ugly ; and hence, though his morals had
hardly been applauded, disapproval of them" had fre+
quently been tempered with a smile. This treatment
had led to his becoming a sort of regrater of other
men's gallantries, to his own aggrandizement as a
Corinthian, rather than to the moral profit of his
hearers.
His reason and his propensities had seldom any
reciprocating influence, having separated by mutual
consent long ago : thence it sometimes happened that,
while his intentions were as honourable as could be
wished, any particular deed formed a dark background
which threw them into fine relief. The sergeant's
vicious phases being the offspring of impulse, and
his virtuous phases of cool meditation, the latter
had a modest tendency to be oftener heard of than
seen.
Troy was full of activity, but his activities were less of
a locomotive than a vegetative nature ; and, never being
based upon any original choice of foundation or direc+
tion, they were exercised on whatever object chance
might place in their way. Hence, whilst he sometimes
reached the brilliant in speech because that -was
spontaneous, he fell below the commonplace in action,
from inability to guide incipient effort. He had a
quick comprehension and considerable force of char+
acter ; but, being without the power to combine them,
the comprehension became engaged with trivialities
whilst waiting for the will to direct it, and the force
wasted itself in useless grooves through unheeding the
comprehension.
He was a fairly well-educated man for one of middle
class -- exceptionally well educated for a common soldier.
He spoke fluently and unceasingly. He could in this
way be one thing and seem another : for instance, he
could speak of love and
think of dinner; call on the
intend to owe.
The wondrous power of flattery in passados at woman
is a perception so universal as to be remarked upon by
many people almost as automatically as they repeat a
proverb, or say that they are Christians and the like,
without thinking much of the enormous corollaries
which spring from the proposition. Still less is it acted
upon for the good of the complemental being alluded
to. With the majority such an opinion is shelved with
all those trite aphorisms which require some catastrophe
to bring their tremendous meanings thoroughly home.
When expressed with some amount of reflectiveness it
seems co-ordinate with a belief that this flattery must
be reasonable to be effective. It is to the credit of
men that few attempt to settle the question by experi+
ment, and it is for their happiness, perhaps, that accident
has never settled it for them. Nevertheless, that a
male dissembler who by deluging her with untenable
fictions charms the female wisely, may acquire powers
reaching to the extremity of perdition, is a truth taught
to many by unsought and wringing occurrences. And
some profess to have attained to the same knowledge
by experiment as aforesaid, and jauntily continue their
indulgence in such experiments with terrible effect.
Sergeant Troy was one.
He had been known to observe casually that in
dealing with womankind the only alternative to flattery
was cursing and swearing. There was no third method.
" Treat them fairly, and you are a lost man,' he would
say.
This philosopher's public appearance in Weatherbury
promptly followed his arrival there. A week or two
after the shearing, Bathsheba, feeling a nameless relief
of spirits on account of Boldwood's absence, approached
her hayfields and looked over the hedge towards the
haymakers. They consisted in about equal proportions
of gnarled and flexuous forms, the former being the
men, the latter the women, who wore tilt bonnets
covered with nankeen, which hung in a curtain upon
their shoulders. Coggan and Mark Clark were mowing
in a less forward meadow, Clark humming a tune to
the strokes of his
scythe, to which Jan made no attempt
to keep time with his. In the first mead they were
already loading hay, the women raking it into cocks
and windrows, and the men tossing it upon the
waggon.
From behind the waggon a bright scarlet spot
emerged, and went on loading unconcernedly with the
rest. It was the gallant sergeant, who had come hay+
making for pleasure ; and nobody could deny that he
was doing the mistress of the farm real knight-service
by this voluntary contribution of his labour at a busy
time.
As soon as she had entered the field Troy saw her,
and sticking his pitchfork into the ground and picking
up his crop or cane, he came forward. Bathsheba
blushed with half-angry embarrassment, and adjusted
her eyes as well as her feet to the direct line of her
path.
SCENE ON THE VERGE OF THE HAY-MEAD
'AH, Miss Everdene!' said the sergeant, touching his
diminutive cap. "Little did I think it was you I was
speaking to the other night. And yet, if I had reflected,
the "Queen of the Corn-market" (truth is truth at any
hour of the day or night, and I heard you so named in
Casterbridge yesterday), the "Queen of the Corn-market,''
I say, could be no other woman. I step across now to
beg your forgiveness a thousand times for having been
led by my feelings to express myself too strongly for a
stranger. To be sure I am no stranger to the place --
I am Sergeant Troy, as I told you, and I have assisted
your uncle in these fields no end of times when I was a
lad. I have been doing the same for you today.'
"I suppose I must thank you for that, Sergeant
Troy,' said the Queen of the Corn-market, in an in+
differently grateful tone.
The sergeant looked hurt and sad. "Indeed you
must not, Miss Everdene,' he said. " Why could you
think such a thing necessary ? '
"I am glad it is not.'
" Why ? if I may ask without offence.'
" Because I don't much want to thank you for any"
thing.'
"I am afraid I have made a hole with my tongue
that my heart will never mend. O these intolerable
times: that ill-luck should follow a man for honestly
telling a woman she is beautiful.! 'Twas the most I
said -- you must own that; and the least I could say --
that I own myself.'
'There is some talk I could do without more easily
than money.'
"Indeed. That remark is a sort of digression.'
" No. It means that I would rather have your room
than your company.'
"And I would rather have curses from you than
kisses from any other woman ; so I'll stay here.'
Bathsheba was absolutely speechless. And yet she
could not help feeling that the assistance he was render+
ing forbade a harsh repulse.
" Well,' continued Troy, "I suppose there is a praise
which is rudeness, and that may be mine. At the
same time there is a treatment which is injustice, and
that may be yours. Because a plain blunt man, who
has never been taught concealment, speaks out his
mind without exactly intending it, he's to be snapped
off like the son of a sinner.'
"Indeed there's no such case between us,' she said,
turning away. "I don't allow strangers to be bold and
impudent -- even in praise of me.'
" Ah -- it is not the fact but the method which offends
you,' he said, carelessly. "But I have the sad satis+
faction of knowing that my words, whether pleasing or
offensive, are unmistakably true. Would you have had
me look at you, and tell my acquaintance that you are
quite a common-place woman, to save you the embar+
rassment of being stared at if they come near you ?
Not I. I couldn't tell any such ridiculous lie about
a beauty to encourage a single woman in England in
too excessive a modesty.'
"It is all pretence -- what you are saying!' exclaimed
Bathsheba, laughing in spite of herself at the sergeant's
sly method. " You have a rare invention, Sergeant
Troy. Why couldn't you have passed by me that
night, and said nothing ? -- that was all I meant to
reproach you for.'
"Because I wasn't going to. Half the pleasure of
a feeling lies in being able to express it on the spur of
the moment, and I let out mine. It would have been
just the same if you had been the reverse person -- ugly
and old -- I should have exclaimed about it in the same
way. '
" How long is it since you have been so afflicted with
strong feeling, then ? '
" Oh, ever since I was big enough to know loveliness
from deformity.'
"'Tis to be hoped your sense of the difference you
speak of doesn't stop at faces, but extends to morals as
well. '
'I won't speak of morals or religion -- my own or
anybody else's. Though perhaps I should have been a
very good Christian if you pretty women hadn't made
me an idolater.'
Bathsheba moved on to hide the irrepressible dimp+
lings of merriment. Troy followed, whirling his crop.
'But -- Miss Everdene -- you do forgive me ? '
" Hardly. '
"Why ?'
" You say such things.'
"I said you were beautiful, and I'll say so still; for,
by -- so you are !. The most beautiful ever I saw, or
may I fall dead this instant! Why, upon my -- -- '
" Don't -- don't! I won't listen to you -- you are so
profane!' she said, in a restless state between distress
at hearing him and a penchant to hear more.
"I again say you are a most fascinating woman.
There's nothing remarkable in my saying so, is there?
I'm sure the fact is evident enough. Miss Everdene,
my opinion may be too forcibly let out to please you,
and, for the matter of that, too insignificant to convince
you, but surely it is honest, and why can't it be ex+
cused? '
"Because it -- it isn't a correct one,' she femininely
murmured.
" 0, fie -- fie-! Am I any worse for breaking the
third of that Terrible Ten than you for breaking the
ninth ?"
"Well, it doesn't seem quite true to me that I am
fascinating,' she replied evasively.
' Not so to you : then I say with all respect that, if
so, it is owing to your modesty, Miss Everdene. But
surely you must have been told by everybody of what
everybody notices ? and you should take their words
for it.'
" They don't say so exactly.'
" O yes, they must!'
"Well, I mean to my face, as you do,' she went on,
allowing
herself to be further lured into a conversation
that intention had rigorously forbidden.
"But you know they think so ?'
"No -- that is -- I certainly have heard Liddy say
they do, but -- -- ' She paused.
Capitulation -- that was the purport of the simple
reply, guarded as it was -- capitulation, unknown to her+
self. Never did a fragile tailless sentence convey a
more perfect meaning. The careless sergeant smiled
within himself, and probably too the devil smiled from
a loop-hole in Tophet, for the moment was the turning+
point of a career. Her tone and mien signified beyond
mistake that the seed which was to lift the foundation
had taken root in the chink : the remainder was a mere
question of time and natural changes.
"There the truth comes out ! ' said the soldier, in
reply. "Never tell me that a young lady can live in a
buzz of admiration without knowing something about it.
Ah,' well, Miss Everdene, you are -- pardon my blunt
way -- you are rather an injury to our race than other+
wise.
" How -- indeed ? ' she said, opening her eyes.
"O, it is true enough. I may as well be hung for
a sheep as a lamb (an old country saying, not of much
account, but it will do for a rough soldier), and so I
will speak my mind, regardless of your pleasure, and
without hoping or intending to get your pardon. Why,
Miss Everdene, it is in this manner that your good
looks may do more. harm than good in the world.'
The sergeant looked down the mead in critical abstrac+
ion. " Probably some one man on an average falls in'
love, with each ordinary woman. She can marry him :
he is content, and leads a useful life. Such women as
you a hundred men always covet -- your eyes will be+
witch scores on scores into an unavailing fancy for you
you can only marry one of that many. Out of these
say twenty will endeavour to. drown the bitterness of
espised love in drink ; twenty more will mope away
their lives without a wish or attempt to make a mark in
he world, because they have no ambition apart from
their attachment to you ; twenty more -- the susceptible
person
myself possibly among them -- will be always
draggling after you, getting where they may just see
you, doing desperate things. Men are such constant
fools! The rest may try to get over their passion with
more or less success. But all these men will be
saddened. And not only those ninety-nine men, but
the ninety-nine women they might have married are
saddened with them. There's my tale. That's why I
say that a woman so charming as yourself, Miss Ever+
dene, is hardly a blessing to her race.'
The handsome sergeant's features were during this
speech as rigid and stern as John Knox's in addressing
his gay young queen.
Seeing she made no reply, he said, "Do you read
French ? '
"No; I began, but when I got to the verbs, father
died,' she said simply.
'I do -- -when I have an opportunity, which latterly
has not been often (my mother was a Parisienne) -- -and
there's a proverb they have, Qui aime bien chatie bien
-- "He chastens who loves well." Do you understand
me?
'Ah!' she replied, and there was even a little tremu+
lousness in the usually cool girl's voice; 'if you can
only fight half as winningly as you can talk, you are
able to make a pleasure of a bayonet wound!' And
then poor Bathsheba instanly perceived her slip in
making this admission: in hastily trying to retrieve it,
she went from bad to worse. 'Don't, however, suppose
that I derive any pleasure from what you tell me.'
'I know you do not -- -I know it perfectly,' said Troy,
with much hearty conviction on the exterior of his face:
and altering the expression to moodiness; 'when a
dozen men arfe ready to speak tenderly to you, and
give the admiration you deserve without adding the
warning you need, it stands to reason that my poor
rough-and-ready mixture of praise and blame cannot
convey much pleasure. Fool as I may be, I am not so
conceited as to suppose that!'
'I think you -- -are conceited, nevertheless,' said
Bathsheba, looking askance at a reed she was fitfully
pulling with one hand, having lately grown feverish
under the soldier's
system of procedure -- not because
the nature of his cajolery was entirely unperceived, but
because its vigour was overwelming.
'I would not own it to anybody esle -- nor do I
exactly to you. Still, there might have been some self+
conceit in my foolish supposition the other night. I
knew that what I said in admiration might be an
opinion too often forced upon you to give any pleasure
but I certainly did think that the kindness of your
nature might prevent you judging an uncontrolled
tongue harshly -- which you have done -- and thinking
badly of me and wounding me this morning, when I
am working hard to save your hay.'
'Well, you need not think more of that: perhaps you
did not mean to be rude to me by speaking out your
mind: indeed, I believe you did not,' said the shrewd
woman, in painfully innocent earnest. 'And I thank
you for giving help here. But -- -but mind you don't
speak to me again in that way, or in any other, unless
I speak to you.'
'O, Miss Bathsheba! That is to hard!'
'No, it isn't. Why is it?'
'You will never speak to me; for I shall not be
here long. I am soon going back again to the miser+
able monotony of drill -- and perhaps our regiment will
be ordered out soon. And yet you take away the one
little ewe-lamb of plaesure that I have in this dull life
of mine. Well, perhaps generosity is not a woman's
most marked characteristic.'
'When are you going from here?' she asked, with
some interest.
'In a month.'
'But how can it give you pleasure to speak to me?'
'Can you ask Miss Everdene -- knowing as you do
-- what my offence is based on?'
'I you do care so much for a silly trifle of that
kind, then, I don't mind doing it,' she uncertainly and
doubtingly answered. 'But you can't really care for a
word from me? you only say so -- I think you only
say so.'
'that's unjust -- but I won't repeat the remark. I
am too
gratified to get such a mark of your friendship
at any price to cavil at the tone. I do Miss Everdene,
care for it. You may think a man foolish to want a
mere word -- just a good morning. Perhaps he is -- I
don't know. But you have never been a man looking
upon a woman, and that woman yourself.'
" Well.'
" Then you know nothing of what such an experience
is like -- and Heaven forbid that you ever should!'
"Nonsense, flatterer! What is it like? I am
interested in knowing."
"Put shortly, it is not being able to think, hear, or
look in any direction except one without wretchedness,
nor there without torture.'
" Ah, sergeant, it won't do -- you are pretending ! ' she
said, shaking her head. ' Your words are too dashing
to be true.'
"I am not, upon the honour of a soldier'
"But why is it so? -- Of course I ask for mere pas+
time.'
" Because you are so distracting -- and I am so
distracted. '
" You look like it.'
" I am indeed.'
" Why, you only saw me the other night!'
" That makes no difference. The lightning works in+
stantaneously. I loved you then, at once -- as I do now.'
Bathsheba surveyed him curiously, from the feet
upward, as high as she liked to venture her glance,
which was not quite so high as his eyes.
" You cannot and you don"t,' she said demurely.
"There is-no such sudden feeling in people. I won't
listen to you any longer. Hear me, I wish I knew what
o'clock it is -- I am going -- I have wasted too much time
here already!"
The sergeant looked at his watch and told her.
" What, haven't you a watch, miss?' he inquired.
"I have not just at present -- I am about to get a
new one.'
"No. You shall be given one. Yes -- you shall.
A gift, Miss Everdene -- a gift."
And before she knew what the young -- man was
intending, a heavy gold watch was in her hand.
"It is an unusually good one for a man like me to
possess,' he quietly said. "That watch has a history.
Press the spring and open the back.'
She did so.
'What do you see?'
'A crest and a motto.'
" A coronet with five points, and beneath, Cedit amor
rebus -- "Love yields to circumstance." It's the motto
of the Earls of Severn. That watch belonged to the
last lord, and was given to my mother's husband, a
medical man, for his use till I came of age, when it was
to be given to me. It was all the fortune that ever I
inherited. That watch has regulated imperial interests
in its time -- the stately ceremonial, the courtly assigna+
tion, pompous travels, and lordly sleeps. Now it is
yours.
" But, Sergeant Troy, I cannot take this -- I cannot ! '
she exclaimed, with round-eyed wonder. " A gold watch !
What are you doing? Don't be such a dissembler!"
The sergeant retreated to avoid receiving back his
gift, which she held out persistently towards him.
Bathsheba followed as he retired.
"Keep it -- do, Miss Everdene -- keep it !' said the
erratic child of impulse. " The fact of your possessing
it makes it worth ten times as much to me. A more
plebeian one will answer my purpose just as well, and
the pleasure of knowing whose heart my old one beats
against -- well, I won't speak of that. It is in far
worthier hands than ever it has been in before.'
"But indeed I can't have it!' she said, in a perfect
simmer of distress. " O, how can you do such a thing ;
that is if you really mean it! Give me your dead
father's watch, and such a valuable one! You should
not be so reckless, indeed, Sergeant Troy!'
"I loved my father: good; but better, I love you
more. That's how I can do it,' said the sergeant, with
an intonation of such exquisite fidelity to nature that it.
was evidently not all acted now. Her beauty, which,
whilst it had been quiescent, he had praised in jest,
had in its animated phases moved him to
earnest; and
though his seriousness was less than she imagined, it
was probably more than he imagined himself.
Bathsheba was brimming with agitated bewilderment,
and she said, in half-suspicious accents of feeling, "Can
it be! 0, how can it be, that you care for me, and
so suddenly,! You have seen so little of me: I may
not be really so -- so nice-looking as I seem to you.
Please, do take it ; O, do! I cannot and will not have
it. Believe me, your generosity is too great. I have
never done you a single kindness, and why should you
be so kind to me?'
A factitious reply had been again upon his lips, but
it was again suspended, and he looked at her with an
arrested eye. The truth was, that as she now stood --
excited, wild, and honest as the day -- her alluring
beauty bore out so fully the epithets he had bestowed
upon it that he was quite startled at his temerity in
advancing them as false. He said mechanically, "Ah,
why ?' and continued to look at her.
"And my workfolk see me following you about the
field, and are wondering. O, this is dreadful!' she
went on, unconscious of the transmutation she was
effecting.
"I did not quite mean you to accept it at first, for it
as my one poor patent of nobility,' he broke out,
bluntly; "but, upon my soul, I wish you would now.
Without any shamming, come! Don't deny me the
happiness of wearing it for my sake ? But you are too
lovely even to care to be kind as others are.'
" No, no ; don"t say so !. I have reasons for reserve
which I cannot explain.'
" bet it be, then, let it be,' he said, receiving back
the watch at last; "I must be leaving you now. And
will you speak to me for these few weeks of my stay ? '
'Indeed I will. Yet, I don't know if I will! O,
why did you come and disturb me so !'
"Perhaps in setting a gin, I have caught myself.
Such things have happened. Well, will you let me
work in your fields ? ' he coaxed.
" Yes, I suppose so ; if it is any pleasure to you.'
" Miss Everdene, I thank you.
" No, no.'
'Good-bye!'
The sergeant brought his hand to the cap on the
slope of his head, saluted, and returned to the distant
group of haymakers.
Bathsheba could not face the haymakers now. Her
heart erratically flitting hither and thither from per+
plexed excitement, hot, and almost tearful, she retreated
homeward, murmuring, O, what have I done ! What
does it mean ! I wish I knew how much of it was
true!
HIVING THE BEES
THE Weatherbury bees were late in their swarming this
year. It was in the latter part of June, and the day after
the interview with Troy in the hayfield, that Bathsheba
was standing in her garden, watching a swarm in the
air and guessing their probable settling place. Not only
were they late this year, but unruly. Sometimes through+
out a whole season all the swarms would alight on the
lowest attainable bough -- such as part of a currant-bush
or espalier apple-tree ; next year they would, with just
the same unanimity, make straight off to the uppermost
member of some tall, gaunt costard, or quarrenden,
and there defy all invaders who did not come armed
with ladders and staves to take them.
This was the case at present. Bathsheba's eyes,
shaded by one hand, were following the ascending
multitude against the unexplorable stretch of blue till
they ultimately halted by one of the unwieldy trees
spoken of. A process somewhat analogous to that of
alleged formations of the universe, time and times ago,
was observable. The bustling swarm had swept the sky
in a scattered and uniform haze, which now thickened to
a nebulous centre: this glided on to a bough and grew
still denser, till it formed a solid black spot upon the
light.
The men and women being all busily engaged in
saving the hay -- even Liddy had left the house for the
purpose of lending a hand -- Bathsheba resolved to hive
the bees herself, if possible. She had dressed the hive
with herbs and honey, fetched a ladder, brush, and
crook, made herself impregnable with armour of leather
gloves, straw hat, and large gauze veil -- once green but
now faded to snuff colour -- and ascended a dozen rungs
of the ladder. At once she heard, not ten yards off,
a voice that was beginning to have a strange power in
agitating her.
"Miss Everdene, let me assist you ; you should not
attempt such a thing alone.'
Troy was just opening the garden gate.
Bathsheba flung down the brush, crook, and empty
hive, pulled the skirt of her dress tightly round her
ankles in a tremendous flurry, and as well as she could
slid down the ladder. By the time she reached the
bottom Troy was there also, and he stooped to pick
up the hive.
"How fortunate I am to have dropped in at this
moment!' exclaimed the sergeant.
She found her voice in a minute. "What! and will
you shake them in for me?' she asked, in what, for a
defiant girl, was a faltering way; though, for a timid
girl, it would have seemed a brave way enough.
" Will I ! ' said Troy. " Why, of course I will. How
blooming you are to-day ! ' Troy flung down his cane
and put his foot on the ladder to ascend.
"But you must have on the veil and gloves, or you'll
be stung fearfully!'
"Ah, yes. I must put on the veil and gloves. Will
you kindly show me how to fix them properly?'
'And you must have the broad-brimmed hat, too ;, for
your cap has no brim to keep the veil off, and they'd
reach your face.'
" The broad-brimmed hat, too, by all means.'
So a whimsical fate ordered that her hat should be
taken off -- veil and all attached -- and placed upon his
head, Troy tossing his own into a gooseberry bush.
Then the veil had to be tied at its lower edge round
his collar and the gloves put on him.
He looked such an extraordinary object in this guise
that, flurried as she was, she could not avoid laughing
outright. It was the removal of yet another stake from
the palisade of cold manners which had kept him off
Bathsheba looked on from the g:-ound whilst he was
busy sweeping and shaking the bees from the tree,
holding up the hive with the other hand for them to
fall into. She made use of an unobserved minute
whilst his attention was absorbed in the
operation to
arrange her plumes a little. He came down holding
the hive at arm's length, behind which trailed a cloud
of bees.
' Upon my life,' said Troy, through the veil, ' holding
up this hive makes one"s arm ache worse than a week
of sword-exercise.' When the manoeuvre was complete
he approached her. 'Would you be good enough to
untie me and let me out? I am nearly stifled inside
this silk cage.'
To hide her embarrassment during the unwonted
process of untying the string about his neck, she said : --
'I have never seen that you spoke of.'
'What ?'
'The sword-exercise.'
'Ah ! would you like to ?' said Troy.
Bathsheba hesitated. She had heard wondrous
reports from time to time by dwellers in Weatherbury,
who had by chance sojourned awhile in Casterbridge,
near the barracks, of this strange and glorious perform+
ance, tlie sword-exercise. Men and boys who had
peeped through chinks or over walls into the barrack+
yard returned with accounts of its being the most
flashing affair conceivable ; accoutrements and weapons
glistening like stars-here,there,around-yet all by rule
and compass. So she said mildly what she felt strongly.
'Yes ; I should like to see it very much.'
'And so you shall; you shall see me go through it.'
'No! How?'
'Let me consider.'
'Not with a walking-stick -- I don't care to see that.
lt must be a real sword.'
'Yes, I know; and I have no sword here; but I
think I could get one by the evening. Now, will you
do this?'
'O no, indeed !' said Bathsheba, blushing. ' Thank
you very much, but I couldn't on any account.
'Surely you might? Nobody would know.'
She shook her head, but with a weakened negation.
' If I were to,' she said, 'I must bring Liddy too. Might
I not?'
Troy looked far away. 'I don't see why you want
to bring her,' he said coldly.
An unconscious look of assent in Bathsheba's eyes
betrayed that something more than his coldness had
made her also feel that Liddy Would be superfluous in
the suggested scene. She had felt it, even whilst making
the proposal.
'Well, I won't bring Liddy -- and I'll come. But
only for a very short time,' she added; 'a very short
time.'
'It will not take five minutes,' said Troy.
centre, the sky overhead was
met by a circular horizon of fern : this grew nearly to
the bottom of the slope and then abruptly ceased. The
middle within the belt of verdure was floored with a
thick flossy carpet of moss and grass intermingled, so
yielding that the foot was half-buried within it.
'Now,' said 'Troy, producing the sword, which, as he
raised it into the sunlight, gleamed a sort of greeting,
like a living thing, 'first, we have four right and four
left cuts; four right and four left thrusts. Infantry cuts
and guards are more interesting than ours, to my mind;
but they are not so swashing. They have seven cuts
and three thrusts. So much as a preliminary. Well,
next, our cut one is as if you were sowing your corn --
so.' Bathsheba saw a sort of rainbow, upside down in
the air, and Troy's arm was still again. 'Cut two, as if
you were hedging -- so. Three, as if you were reaping
-- so.' Four, as if you were threshing -- in that way.
'Then the same on the left. The thrusts are these : one,
two, three, four, right ; one, two, three, four, left.' He
repeated them. 'Have 'em again ?' he said. 'One,
two -- -- '
She hurriedly interrupted : 'I'd rather not; though
I don't mind your twos and fours; but your ones and
threes are terrible !'
'Very well. I'll let you off the ones and threes.
Next, cuts, points and guards altogether.' Troy duly
exhibited them. 'Then there's pursuing practice, in
this way.' He gave the movements as before. 'There,
those are the stereotyped forms. The infantry have
two most diabolical upward cuts, which we are too
humane to use. Like this -- three, four.'
'How murderous and bloodthirsty !'
'They are rather deathy. Now I'll be more inter+
esting, and let you see some loose play -- giving all the
cuts and points, infantry and cavalry, quicker than
lightning, and as promiscuously -- with just enough rule
to regulate instinct and yet not to fetter it. You are
my antagonist, with this difference from real warfare,
that I shall miss you every time by one hair's breadth,
or perhaps two. Mind you don't flinch, whatever you
do.'
'I'll be sure not to!' she said invincibly.
He pointed to about a yard in front of him.
Bathsheba's adventurous spirit was beginning to find
some grains of relish in these highly novel proceedings.
She took up her position as directed, facing Troy.
'Now just to learn whether you have pluck enough
to let me do what I wish, I'll give you a preliminary
test.'
He flourished the sword by way of introduction
number two, and the next thing of which she was
conscious was that the point and blade of the sword
were darting with a gleam towards her left side, just
above her hip; then of their reappearance on her right
side, emerging as it were from between her ribs, having
apparently passed through her body. The third item
of consciousness was that of seeing the same sword,
perfectly clean and free from blood held vertically in
Troy's hand (in the position technically called 'recover
swords'). All was as quick as electricity.
'Oh!' she cried out in affright, pressing her hand to
her side. ' Have you run me through ? -- no, you have
not! Whatever have you done!'
'I have not touched you,' said Troy, quietly. 'It
was mere sleight of hand. The sword passed behind
you. Now you are not afraid, are you ? Because if
you are l can't perform. I give my word that l will
not only not hurt you, but not once touch you.'
'I don't think I am afraid. You are quite sure you
will not hurt me ?'
'Quite sure.'
"Is the sWord very sharp ?'
'O no -- only stand as still as a statue. Now !'
In an instant the atmosphere was transformed to
Bathsheba's eyes. Beams of light caught from the low
sun's rays, above, around, in front of her, well-nigh shut
out earth and heaven -- all emitted in the marvellous
evolutions of Troy's reflecting blade, which seemed
everywhere at once, and yet nowherre specially. These
circling gleams were accompanied by a keen rush that
was almost a whistling -- also springing
from all sides of
her at once. In short, she was enclosed in a firmament
of light, and of sharp hisses, resembling a sky-full of
meteors close at hand.
Never since the broadsword became the national
weapon had there been more dexterity shown in its
management than by the hands of Sergeant Troy, and
never had he been in such splendid temper for the
performance as now in the evening sunshine among the
ferns with Bathsheba. It may safely be asserted with
respect to the closeness of his cuts, that had it been
possible for the edge of the sword to leave in the air a
permanent substance wherever it flew past, the space
left untouched would have been almost a mould of
Bathsheba's figure.
Behind the luminous streams of this aurora militaris,
she could see the hue of Troy's sword arm, spread in a
scarlet haze over the space covered by its motions, like
a twanged harpstring, and behind all Troy himself,
mostly facing her; sometimes, to show the rear cuts,
half turned away, his eye nevertheless always keenly
measuring her breadth and outline, and his lips tightly
closed in sustained effort. Next, his movements lapsed
slower, and she could see them individually. The
hissing of the sword had ceased, and he stopped
entirely.
'That outer loose lock of hair wants tidying, he
said, before she had moved or spoken. 'Wait: I'll do
it for you.'
An arc of silver shone on her right side: the sword
had descended. The lock droped to the ground.
'Bravely borne!' said Troy. 'You didn't flinch a
shade's thickness. Wonderful in a woman!'
'It was because I didn't expect it. O, you have
spoilt my hair!'
'Only once more.'
'No -- no! I am afraid of you -- indeed I am !' she
cried.
'I won't touch you at all -- not even your hair. I
am only going to kill that caterpillar settling on you.
Now: still!'
It appeared that a caterpillar had come from the
fern and chosen the front of her bodice as his resting
place. She saw the point glisten towards her bosom,
and seemingly enter it. Bathsheba closed her eyes in
the full persuasion that she was
killed at last. How+
ever, feeling just as usual, she opened them again.
'There it is, look,' said the sargeant, holding his
sword before her eyes.
The caterpillar was spitted upon its point.
'Why, it is magic!' said Bathsheba, amazed.
'O no -- dexterity. I merely gave point to your
bosom where the caterpillar was, and instead of running
you through checked the extension a thousandth of an
inch short of your surface.'
'But how could you chop off a curl of my hair with
a sword that has no edge?'
THE HOLLOW AMID THE FERNS
"No edge .! This sword will shave like a razor.
Look here.'
He touched the palm of his hand with the blade,
and then, lifting it, showed her a thin shaving of scarf+
skin dangling therefrom.
" But you said before beginning that it was blunt and
couldn't cut me .!'
'That was to get you to stand still, and so make sure
of your safety. The risk of injuring you through your
moving was too great not to force me to tell you a
fib to escape it.'
She shuddered. 'I have been within an inch of my
life, and didn't know it! '
'More precisely speaking, you have been within half
an inch of being pared alive two hundred and ninety-five
tinies.'
" Cruel, cruel, 'tis of you !. '
" You have been perfectly safe, nevertheless. My
sword never errs.' And Troy returned the weapon to
the scabbard.
Bathsheba, overcome by a hundred tumultuous feel'
ings resulting from the scene, abstractedly sat down on
a tuft of heather.
'I must leave you now,' said Troy, softly. " And I'll
venture to take and keep this in remembrance of you.'
She saw him stoop to the grass, pick up the winding
lock which he had severcd from her manifold tresses,
twist it round his fingers, unfasten a button in the hreast
of his coat, and carefully put it inside. She felt power+
less to withstand or deny him. He was altogether too
much for her, and Bathsheba
seemed as one who, facing
a reviving wind, finds it blow so strongly that it stops
the breath.
He drew near and said, 'I must be leaving you.'
He drew nearer still. A minute later and she saw his
scarlet form disappear amid the ferny thicket, almost in
a flash, like a brand swiftly waved.
That minute's interval had brought the blood beating
into her face, set her stinging as if aflame to the very
hollows oi her feet, and enlarged emotion to a compass
which quite swamped thought. It had brought upon
her a stroke resulting, as did that of Moses in Horeh, in
a liquid stream -- here a stream of tears. She felt like
one who has sinned a great sin.
The circumstance had been the gentle dip of Troy's
mouth downwards upon her own. He had kissed her,
PARTICULARS OF A TWILIGHT WALK
PARTICULARS OF A TWILIGHT WALK
WE now see the element of folly distinctly mingling
with the many varying particulars which made up the
character of Bathsheba Everdene. It was almost foreign
to her intrinsic nature. Introduced as lymph on the
dart of Eros, it eventually permeated and coloured
her whole constitution. Bathsheba, though she had too
much understanding to be entirely governed by her
womanliness, had too much womanliness to use her
understanding to the best advantage. Perhaps in no
minor point does woman astonish her helpmate more
than in the strange power she possesses of believing
cajoleries that she knows to be false -- except, indeed, in
that of being utterly sceptical on strictures that she
knows to be true.
Bathsheba loved Troy in the way that only self-reliant
women love when they abandon their self-reliance.
When a strong woman recklessly throws away her
strength she is worse than a weak woman who has never
had any strength to throw away. One source of her
inadequacy is the novelty of the occasion. She has
never had practice in making the best of such a
condition. Weakness is doubly weak by being new.
Bathsheba was not conscious of guile in this matter.
Though in one sense a woman of the world, it was, after
all, that world of daylight coteries and green carpets
wherein cattle form the passing crowd and winds the
busy hum ; where a quiet family of rabbits or hares lives
on the other side of your party-wall, where your neigh+
bour is everybody in the tything, and where calculation
formulated self-indulgence of bad, nothing at all. Had
her utmost thoughts in this direction been distinctly
worded (and by herself they never were), they would
only have amounted to such a matter as that she felt
her impulses to be pleasanter guides than her discretion .
Her love was entire as a child's, and though warm as
summer it was fresh as spring. Her culpability lay in
her making no attempt to control feeling by subtle and
careful inquiry into consuences. She could show others
the steep and thorny way, but 'reck'd not her own rede,'
And Troy's deformities lay deep down from a
woman's vision, whilst his embellishments were upon
the verysurface; thus contrasting with homely Oak,
whose defects were patent to the blindest, and whose
vertues were as metals in a mine.
The difference between love and respect was mark+
edly shown in her conduct. Bathsheba had spoken of
her interest in Boldwood with the greatest freedom to
Liddy, but she had only communed with her own heart
concerning 'Troy'.
All this infatuation Gabriel saw, and was troubled
thereby from the time of his daily journey a-field to the
time of his return, and on to the small hours of many a
night. That he was not beloved had hitherto been his
great that Bathsheba was getting into the toils
was now a sorrow greater than the first, and one which
nearly olbscured it. It was a result which paralleled
the oft-quoted observation of Hippocrates concerning
physical pains.
That is a noble though perhaps an unpromising love
PARTICULARS OF A TWILlGHT WALK
which not even the fear of breeding aversion in the
bosom of the one beloved can deter from combating his
or her errors. Oak determined to speak to his mistress.
He would base his appeal on what he considered her
unfair treatment of Farmer Boldwood, now absent from
home.
An opportunity occurred one evening when she had
gone for a short walk by a path through the neighbour+
ing cornfields. It was dusk when Oak, who had not
been far a-field that day, took the same path and met
her returning, quite pensively, as he thought.
The wheat was now tall, and the path was narrow;
thus the way was quite a sunken groove between the
embowing thicket on either side. Two persons could
not walk abreast
without damaging the crop, and Oak
stood aside to let her pass.
'Oh, is it Gabriel?' she said. 'You are taking a
walk too. Good-night.'
"I thought I would come to meet you, as it is rather
late," said Oak, turning and following at her heels when
she had brushed somewhat quickly by him.
"Thank you, indeed, but I am not very fearful.'
" O no ; but there are bad characters about.'
"I never meet them.'
Now Oak, with marvellous ingenuity, had been going
to introduce the gallant sergeant through the channel of
"bad characters.' But all at once the scheme broke
down, it suddenly occurring to him that this was rather a
clumsy way, and too barefaced to begin with. He tried
another preamble.
"And as the man who would naturally come to meet
you is away from home, too -- I mean Farmer Boldwood
-- why, thinks I, I'll go,' he said.
"Ah, yes.' She walked on without turning her head,
and for many steps nothing further was heard from her
quarter than the rustle of her dress against the heavy
corn-ears. Then she resumed rather tartly --
'I don't quite understand what you meant by saying
that Mr. Boldwood would naturally come to meet me.'
I meant on account of the wedding which they say
is likely to take place between you and him, miss. For+
give my speaking plainly.'
"They say what is not true,' she returned quickly.
No marriage is likely to take place between us.'
Gabriel now put forth his unobscured opinion, for
the moment had come. " Well, Miss Everdene,' he
said, "putting aside what people say, I never in my life
saw any courting if his is not a courting of you."
Bathsheba would probably have terminated the con'
versation there and then by flatly forbidding the subject,
had not her conscious weakness of position allured her
to palter and argue in endeavours to better it.
"Since this subject has been mentioned,' she said
very emphatically, 'I am glad of the opportunity of
clearing up a mistake which is very common and very
provoking. I didn't definitely promise Mr. Boldwood
anything. I have never cared for him. I respect him,
and he has urged me to marry him. But I have given
him no distinct answer. As soon as he returns I shall
do so; and the answer will be that I cannot think of
marrying him.'
'People are full of mistakes, seemingly.'
' They are.'
The other day they said you were trifling with him,
and you almost proved that you were not; lately they
have said that you be not, and you straightway begin
to show -- -- '
That I am, I suppose you mean.'
' Well, I hope they speak the truth.'
They do, but wrongly applied. I don't trifle with
him ; but then, I have nothing to do with him.'
Oak was unfortunately led on to speak of Boldwood's
rival in a wrong tone to her after all. 'I wish you had
never met that young Sergeant Troy, miss,' he sighed.
PARTlCULARS OF A TWILIGHT WALK
Bathsheba's steps became faintly spasmodic. " Why?'
she asked.
' He is not good enough for 'ee.'
"Did any one tell you to speak to me like this ?'
" Nobody at all.'
"Then it appears to me that Sergeant Troy does not
concern us here,' she said, intractably. ' Yet I must say
that Sergeant 'Troy is an educated man, and quite worthy
of any woman. He is well born.'
"His being higher in learning and birth than the
ruck o' soldiers is anything but a proof of his worth. It
show's his course to be down'ard.'
"I cannot see what this has to do with our conversa+
tion. Mr. Troy's course is not by any means downward;
and his superiority <1is>1 a proof of his worth .! '
"I believe him to have no conscience at all. And I
cannot help begging you, miss, to have nothing to do
with him. Listen to me this once -- only this once !.
I don't say he's such
a bad man as I have fancied -- I
pray to God he is not. But since we don't exactly
know what he is, why not behave as if he <1might>1 be bad,
simply for your own safety ? Don't trust him, mistress;
I ask you not to trust him so.'
" Why, pray ? '
"I like soldiers, but this one I do not like,' he said,
sturdily. " His cleverness in his calling may have
tempted him astray, and what is mirth to the neighbours
is ruin to the woman. When he tries to talk to 'ee again,
why not turn away with a short 'Good day' ; and when
you see him coming one way, turn the other. When
he says anything laughable, fail to see the point
and don't smile, and speak of him before those who will
report your talk as "that fantastical man,' or " that
Sergeant What's-his-name." "That man of a family
that has come to the dogs.' Don't be unmannerly
towards en, but harmless-uncivil, and so get rid of the
man.'
No Christmas robin detained by a window-pane ever
pulsed as did Bathsheba now.
I say -- I say again -- that it doesn't become you to
talk about him. Why he should be mentioned passes
me quite . she exclaimed desperately. " I know this,
th-th-that he is a thoroughly conscientious man -- blunt
sometimes even to rudeness -- but always speaking his
mind about you plain to your face .! '
"Oh.'
"He is as good as anybody in this parish.! He is
very particular, too, about going to church -- yes, he
is.!'
'I am afraid nobody saw him there. I never
did certainly.'
' The reason of that is,' she said eagerly, " that he goes
in privately by the old tower door, just when the service
commences, and sits at the back of the gallery. He
told me so.'
This supreme instance of Troy's goodness fell upon
Gabriel ears like the thirteenth stroke of crazy clock.
It was not only received with utter incredulity as re+
garded itself, but threw a doubt on all the assurances
that had preceded it.
Oak was grieved to find how entirely she trusted him.
He brimmed with deep feeling as he replied in a steady
voice, the
steadiness of which was spoilt by the palpable+
ness of his great effort to keep it so : --
' You know, mistress, that I love you, and shall love
you always. I only mention this to bring to your mind
that at any rate I would wish to do you no harm :
beyond that I put it aside. I have lost in the race for
money and good things, and I am not such a fool as to
pretend to 'ee now I am poor, and you have got alto+
gether above me. But Bathsheba, dear mistress, this
I beg you to consider -- that, both to keep yourself well
honoured among the workfolk, and in common generosity
to an honourable man who loves you as well as I, you
PARTICULARS OF A TWILIGHT WALK
should be more discreet in your bearing towards this
soldier.'
" Don't, don't, don't !. ' she exclaimed, in a choking
voice.
"Are ye not more to me than my own affairs, and
even life .! ' he went on. "Come, listen to me.! I am
six years older than you, and Mr. Boldwood is ten years
older than I, and consider -- I do beg of 'ee to consider
before it is too late -- how safe you would be in his
hands .! '
Oak's allusion to his own love for her lessened, to
some extent, her anger at his interference ; but she
could not really forgive him for letting his wish to marry
her be eclipsed by his wish to do her good, any more
than for his slighting treatment of Troy.
"I wish you to go elsewhere,' she commanded, a
paleness of face invisible to the eye being suggested by
the trembling words. " Do not remain on this farm any
longer. I don't want you -- I beg you to go !.'
"That's nonsense,' said Oak, calmly. " This is the
second time you have pretended to dismiss me; and
what's the use o' it?'
" Pretended !. You shall go, sir -- your lecturing I
will not hear .! I am mistress here.'
" Go, indeed -- what folly will you say next ? Treating
me like Dick, Tom and Harry when you know that a
short time ago my position was as good as yours !. Upon
my life, Bathsheba, it is too barefaced. You know, too,
that I can't go without putting things in such a strait as
you wouldn't get out of
I can't tell when. Unless, indeed,
you'll promise to have an understanding man as bailiff,
or manager, or something. I'll go at once if you'll
promise that.'
'I shall have no bailiff; I shall continue to be my
own manager,' she said decisively.
"Very well, then ; you should be thankful to me for
biding. How would the farm go on with nobody to
mind it but a woman? But mind this, I don't wish
'ee to feel you owe me anything. Not I. What I do,
I do. Sometimes I say I should be as glad as a bird to
leave the place -- for don't suppose I'm content to be a
nobody. I was made for better things. However, I
don't like to see your concerns going to ruin, as they
must if you keep in this mind.... I hate taking my
own measure so plain, but, upon my life, your provok+
ing ways make a man say what he wouldn't dream of
at other times ! I own to being rather interfering. But
you know well enough how it is, and who she is that I
like too well, and feel too much like a fool about to be
civil to her ! '
It is more than probable that she privately and un+
consciously respected him a little for this grim fidelity,
which had been shown in his tone even more than in
his words. At any rate she murmured something to the
effect that he might stay if he wished. She said more
distinctly, " Will you leave me alone now? I don't
order it as a mistress -- I ask it as a woman, and I
expect you not to be so uncourteous as to refuse.'
" Certainly I will, Miss Everdene,' said Gabriel, gently.
He wondered that the request should have come at this
moment, for the strife was over, and they were on a
most desolate hill, far from every human habitation, and
the hour was getting late. He stood still and allowed
her to get far ahead of him till he could only see her
form upon the sky.
A distressing explanation of this anxiety to be rid of
him at that point now ensued. A figure apparently rose
from the earth beside her. The shape beyond all doubt
was Troy's. Oak would not be even a possible listener,
and at once turned back till a good two hundred yards
were between the lovers and himself.
Gabriel went home by way of the churchyard. In
passing the tower he thought of what she had said about
the sergeant's virtuous habit of entering the church un+
PARTICULARS OF A TWILIGHT WALK
perceived at the beginning of service. Believing that
the little gallery door alluded to was quite disused, he
ascended the external flight of steps at the top of which
it stood, and examined it. The pale lustre yet hanging
in the north-western heaven was sufficient to show that
a sprig of ivy had grown from the wall across the door
to a length of more than a foot, delicately tying the
panel to the stone jamb. It was a decisive proof that
the door had not been opened at least since Troy came
back to Weatherbury.
HOT CHEEKS AND TEARFUL EYES
HALF an hour later Bathsheba entered her own house.
There burnt upon her face when she met the light of
the candles the flush and excitement which were little
less than chronic with her now. The farewell words of
Troy, who had accompanied her to the very door, still
lingered in her ears. He had bidden her adieu for two
days, which were so he stated, to be spent at Bath in
visiting some friends. He had also kissed her a second
time.
It is only fair to Bathsheba to explain here a little
fact which did not come to light till a long time after+
wards : that Troy's presentation of himself so aptly at
the roadside this evening was not by any distinctly pre+
concerted arrangement. He had hinted -- she had
forbidden; and it was only on the chance of his still
coming that she had dismissed Oak, fearing a meeting
between them just then.
She now sank down into a chair, wild and perturbed
by all these new and fevering sequences. Then she
jumped up with a manner of decision, and fetched her
desk from a side tahle.
In three minutes, without pause or modification, she
had written a letter to Boldwood, at his address beyond
Casterbridge, saying mildly but firmly that she had well
HOT CHEEKS AND TEARFUL EYES
considered the whole subject he had brought before her
and kindly given her time to decide upon; that her
final decision was that she could not marry him. She
had expressed to Oak an intention to wait till Boldwood
came home before communicating to him her conclusive
reply. But Bathsheba found that she could not wait.
It was impossible to send this letter till the next day;
yet to quell her uneasiness by getting it out of her hands,
and so, as it were, setting the act in motion at once, she
arose to take it to any one of the women who might be
in the kitchen.
She paused in the passage. A dialogue was going
on in the kitchen, and Bathsheba and Troy were the
subject of it.
"If he marry her, she'll gie up farming.'
"Twill be a gallant life, but may bring some trouble
between the mirth -- so say I.'
"Well, I wish I had half such a husband.'
Bathsheba had too much sense to mind seriously
what her servitors said about her ; but too much womanly
redundance of speech to leave alone what was said till
it died the natural death of unminded things. She
burst in upon them.
"Who are you speaking of? ' she asked.
There was a pause before anybody replied. At last
Liddy said frankly, ' What was passing was a bit of a
word about yourself, miss.'
"I thought so .! Maryann and Liddy and Temper+
ance -- now I forbid you to suppose such things. You
know I don't care the least for Mr. Troy -- not I. Every+
body knows how much I hate him. -- Yes,' repeated the
froward young person, "<1hate>1 him .! '
" We know you do, miss,' said Liddy; "and so do we
all.'
" I hate him too,' said Maryann.
" Maryann -- O you perjured woman !. How can you
speak that wicked story ! ' said Bathsheba, excitedly.
"You admired him from your heart only this morning
in the very world, you did. Yes, Maryann, you know it ! '
'Yes, miss, but so did you. He is a wild scamp
now, and you are right to hate him."
"He's <1not>1 a wild scamp.! How dare you to my face !.
I have no right to hate him, nor you, nor anybody.
But I am a silly woman.! What is it to me what he is ?
You know it is nothing. I don't care for him ; I don"t
mean to defend his good name, not I. Mind this, if
any of you say a word against him you'll be dismissed
instantly !. '
She flung down the letter and surged back into the
parlour, with a big heart and tearful eyes, Liddy following
her.
'O miss.!' said mild Liddy, looking pitifully into
Bathsheba's face. "I am sorry we mistook you so .!
did think you cared for him; but I see you don't now.'
" Shut the door, Liddy.'
Liddy closed the door, and went on : ' People always
say such foolery, miss. I'll make answer hencefor'ard,
"Of course a lady like Miss Everdene can't love him;'
I'll say it out in plain black and white.'
Bathsheba burst out : 'O Liddy, are you such a
simpleton ? Can't you read riddles ? Can't you see?
Are you a woman yourself ? '
Liddy's clear eyes rounded with wonderment.
' Yes; you must be a blind thing, Liddy .! ' she said,
in reckless abandonment and grief. "O, I love him
to very distraction and misery and agony .! Don't be
frightened at me, though perhaps I am enough to frighten
any innocent woman. Come closer -- closer.' She put
her arms round Liddy's neck. "I must let it out to
somebody; it is wearing me away !. Don't you yet know
enough of me to see through that miserable denial of
mine? O God, what a lie it was !. Heaven and my
Love forgive me. And don't you know that a woman
who loves at all thinks nothing of perjury when it is
HOT CHEEKS AND TEARFUL EYES
balanced against her love ? There, go out of the room ;
I want to be quite alone.'
Liddy went towards the door.
' Liddy, come here. Solemnly swear to me that he's
not a fast man; that it is all lies they say about him !.'
'Put, miss, how can I say he is not if -- -- '
"You graceless girl.! How can you have the cruel
heart to repeat what they say? Unfeeling thing that
you are.... But <1I'll>1 see if you or anybody else in the
village, or town either, dare do such a thing .! ' She
started off, pacing from fireplace to door, and back
again.
"No, miss. I don't -- I know it is not true !. ' said
Liddy, frightened at Bathsheba's unwonted vehemence.
I suppose you only agree with me like that to please
me. But, Liddy, he <1cannot be>1 had, as is said. Do you
hear? "
' Yes, miss, yes.'
"And you don't believe he is?"
'I don't know what to say, miss,' said Liddy, be+
ginning to cry. "If I say No, you don"t believe me;
and if I say Yes, you rage at me ! '
" Say you don't believe it -- say you don't ! '
'I don't believe him to be so had as they make out.'
"He is not had at all.... My poor life and heart,
how weak I am .! ' she moaned, in a relaxed, desultory
way, heedless of Liddy's presence. "O, how I wish I
had never seen him.! Loving is misery for women
always. I shall never forgive God for making me a
woman, and dearly am I beginning to pay for the honour
of owning a pretty face.' She freshened and turned to
Liddy suddenly. " Mind this, Lydia Smallbury, if you
repeat anywhere a single word of what l have said to
you inside this closed door, I'll never trust you, or love
you, or have you with me a moment longer -- not a
moment ! '
" I don't want to repeat anything,' said Liddy, with
womanly dignity of a diminutive order; "but I don't
wish to stay with you. And, if you please, I'll go at the
end of the harvest, or this week, or to-day.... I don't
see that I deserve to be put upon and stormed at for
nothing ! ' concluded the small woman, bigly.
" No, no, Liddy ; you must stay ! ' said Bathsheba,
dropping from haughtiness to entreaty with capricious
inconsequence. "You must not notice my being in a
taking just now. You are not as a servant -- -you are a
companion to me. Dear, dear -- I don't know what I
am doing since this miserable ache o'! my heart has
weighted and worn upon me so .! What shall I come
to ! I suppose I shall get further and further into
troubles. I wonder sometimes if I am doomed to die
in the Union. I am friendless enough, God knows .! '
'I won't notice anything, nor will I leave you ! " sobbed
Liddy, impulsively putting up her lips to Bathsheba's,
and kissing her.
Then Bathsheba kissed Liddy, and all was smooth
again.
"I don't often cry, do I, Lidd ? but you have made
tears come into my eyes,' she said, a smile shining
through the moisture. "Try to think him a good man,
won't you, dear Liddy ? '
"I will, miss, indeed.'
"He is a sort of steady man in a wild way, you know.
way. I am afraid that's how I am. And promise me
to keep my secret -- do, Liddy.! And do not let them
know that I have been crying
about him, because it will
be dreadful for me, and no good to him, poor thing .!'
"Death's head himself shan't wring it from me, mistress,
if I've a mind to keep anything; and I'll always be your
friend,' replied Liddy, emphatically, at the same time
bringing a few more tears into her own eyes, not from
any particular necessity, but from an artistic sense of
making herself in keeping with the remainder of the
HOT CHEEKS AND TEARFUL EYES
picture, which seems to influence women at such times.
"I think God likes us to be good friends, don't you ?'
"Indeed I do.'
"And, dear miss, you won"t harry me and storm at
me, will you ? because you seem to swell so tall as a
lion then, and it frightens me !. Do you know, I fancy
you would be a match for any man when you are in one
0' your takings.'
"Never.! do you ? ' said Bathsheba, slightly laughing,
though somewhat seriously alarmed by this Amazonian
picture of herself. "I hope I am not a bold sort of
maid -- mannish ? ' she continued with some anxiety.
"O no, not mannish; but so almighty womanish
that 'tis getting on that way sometimes. Ah ! miss,' she
said, after having drawn her breath very sadly in and
sent it very sadly out, "I wish I had half your failing
that way. 'Tis a great protection to a poor maid in
these illegit'mate days !. '
BLAME -- FURY
THE next evening Bathsheba, with the idea of getting
out of the way of Mr. Boldwood in the event of his
returning to answer her note in person, proceeded to
fulfil an engagement made with Liddy some few hours
earlier. Bathsheba's companion, as a gage of their
reconciliation, had heen granted a week's holiday to
visit her sister, who was married to a thriving hurdler
and cattle-crib-maker living in a delightful labyrinth of
hazel copse not far beyond Yalbury. The arrangement
was that Miss Everdene should honour them by coming
there for a day or two to inspect some ingenious con+
tnvances which this man of the woods had introduced
into his wares.
Leaving her instructions with Gabriel and Maryann,
that they were to see everything carefully locked up for
the night, she went out of the house just at the close of
a timely thunder-shower, which had refined the air, and
daintily bathed the coat of the land, though all beneath
was dry as ever. Freshness was exhaled in an essence
from the varied contours of bank and hollow, as if the
earth breathed maiden breath; and the pleased birds
were hymning to the scene. Before her, among the
clouds, there was a contrast in the shape of lairs of
fierce light which showed themselves in the neighbour+
hood of a hidden sun, lingering on to the farthest north+
west corner of the heavens that this midsummer season
allowed.
She had walked nearly two miles of her journey,
watching how the day was retreating, and thinking how
the time of deeds was quietly melting into the time of
thought, to give place in its turn to the time of prayer
and sleep, when she beheld advancing over Yalbury hill
the very man she sought so anxiously to elude. Boldwood
was stepping on, not with that quiet tread of reserved
strength which was his customary
gait, in which he
always seemed to be balancing two thoughts. His
manner was stunned and sluggish now.
Boldwood had for the first time been awakened to
woman's privileges in tergiversation even when it involves
another person's possible blight. That Bathsheba was
a firm and positive girl, far less inconsequent than her
fellows, had been the very lung of his hope ; for he had
held that these qualities would lead her to adhere to a
straight course for consistency's sake, and accept him,
though her fancy might not flood him with the iridescent
hues of uncritical love. But the argument now came
back as sorry gleams from a broken mirror. The dis+
covery was no less a scourge than a surprise.
He came on looking upon the ground, and did not
see Bathsheba till they were less than a stone's throw
apart. He looked up at the sound of her pit-pat, and
his changed appearance sufficiently denoted to her the
depth and strength of the feelings paralyzed by her
letter.
" Oh ; is it you, Mr. Boldwood ? ' she faltered, a guilty
warmth pulsing in her face.
Those who have the power of reproaching in silence
may find it a means more effective than words. There
are accents in the eye which are not on the tongue, and
more tales come from pale lips than can enter an ear.
It is both the grandeur and the pain of the remoter
moods that they avoid the pathway of sound. Bold+
wood's look was unanswerable.
Seeing she turned a little aside, he said, 'What, are
you afraid of me?'
" Why should you say that ? ' said Bathsheba.
"I fancied you looked so,' said he. 'And it is most
strange, because of its contrast with my feeling for you.
She regained self-possession, fixed her eyes calmly,
and waited.
" You know what that feeling is,' continued Boldwood,
deliberately. "A thing strong as death. No dismissal
by a hasty letter affects that.'
'I wish you did not feel so strongly about me,' she
murmured. "It is generous of you, and more than I
deserve, but I must not hear it now.'
"Hear it? What do you think I have to say, then ?
I am not to marry you, and thats enough. Your letter
was excellently plain. I want you to hear nothing --
not I.'
Bathsheba was unable to direct her will into any
definite groove for freeing herself from this fearfully
and was moving on. Boldwood walked up to her heavily
and dully.
"Bathsheba -- -darling -- -is it final indeed?'
"Indeed it is.'
"O, Bathsheba -- -have pity upon me!' Boldwood
burst out. "God's sake, yes -- I am come to that low,
lowest stage -- -to ask a woman for pity! Still, she is
you -- -she is you.'
Bathsheba commanded herself well. But she could
hardly get a clear voice for what came instinctively to
her lips: "There is little honour to the woman in that
speech.' It was only whispered, for something unutter+
ably mournful no less than distressing in this spectacle
of a man showing himself to be so entirely the vane of a
passion enervated the feminine instinct for punctilios.
BLAME
"I am beyond myself about this, and am mad,' he
said. "I am no stoic at all to he supplicating here ; but
I do supplicate to you. I wish you knew what is in
me of devotion to you ; but it is impossible, that. In
bare human mercy to a lonely man, don't throw me off
now !'
'I don't throw you off -- indeed, how can I ? I never
had you.' In her noon-clear sense that she had never
loved him she forgot for a moment her thoughtless angle
on that day in February.
'But there was a time when you turned to me,
before I thought of you ! I don't reproach you, for
even now I feel that the ignorant and cold darkness
that I should have lived in if you had not attracted me
by that letter -- valentine you call it -- would have becn
worse than my knowledge of you, though it has brought
this misery. But, I say, there was a time when I knew
nothing of you, and cared nothing for you, and yet you
drew me on. And if you say you gave me no en+
couragement, I cannot but contradict you.'
"What you call encouragement was the childish
game of an idle minute. I have bitterly repented of it
-- ay, bitterly, and in tears. Can you still go on re+
minding me ?'
'I don't accuse you of it -- I deplore it. I took for
earnest what you insist was jest, and now this that I
pray to be jest you say is awful, wretched earnest. Our
moods meet at wrong places. I wish your feeling was
more like mine, or my feeling more like yours.! O,
could I but have foreseen the torture that trifling trick
was going to lead me into, how I should have cursed
you ; but only having been able to see it since, I cannot
do that, for I love you too well.! But it is weak, idle
drivelling to go on like this.... Bathsheba, you are
the first woman of any shade or nature that I have ever
looked at to love, and it is the having been so near
claiming you for my own that makes this denial so hard
to bear. How nearly you promised me ! But I don't
speak now to move your heart, and make you grieve
because of my pain ; it is no use, that. I must bear it;
my pain would get no less by paining you.'
"But I do pity you -- deeply -- O so deeply .!' she
earnestly said.
"Do no such thing -- do no such thing. Your dear
love, Bathsheba, is such a vast thing beside your pity,
that the loss of your pity as well as your love is no great
addition to my sorrow, nor does the gain of your pity
make it sensibly less. O sweet -- how dearly you
spoke to me behind the spear-bed at the washing-pool,
and in the barn at the shearing, and that dearest last
time in the evening at your home.! Where are your
pleasant words all gone -- your earnest hope to be able
to love me? Where is your firm conviction that you
would get to care for me very much ? Really forgotten ?
-- really ? '
She checked emotion, looked him quietly and clearly
in the face, and said in her low, firm voice, " Mr. Bold+
wood, I promised you nothing. Would you have had
me a woman of clay when you paid me that furthest,
highest compliment a man can pay a woman -- telling
her he loves her? I was bound to show some feeling,
if l would not be a graceless shrew. Yet each of those
pleasures was just for the day -- the day just for the
pleasure. How was I to know that what is a pastime
to all other men was death to you ? Have reason, do,
and think more kindly of me !'
'Well, never mind arguing -- never mind. One
thing is sure: you were all but mine, and now you are
not nearly mine. Everything is changed, and that by
you alone, remember. You were nothing to me once,
and I was contented; you are now nothing to me again,
and how different the second nothing is from the first .!
Would to God you had never taken me up, since it was
only to throw me down .! '
FURY
Bathsheba, in spite of her mettle, began to feel un+
mistakable signs that she was inherently the weaker
vessel. She strove miserably against this feminity
which would insist upon supplying unbidden emotions
in stronger and stronger current. She had tried to
elude agitation by fixing her mind on the trees, sky, any
trivial object before her eyes, whilst his reproaches fell,
but ingenuity could not save her now.
"I did not take you up -- -surely I did not!' she
answered as heroically as she could. " But don't be in
this mood with me. I can endure being told I am in
the wrong, if you will only tell it me gently! O sir,
will you not kindly forgive me, and look at it
cheerfully ? '
"Cheerfully! Can a man fooled to utter heart+
burning find a reason for being merry> If I have lost,
how can I be as if I had won? Heavens you must be
heartless quite ! Had I known what a fearfully bitter
sweet this was to be, how would I have avoided you,
and never seen you, and been deaf of you. I tell you
all this, but what do you care! You don't care.'
She returned silent and weak denials to his charges,
and swayed her head desperately, as if to thrust away
the words as they came showering ahout her ears from
the lips of the trembling man in the climax of life, with
his bronzed Roman face and fine frame.
"Dearest, dearest, I am wavering even now between
the two opposites of recklessly renouncing you, and
labouring humbly for you again. Forget that you have
said No, and let it be as it was !. Say, Bathsheba, that
you only wrote that refusal to me in fun -- -come, say it
to me!'
" It would be untrue, and painful to both of us. You
overrate my capacity for love. I don't possess half
the warmth of nature you believe me to have. An un+
protected childhood in a cold world has beaten gentle+
ness out of me.'
He immediately said with more resentment: "That
may be true, somewhat ; but ah, Miss Everdene, it won't
do as a reason! You are not the cold woman you
would have me believe. No, no .! It isn't because you
have no feeling in you that you don't love me. You
naturally would have me think so -- -you would hide from
that you have a burning heart like mine. You have
love enough, but it is turned into a new channel. I
know where.'
The swift music of her heart became hubbub now,
and she throbbed to extremity. He was coming to
Troy. He did then know what had occurred .! And
the name fell from his lips the next moment.
"Why did Troy not leave my treasure alone?' he
asked, fiercely. "When I had no thought of injuring
him, why did he force himself upon your notice.!
Before he worried you your inclination was to have me;
when next I should have come to you your answer
would have been Yes. Can you deny it -- -I ask, can
you deny it?'
She delayed the reply, but was to honest to with
hold it. ' I cannot,' she whispered.
"I know you cannot. But he stole in in my absence
and robbed me. Why did't he win you away before,
when nobody would have been grieved? -- -when nobody
would have been set tale-bearing. Now the people
sneer at me -- -the very hills and sky seem to laugh at
me till I blush shamefuly for my folly. I have lost my
respect, my good name, my standing -- -lost it, never to
get it again. Go and marry your man -- go on .! '
"O sir -- -Mr. Boldwood!'
" You may as well. I have no further claim upon you.
As for me, I had better go somewhere alone, and hide --
and pray. I loved a woman once. I am now ashamed.
When I am dead they'll say, Miserable love-sick man
that he was. Heaven -- -heaven -- -if I had got jilted
secretly, and the dishonour not known, and my position
FURY
kept.! But no matter, it is
gone, and the woman not
gained. Shame upon him -- shame .! '
His unreasonable anger terrified her, and she glided
from him, without obviously moving, as she said, "I am
only a girl -- do not speak to me so.!'
"All the time you knew -- how very well you knew --
that your new freak was my misery. Dazzled by brass
and scarlet -- O, Bathsheba -- this is woman's folly
indeed .! '
She fired up at once. "You are taking too much
upon yourself .! ' she said, veheniently. " Everybody is
upon me -- everybody. It is unmanly to attack a
woman so ! I have nobody in the world to fight my
battles for me; but no mercy is shown. Yet if a
thousand of you sneer and say things against me, I <1will>1
<1not>1 be put down !."
" You'll chatter with him doubtless about me. Say to
him, "Boldwood would have died for me.' Yes, and
you have given way to him, knowing him to be not the
man for you. He has kissed you -- claimed you as his.
Do you hear -- he has kissed you. Deny it .! '
The most tragic woman is cowed by a tragic man,
and although Boldwood was, in vehemence and glow,
nearly her own self rendered into another sex,
Bathsheba's cheek quivered. She gasped, ' Leave me,
sir -- leave me !. I am nothing to you. Let me go on !.'
"Deny that he has kissed you.'
"I shall not.'
" Ha -- then he has ! ' came hoarsely from the farmer.
"He has," she said, slowly, and, in spite of her fear,
defiantly. 'I am not ashamed to speak the truth.'
"Then curse him; and curse him !. ' said Boldwood,
breaking into a whispered fury. ' Whilst I would have
given worlds to touch your hand, you have let a rake come
in without right or ceremony and -- kiss you .! Heaven's
mercy -- kiss you ! ... Ah, a time of his life shall come
when he will have to repent, and think wretchedly of
the pain he has caused another man ; and then may he
ache, and wish, and curse, and yearn -- as I do now .! "
'Don't, don't, O, don't pray down evil upon him.! '
she
implored in a miserable cry. "Anything but that --
anything. O, be kind to him, sir, for I love him true .'
Boldwood's ideas had reached that point of fusion at
which outline and consistency entirely disappear. The
impending night appeared to concentrate in his eye.
He did not hear her at all now.
"I'll punish him -- -by my soul, that will I.! I'll meet
him, soldier or no, and I'll horsewhip the untimely
stripling for this reckless theft of my one delight. If he
were a hundred men I'd horsewhip him -- -- ' He
dropped his voice suddenly and unnaturally. "Bath+
sheba, sweet, lost coquette, pardon me .! I've been
blaming you, threatening you, behaving like a churl to
you, when he's the greatest sinner. He stole your dear
heart away with his unfathomable lies.! ... lt is a
fortunate thing for him that he's gone back to his
regiment -- -that he's away up the country, and not here!
I hope he may not return here just yet. I pray God
he may not come into my sight, for I may be tempted
beyond myself. O, Bathsheba, keep him away -- yes,
keep him away from me.!"
For a moment Boldwood stood so inertly after this
that his soul seemed to have been entirely exhaled with
the breath of his passionate words. He turned his face
away, and withdrew, and his form was soon covered over
by the twilight as his footsteps mixed in with the low
hiss of the leafy trees.
Bathsheba, who had been standing motionless as a
model all this latter time, flung her hands to her face,
and wildly attempted to ponder on the exhibition which
had just passed away. Such astounding wells of fevered
feeling in a still man like Mr. Boldwood were incompre+
hensible, dreadful. Instead of being a man trained to
repression he was -- what she had seen him.
The force of the farmer's threats lay in their relation to a
circumstance known at present only to herself: her lover was
coming back to Weatherby in the course of the very next
day or two. Troy had not returned to his distant barracks as
Boldwood and others supposed, but had merely gone to visit
some acquaintance in Bath, and had yet a wek or more
remaining to his furlough.
She felt wretchedly certain that if he revisited her just at
this nick of time, and came into contact with Boldwood,a
fierce quarrel would be the consequence. She panted with
solicitude when she thought of possible injury to Troy. The
least spark would kindle the farmer's swift feelings of rage
and jealousy; he would lose his self-mastery as he had this
evening; Troy's blitheness might become aggressive; it might
take the direction of derision, and Boldwood's anger might
then take the direction of revenge.
With almost a morbid dread of being thought a gushing
girl, this guideless woman too well concealed from the world
under a manner of carelessness the warm depths of her strong
emotions. But now there was no reserve. In fer
her distraction,instead of advancing further she
walked up and down,beating
the air with her fingers,pressing on her brow, and sobbing
brokenly to herself. Then she sat down on a heap of stones by
the wayside to think. There she remained long. Above the
dark margin of the earth appeared foreshores and promontor+
ies of coppery cloud,bounding a green and pellucid expanse
in the western sky. Amaranthine glosses came over them then,
and the unresting world wheeled her round to a contrasting
prospect eastward, in the shape of indecisive and palpitating
stars. She gazed upon their silent throes amid the shades of
space, but realised none at all. Her troubled spirit was far
away with Troy.
NIGHT -- HORSES TRAMPING
THE village of Weatherbury was quiet as the graveyard
in its midst, and the living were lying welinigh as still
as the dead. The church clock struck eleven. The
air was so empty of other sounds that the whirr of the
clock-work immediately before the strokes was distinct,
and so was also the click of the same at their close.
The notes flew forth with the usual blind obtuseness
of inanimate things -- flapping and rebounding among
walls, undulating against the scattered clouds, spreading
through their interstices into unexplored miles of space.
Bathsheba's crannied and mouldy halls were to-night
occupied only by Maryann, Liddy being, as was stated,
with her sister, whom Bathsheba had set out to visit.
A few minutes after eleven had struck, Maryann turned
in her bed with a sense of being disturbed. She was
totally unconscious of the nature of the interruption to
her sleep. It led to a dream, and the dream to an
awakening, with an uneasy sensation that something
had happened. She left her bed and looked out of
the window. The paddock abutted on this end of the
building, and in the paddock she could just discern by
the uncertain gray a moving figure approaching the
horse that was feeding there. The figure seized the
horse by the forelock, and led it to the corner of the
field. Here she could see some object which circum+
stances proved to be a vehicle for after a few minutes
the horse down the road, mingled with the sound of
light wheels.
Two varieties only of humanity could have entered
the paddock with the ghostiike glide of that mysterious
figure. They were a woman and a gipsy man. A woman
was out of the question in such an occupation at this
hour, and the comer could be no less than a thief, who
might probably have known the weakness of the house+
hold on this particular night, and have
chosen it on
that account for his daring attempt. Moreover, to
raise suspicion to conviction itself, there were gipsies in !
Weatherbury Bottom.
Maryann, who had been afraid to shout in the robber's
presence, having seen him depart had no fear. She
hastily slipped on her clothes, stumped down the dis+
jointed staircase with its hundred creaks, ran to Coggan's,
the nearest house, and raised an alarm. Coggan called
Gabriel, who now again lodged in his house as at first,
and together they went to the paddock. Beyond all
doubt the horse was gone.
" Hark .! ' said Gabriel.
They listened. Distinct upon the stagnant air came
the sounds of a trotting horse passing up Longpuddle
Lane -- just beyond the gipsies' encampment in Weather+
bury Bottom.
" That's our Dainty-i'll swear to her step,' said Jan.
" Mighty me ! Won't mis'ess storm and call us stupids
wen she comes back ! ' moaned Maryann. "How I
wish it had happened when she was at home, and none
of us had been answerable .! '
" We must ride after,' said Gabriel, decisively.
be responsible to Miss Everdene for what we do. Yes,
we'll follow. '
" Faith, I don't see how,' said Coggan. " All our
horses are too heavy for that trick except little Poppet,
and what's she between two of us?-if we only had that
" pair over the hedge we might do something.'
'Which pair ? '
'Mr Boldwood's Tidy and Moll.'
" Then wait here till I come hither again,' said Gabriel.
He ran down the hill towards Farmer Boldwood's.
" Farmer Boldwood is not at home,' said Maryann.
",All the better,' said Coggan. "I know what he's
gone for.'
Less than five minutes brought up Oak again, running
at the same pace, with two halters dangling from his hand,
"Where did you find 'em ?" said Coggan, turning
round and leaping upon the hedge without waiting for
an answer.
"Under the eaves. I knew where they were kept,'
said Gabriel, following him. "Coggan, you can ride
bare-backed ? there's no time to look for saddles.'
" Like a hero .! ' said Jan.
'Maryann, you go to hed,' Gabriel shouted to her
from the top of the hedge.
Springing down into Boldwood's pastures, each
pocketed his halter to hide it from the horses, who,
seeing the men empty-handed, docilely allowed them+
selves to he seized by the mane, when the halters
were dexterously slipped on. Having neither bit nor
bridle, Oak and Coggan extemporized the former by
passing the rope in each case through the animal's
mouth and looping it on the other side. Oak vaulted
astride, and Coggan clambered up by aid of the hank,
when they ascended to the gate and galloped off in the
direction taken by Bathsheha's horse and the robber.
Whose vehicle the horse had been harnessed to was a
matter of some uncertainty.
Weatherbury Bottom was reached in three or four
minutes. They scanned the shady green patch by the
roadside. The gipsies were gone.
"The villains .! ' said Gabriel. 'Which way have they
gone, I wonder ? '
'Straight on, as sure as God made little apples,'
said Jan.
" Very well; we are better mounted, and must over+
discovered. The road-metal grew softer and more
rain had wetted its surface to a somewhat plastic, but
not muddy state. They came to cross-roads. Coggan
suddenly pulled up Moll and slipped off.
" What"s the matter ? ' said Gabriel.
"We must try to track 'em, since we can't hear 'em,'
said Jan, fumbling in his pockets. He struck a light,
and held the match to the ground. The rain had been
heavier here, and all foot and horse tracks made previous
to the storm had been abraded and blurred by the drops,
and they were now so many little scoops of water, which
reflected the flame of the match like eyes. One set of
tracks was fresh and had no water in them; one pair of
ruts was also empty, and not small canals, like the cthers.
The footprints forming this recent impression were full
of information as to pace ; they were in equidistant pairs,
three or four feet apart, the right and left foot of each
pair being exactly opposite one another.
"Straight on !. ' Jan exclaimed. "Tracks like that
mean a stiff gallop. No wonder we don't hear him.
And the horse is harnessed-iook at the ruts. Ay,
'How do you know ?'
"Old Jimmy Harris only shoed her last week, and
I'd swear to his make among ten thousand.'
"The rest of the gipsies must ha" gone on earlier,
or some other way,' said Oak. " 'You saw there were
no other tracks ? '
"True.' They rode along silently for a long weary
time. Coggan carried an old pinchbeck repeater which
he had inherited from some genius in his family; and
it now struck one. He lighted another match, and ex+
amined the ground again.
"'Tis a canter now,' he said, throwing away the light.
'A twisty', rickety pace for a gig. The fact is, they over+
drove her at starting ; we shall catch "em yet.'
Again they hastened on, and entered Blackmore
Vale. Coggan's watch struck one. When they looked
again the hoof-marks were so spaced as to form a sort
of zigzag if united, like the lamps along a street.
" That's a trot, I know,' said Gabriel.
"Only a trot now,' said Coggan, cheerfully. "We
shall overtake him in time.'
They pushed rapidly on for yet two or three miles.
"Ah .! a moment,' said Jan. 'Let's see how she was
driven up this hill. "Twill help us,' A light was
promptly struck upon his gaiters as before, and the ex+
amination made,
" Hurrah .! ' said Coggan. "She walked up here --
and well she might. We shall get them in two miles,
for a crown.'
They rode three, and listened. No sound was to be
heard save a milipond trickling hoarsely through a
hatch, and suggesting gloomy possibilities of drowning
by juraping in. Gabriel dismounted when they came
to a turning. The tracks were ahsolutely the only guide
as to the direction that they now had, and great caution
was necessary to avoid confusing them
with some others
which had made their appearance lately.
"What does this mean ? -- though I guess,' said
Gabriel, looking up at Coggan as he moved the match
over the ground about the turning. Coggan, who, no
less than the panting horses, had latterly shown signs
of weariness, again scrutinized the mystic characters.
This time only three were of the regular horseshoe
shape. Every fourth was a dot.
HORSES TRAMPING
He screwed up his face and emitted a long
" whew-w-w !. '
" Lame,' said Oak.
" Yes Dainty is lamed ; the near-foot-afore,' said
Coggan slowly staring still at the footprints.
" We'll push on,' said Gabriel, remounting his humid
steed.
Although the road along its greater part had been as
good as any turnpike-road in the country, it was nomin+
ally only a byway. The last turning had brought them
into the high road leading to Bath. Coggan recollected
himself.
"We shall have him now ! ' he exclaimed.
" Where ? "
' Sherton Turnpike. The keeper of that gate is the
sleepiest man between here and London -- Dan Randall.
that's his name -- knowed en for years, when he was at
Casterbridge gate. Between the lameness and the gate
'tis a done job.'
was said until, against a shady background of foliage,
five white bars were visible, crossing their route a little
way ahead.
" Hush -- we are almost close !. ' said Gabriel.
"Amble on upon the grass,' said Coggan.
The white bars were blotted out in the midst by a
dark shape in front of them. The silence of this lonely
time was pierced by an exclamation from that quarter.
" Hoy-a-hoy ! Gate .! '
It appeared that there had been a previous call which
they had not noticed, for on their close approach the
door of the turnpike-house opened, and the keeper
came out half-dressed, with a candle in his hand. The
rays illumined the whole group.
" Keep the gate close .! ' shouted Gabriel. " He has
stolen the horse !. '
" Who ? ' said the turnpike-man.
Gabriel looked at the driver of the gig, and saw a
woman -- Bathsheba, his mistress.
On hearing his voice she had turned her face away
from the light. Coggan had, however, caught sight of
her in the meanwhile.
"Why, 'tis mistress-i'll take my oath .! ' he said,
amazed.
Bathsheba it certainly was, and she had by this time
done the trick she could do so well in crises not of love,
namely, mask a surprise by coolness of manner.
' Well, Gabriel,' she inquired quietly, ' where are you
going ? '
' We thought -- -- ' began Gabriel.
Bath,' she said, taking for her own
use the assurance that Gahriel lacked. 'An important
matter made it necessary for me to give up my visit to
liddy, and go off at once. What, then, were you
following me ?'
' We thought the horse was stole.'
" Weli-what a thing .! How very foolish of you not
to know that I had taken the trap and horse. I could
neither wake Maryann nor get into the house, though
I hammered for ten minutes against her window-sill.
Fortunately, I could get the key of the coach-house, so
I troubled no one further. Didn't you think it might
be me?"
' Why should we, miss ? '
" Perhaps not Why, those are never Farmer Bold+
wood's horses .! Goodness mercy .! what have you been
" doing bringing trouble upon me in this way? What.!
mustn't a lady move an inch from her door without being
dogged like a thief?'
'But how was we to know, if you left no account of
your doings ? ' expostulated Coggan, "and ladies don't
" drive at these hours, miss, as a jineral rule of society.'
"I did leave an account -- and you would have seen
it in the morning. I wrote in chalk on the coach-house
doors that I had come back for the horse and gig, and
driven off; that I could arouse nobody, and should
return soon.'
" But you'll consider, ma'am, that we couldn't see
that till it got daylight.'
'True,' she said, and though vexed at first she had
too much
sense to blame them long or seriously for a
devotion to her that was as valuable as it was rare.
She added with a very pretty grace, ' Well, I really thank
you heartily for taking all this trouble; but I wish you
had borrowed anybody's horses but Mr. Boldwood's.'
'Dainty is lame, miss,' said Coggan. 'Can ye go
on?'
'lt was only a stone in her shoe. I got down and
pulled it out a hundred yards back. I can manage
very well, thank you. I shall be in Bath by daylight.
Will you now return, please?'
She turned her head -- the gateman's candle
shimmering upon her quick, clear eyes as she did so --
passed through the gate, and was soon wrapped in the
embowering shades of mysterious summer boughs.
Coggan and Gabriel put about their horses, and, fanned
by the velvety air of this July night, retraced the road
by which they had come.
'A strange vagary, this of hers, isn't it, Oak?' said
Coggan, curiously.
'Yes,' said Gabriel, shortly.
'She won't be in Bath by no daylight!.'
'Coggan, suppose we keep this night's work as quiet
as we can?'
'I am of one and the same mind.'
'Very well. We shall be home by three o'clock or
so, and can creep into the parish like lambs.'
Bathsheba's perturbed meditations by the roadside
had ultimately evolved a conclusion that there were only
two remedies for the present desperate state of affairs.
The first was merely to keep Troy away from Weather+
bury till Boldwood's indignation had cooled; the second
to listen to Oak's entreaties, and Boldwood's denuncia+
tions, and give up Troy altogether.
Alas! Could she give up this new love -- induce
him to renounce her by saying she did not like him --
could no more speak to him, and beg him, for her good,
to end his furlough in Bath, and see her and Weather'
bury no niore?
It was a picture full of misery, but for a while she
contemplated it firmly, allowing herself, nevertheless,
as girls will, to
dwell upon the happy life she would
have enjoyed had Troy been Boldwood, and the path
of love the path of duty -- inflicting upon herself gratuit+
ous tortures by imagining him the lover of another
woman after forgetting her; for she had penetrated
Troy's nature so far as to estimate his tendencies pretty
accurately, hut unfortunately loved him no less in
thinking that he might soon cease to love her -- indeed,
considerably more.
She jumped to her feet. She would see him at once.
Yes, she would implore him by word of mouth to assist
her in this dilemma. A letter to keep him away could
not reach him in time, even if he should be disposed to
listen to it.
Was Bathsheba altogether blind to the obvious fact
that the support of a lover's arms is not of a kind best
calculated to assist a resolve to renounce him? Or was
she sophistically sensible, with a thrill of pleasure, that
by adopting this course for getting rid of him she was
ensuring a meeting with him, at any rate, once more?
It was now dark, and the hour must have been nearly
ten. The only way to accomplish her purpose was to
give up her idea of visiting Liddy at Yalbury, return to
Weatherbury Farm, put the horse into the gig, and drive
at once to Bath. The scheme seemed at first impossible :
the journey was a fearfully heavy one, even for a strong
horse, at her own estimate; and she much underrated
the distance. It was most venturesome for a woman,
at night, and alone.
But could she go on to Liddy's and leave things to
take their course? No, no; anything but that. Bath+
sheba was full of a stimulating turbulence, beside which
caution vainly' prayed for a hearing. she turned back
towards the village.
Her walk was slow, for she wished not to enter
Weatherbury till the cottagers were in bed, and, par+
ticularly, till Boldwood was secure. Her plan was now
to drive to Bath during the night, see Sergeant 'Troy in
the morning before he set out to come to her, bid him
farewell, and dismiss him: then to rest the horse
thoroughly (herself to weep the while, she thought),
starting early the next morning on her return journey.
By this arrangement she could trot Dainty gently all
the day, reach
Liddy at Yalbury in the evening, and
come home to Weatherbury with her whenever they
chose -- so nobody would know she had been to Bath
at all.
Such was Bathsheba's scheme. But in her topo+
graphical ignorance as a late comer to the place, slie
misreckoned the distance of her journey as not much
more than half what it really was. Her idea, however,
she proceeded to carry out, with what initial success we
have already seen.
IN THE SUN -- A HARBINGER
A WEEK passed, and there were no tidings of Bath+
sheba; nor was there any explanation of her Gilpin's
rig.
Then a note came for Maryann, stating that the
business which had called her mistress to Bath still
detained her there; but that she hoped to return
in the course of another week.
Another week passed. The oat-harvest began, and
all the men were a-field under a monochromatic Lammas
sky, amid the trembling air and short shadows of noon.
Indoors nothing was to be heard save the droning of
blue-bottle flies; out-of-doors the whetting of scythes
and the hiss of tressy oat-ears rubbing together as their
perpendicular stalks of amber-yellow fell heavily to each
swath. Every drop of moisture not in the men's bottles
and flagons in the form of cider was raining as perspira+
tion from their foreheads and cheeks. Drought was
everywhere else.
They were about to withdraw for a while into the
charitable shade of a tree in the fence, when Coggan
saw a figure in a blue coat and brass buttons running
to them across the field.
'I wonder who that is?' he said.
'I hope nothing is wrong about mistress,' said
Maryann, who with some other women was tying the
bundles (oats being always sheafed on this farm), 'but
an unlucky token came to me indoors this morning.
l went to unlock the door and dropped the key, and it
fell upon the stone floor and broke into two pieces.
Breaking a key is a dreadful bodement. I wish mis'ess
was home.'
''Tis Cain Ball,' said Gabriel, pausing from whetting
his reaphook.
Oak was not bound by his agreement to assist in the
corn-field; but the harvest month is an anxious time for
a farmer, and the corn was Bathsheba's, so he lent a
hand.
'He's dressed up in his best clothes,' said Matthew
Moon. 'He hev been away from home for a few days,
since he's had that felon upon his finger; for 'a said,
since I can't work I'll have a hollerday.'
'A good time for one -- a" excellent time,' said Joseph
Poorgrass, straightening his back; for he, like some of
the others, had a way of resting a while from his labour
on such hot days for reasons preternaturally small; of
which Cain Pall's advent on a week-day in his Sunday+
clothes was one of the first magnitude. ''Twas a bad leg
allowed me to read the Pilgrim's Progress, and Mark
Clark learnt AliFours in a whitlow.'
'Ay, and my father put his arm out of joint to have
time to go courting,' said Jan Coggan, in an eclipsing
tone, wiping his face with his shirt-sleeve and thrusting
back his hat upon the nape of his neck.
By this time Cainy was nearing the group of harvesters,
and was perceived to be carrying a large slice of bread
and ham in one hand, from which he took mouthfuls
as he ran, the other being wrapped in a bandage.
When he came close, his mouth assumed the bell shape,
and he began to cough violently.
'Now, Cainy!.' said Gabriel, sternly. 'How many
more times must I tell you to keep from running so fast
when you be eating? You'll choke yourself some day,
that's what you'll do, Cain Ball.'
'Hok-hok-hok.! 'replied Cain. 'A crumb of my
victuals went the wrong way -- hok-hok!, That's what
'tis, Mister Oak.! And I've been visiting to Bath
because I had a felon on my thumb; yes, and l've
seen -- ahok-hok!'
Directly Cain mentioned Bath, they all threw down
their hooks and forks and drew round him. Un+
fortunately the erratic crumb did not improve his
narrative powers, and a supplementary hindrance was
that of a sneeze, jerking from his pocket his rather large
watch, which dangled in front of the young man
pendulum-wise.
'Yes,' he continued, directing his thoughts to Bath
and letting his eyes follow, 'l've seed the world at last
-- yes -- and I've seed our mis'ess -- ahok-hok-hok ! '
' Bother the boy! ' said Gabriel. ' Something is
always going the wrong way down your throat, so that
you can't tell what's necessary to be told.'
"Ahok !. there ! Please, Mister Oak, a gnat have
just fleed into my stomach and brought the cough on
again !. '
'Yes, that's just it. Your mouth is always open, you
young rascal .! '
''Tis terrible bad to have a gnat fly down yer throat,
pore boy !. ' said Matthew Moon.
' Well, at Bath you saw -- -- ' prompted Gabriel.
'I saw our mistress,' continued the junior shepherd,
'and a sojer, walking along. And bymeby they got
closer and closer, and then they went arm-in-crook, like
courting complete -- hok-hok ! like courting complete --
hok .! -- courting complete -- -- " Losing the thread of his
narrative at this point simultaneously with his loss of
breath, their informant looked up and down the field
apparently for some clue to it. 'Well, I see our mis'ess
and a soldier -- a-ha-a-wk .! '
A HARBlNGER
!Damn the boy !' said Gabriel.
!'Tis only my manner, Mister Oak, if ye'll excuse it,'
said Cain Ball, looking reproachfully at Oak, with eyes
drenched in their own dew.
!Here's some cider for him -- that'll cure his throat,'
said Jan Coggan, lifting a flagon of cider, pulling out
the cork, and applying the hole to Cainy's mouth;
Joseph Poorgrass in the meantime beginning to think
apprehensively of the serious consequences that would
follow Cainy Ball's strangulation in his cough, and the
history of his Bath adventures dying with him.
"For my poor self, I always say "please God ' afore
I do anything,' said Joseph, in an unboastful voice ; " and
so should you, Cain Ball. "Tis a great safeguard, and
might perhaps save you from being choked to death
some day.'
Mr. Coggan poured the liquor with unstinted liber+
ality at the suffering Cain's circular mouth; half of it
running down the
side of the flagon, and half of what
reached his mouth running down outside his throat,
and half of what ran in going the wrong way, and being
coughed and sneezed around the persons of the gathered
reapers in the form of a cider fog, which for a moment
hung in the sunny air like a small exhalation.
"There's a great clumsy sneeze ! Why can't ye have
better manners, you young dog ! ' said Coggan, with+
drawing the flagon.
"The cider went up my nose ! ' cried Cainy, as soon
as he could speak; "and now 'tis gone down my neck,
and into my poor dumb felon, and over my shiny
buttons and all my best cloze ! '
"The poor lad's cough is terrible onfortunate,' said
Matthew Moon. 'And a great history on hand, too.
Bump his back, shepherd.'
"'Tis my nater,' mourned Cain. "Mother says I
always was so excitable when my feelings were worked
up to a point!'
" True, true,' said Joseph Poorgrass. "The Balls
were always a very excitable family. I knowed the
boy's grandfather -- a truly nervous and modest man,
even to genteel refinery. 'Twas blush, blush with him,
almost as much as 'tis with me -- not but that 'tis a
fault in me !'
"Not at all, Master Poorgrass,' said Coggan. " 'Tis
a very noble quality in ye.'
"Heh-heh ! well, I wish to noise nothing abroad --
nothing at all,' murmured Poorgrass, diffidently. " But
we be born to things -- that's true. Yet I would rather
my trifle were hid ; though, perhaps, a high nater is a
little high, and at my birth all things were possible to
my Maker, and he may have begrudged no gifts....
But under your bushel, Joseph ! under your bushel with
'ee ! A strange desire, neighbours, this desire to hide,
and no praise due. Yet there is a Sermon on the
Mount with a calendar of the blessed at the head, and
certain meek men may be named therein.'
"Cainy's grandfather was a very clever man,' said
Matthew Moon. "Invented a' apple-tree out of his own
head, which is called by his name to this day -- the Early
Ball. You know 'em,
Jan ? A Quarrenden grafted on
a Tom Putt, and a Rathe-ripe upon top o' that again.
'Tis trew 'a used to bide about in a public-house wi' a
'ooman in a way he had no business to by rights, but
there -- 'a were a clever man in the sense of the term.'
" Now then,' said Gabriel, impatiently, " what did you
see, Cain ? '
"I seed our mis'ess go into a sort of a park place,
where there's seats, and shrubs and flowers, arm-in-crook
with a sojer,' continued Cainy, firmly, and with a dim
sense that his words were very effective as regarded
Gabriel's emotions. "And I think the sojer was
Sergeant Troy. And they sat there together for more
than half-an-hour, talking moving things, and she once
was crying a'most to death. And when they came out
her eyes were shining and she was as white as a lily;
and they looked into one another's faces, as far-gone
friendly as a man and woman can be.'
Gabriel's features seemed to get thinner. " Well,
what did you see besides ? '
" Oh, all sorts."
"White as a lily? You are sure 'twas she?
" Yes."
" Well, what besides ? '
"Great glass windows to the shops, and great clouds
in the sky, full of rain, and old wooden trees in the
country round.'
" You stun-poll! What will ye say next?' said
Coggan.
" Let en alone,' interposed Joseph Poorgrass. "The
boy's maning is that the sky and the earth in the
kingdom of Bath is not altogether different from ours
here. 'Tis for our good to gain knowledge of strange
cities, and as such the boy's words should be suffered,
so to speak it.'
" And the people of Bath,' continued Cain, "never
need to light their fires except as a luxury, for the
water springs up out of the earth ready boiled for
use.'
" 'Tis true as the light,' testified Matthew Moon. ' I've
heard other navigators say the same thing.'
" They drink nothing else there,' said Cain, ' and seem
to enjoy it, to see how they swaller it down.'
"Well, it seems a barbarian practice enough to us,
but I daresay the natives think nothing o' it,' said
Matthew.
"And don't victuals spring up as well as drink?'
asked Coggan, twirling his eye.
"No-i own to a blot there in Bath -- a true blot.
God didn't proride 'em with victuals as well as (+
and 'twas a drawback I couldn't get over at all.'
" Well, 'tis a curious place, to say the least,' observed
Moon; "and it must be a curious people that live
therein. '
"Miss Everdene and the soldier were walking about
together, you say ? ' said Gabriel, returning to the
group.
"Ay, and she wore a beautiful gold-colour silk
gown, trimmed with black lace, that would have stood
alone 'ithout legs inside if required. 'Twas a very
winsome sight; and her hair was brushed splendid.
And when the sun shone upon the bright gown and his
red coat -- my ! how handsome they looked. You
could see 'em all the length of the street.'
" And what then ? ' murmured Gabriel.
"And then I went into Griffin's to hae my boots
hobbed, and then I went to Riggs's batty-cake shop,
and asked 'em for a penneth of the cheapest and nicest
stales, that were all but blue-mouldy, but not quite.
And whilst I was chawing 'em down I walked on and
seed a clock with a face as big as a baking trendle -- -- '
"But that's nothing to do with mistress ! '
"I'm coming to that, if you'll leave me alone, Mister
Oak ! ' remonstrated Cainy. "If you excites me,
perhaps you'll bring on my cough, and then I shan't be
able to tell ye nothing.'
" Yes-iet him tell it his own way,' said Coggan.
Gabriel settled into a despairing attitude of patience,
and Cainy went on : --
"And there were great large houses, and more
people all the week long than at Weatherbury club+
walking on White Tuesdays. And I went to grand
churches and chapels. And how the parson would pray !
Yes; he would kneel down and put up his hands
together, and make the holy gold rings on his fingers
gleam and twinkle in yer eyes, that he'd earned
by praying so excellent well ! -- Ah yes, I wish I lived
there.'
"Our poor Parson Thirdly can't get no money to
buy such rings,' said Matthew Moon, thoughtfully.
"And as good a man as ever walked. I don't believe
poor Thirdly have a single one, even of humblest tin or
copper. Such a great ornament as they'd be to him on
a dull a'ternoon, when he's up in the pulpit lighted by
the wax candles ! But 'tis impossible, poor man. Ah,
to think how unequal things be.'
"Perhaps he's made of different stuff than to wear
'em,' said Gabriel, grimly. ' Well, that's enough of this.
Go on, Cainy -- quick.'
' Oh -- and the new style of pa'sons wear moustaches
and long beards,' continued the illustrious traveller,
'and look like Moses and Aaron complete, and make
we fokes in the congregation feel all over like the
children of Israel.'
"A very right feeling -- very,' said Joseph Poorgrass.
"And there's two religions going on in the nation
now -- High Church and High Chapel. And, thinks I,
I'll play fair; so I went to High Church in the morning,
and High Chapel in the afternoon.'
' A right and proper boy,' said Joseph Poorgrass.
"Well, at High Church they pray singing, and worship
all the colours of the rainbow; and at High Chapel they
pray preaching, and worship drab and whitewash only.
And then-i didn't see no more of Miss Everdene at
all.'
'Why didn't you say so afore, then ? ' exclaimed Oak,
with much disappointment.
' Ah,' said Matthew Moon, 'she'll wish her cake
dough if so be she's over intimate with that man.'
'She's not over intimate with him,' said Gabriel,
indignantly.
'She would know better,' said Coggan. "Our
mis'ess has too much sense under they knots of black
hair to do such a mad thing.'
"You see, he's not a coarse, ignorant man, for he
was well brought up,' said Matthew, dubiously. " 'Twas
only wildness that made him a soldier, and maids rather
like your man of sin.'
"Now, Cain Ball,' said Gabriel restlessly, "can you
swear in the most
awful form that the woman you saw
was Miss Everdene ? '
'Cain Ball, you be no longer a babe and suckling,'
said Joseph in the sepulchral tone the circumstances
demanded, "and you know what taking an oath is.
'Tis a horrible testament mind ye, which you say and
seal with your blood-stone, and the prophet Matthew
tells us that on whomsoever it shall fall it will grind
him to powder. Now, before all the work-folk here
assembled, can you swear to your words as the shep+
herd asks ye ?'
" Please no, Mister Oak ! ' said Cainy, looking from
one to the other with great uneasiness at the spiritual
magnitude of the position. "I don't mind saying 'tis
true, but I don't like to say 'tis damn true, if that's
what you mane.'
'Cain, Cain, how can you ! ' asked Joseph sternly.
"You be asked to swear in a holy manner, and you
swear like wicked Shimei, the son of Gera, who cursed
as he came. Young man, fie ! '
"No, I don't ! 'Tis you want to squander a pore
boy's soul, Joseph Poorgrass -- that's what 'tis ! ' said
Cain, beginning to cry. "All I mane is that in common
truth 'twas Miss Everdene and Sergeant Troy, but in
the horrible so-help-me truth that ye want to make of
it perhaps 'twas somebody else ! '
'There's no getting at the rights of it,' said Gabriel,
turning to his work.
"Cain Ball, you'll come to a bit of bread ! ' groaned
Joseph Poorgrass.
Then the reapers' hooks were flourished again, and
the old sounds went on. Gabriel, without making any
pretence of being lively, did nothing to show that he
was particularly dull. However, Coggan knew pretty
nearly how the land lay, and when they were in a nook
together he said --
' Don't take on about her, Gabriel. What difference
does it make whose sweetheart she is, since she can't be
yours ? '
"That's the very thing I say to myself,' said Gabriel.
HOME AGAIN -- A TRICKSTER
THAT same evening at dusk Gabriel was leaning over
Coggan's garden-gate, taking an up-and-down survey
before retiring to rest.
A vehicle of some kind was softly creeping along
the grassy margin of the lane. From it spread the
tones of two women talking. The tones were natural
and not at all suppressed. Oak instantly knew the
voices to he those of Bathsheba and Liddy.
The carriage came opposite and passed by. It was
Miss Everdene's gig, and Liddy and her mistress were
the only occupants of the seat. Liddy was asking
questions about the city of Bath, and her companion
was answering them listlessly and unconcernedly. Both
Bathsheba and the horse seemed weary.
The exquisite relief of finding that she was here
again, safe and sound, overpowered all reflection, and
Oak could only luxuriate in the sense of it. All grave
reports were forgotten.
He lingered and lingered on, till there was no
difference between the eastern and western expanses
of sky, and the timid hares began to limp courageously
round the dim hillocks. Gabriel might have been
there an additional half-hour when a dark form walked
slowly by. " Good-night, Gabriel,' the passer said.
It was Boldwood. " Good-night, sir,' said Gabriel.
Boldwood likewise vanished up the road, and Oak
shortly afterwards turned indoors to bed.
Farmer Boldwood went on towards Miss Everdene's
house. He reached the front, and approaching the
entrance, saw a light in the parlour. The blind was
not drawn down, and inside the room was Bathsheba,
looking over some papers or letters. Her back was
towards Boldwood. He went to the door,
knocked,
and waited with tense muscles and an aching brow.
Boldwood had not been outside his garden since
his meeting with Bathsheba in the road to Yalbury.
Silent and alone, he had remained in moody medita+
tion on woman's ways, deeming as essentials of the
whole sex the accidents of the single one of their
number he had ever closely beheld. By degrees a
more charitable temper had pervaded him, and this
was the reason of his sally to-night. He had come to
apologize and beg forgiveness of Bathsheba with some+
thing like a sense of shame at his violence, having but
just now learnt that she had returned -- only from a
visit to Liddy, as he supposed, the Bath escapade
being quite unknown to him.
He inquired for Miss Everdene. Liddy's manner
was odd, but he did not notice it. She went in, leaving
him standing there, and in her absence the blind of the
room containing Bathsheba was pulled down. Bold+
wood augured ill from that sign. Liddy came out.
"My mistress cannot see you, sir,' she said.
The farmer instantly went out by the gate. He
as unforgiven -- that was the issue of it all. He had
seen her who was to him simultaneously a delight and
a torture, sitting in the room he had shared with her
as a peculiarly privileged guest only a little earlier in
he summer, and she had denied him an entrance
there now.
Boldwood did not hurry homeward. It was ten
o'clock at least, when, walking deliberately through the
lower part of Weatherbury, he heard the carrier's spring
van entering the village. The van ran to and from a
town in a northern direction, and it was owned and
driven by a Weatherbury man, at the door of whose
house it now pulled up. The lamp fixed to the head
of the hood illuminated a scarlet and gilded form, who
was the first to alight.
'Ah ! ' said Boldwood to himself, "come to see her
again.'
Troy entered the carrier's house, which had been
the place of his lodging on his last visit to his native
place. Boldwood was moved by a sudden determina+
tion. He hastened home. In ten minutes he was
back again, and made as if he were going to call upon
Troy at the carrier's. But as he approached, some
one opened the door and came out. He heard this
person say " Good-night ' to the inmates, and the voice
was Troy's. 'This was strange, coming so immediately
after his arrival. Boldwood, however, hastened up
to him. Troy had what appeared to be a carpet-bag
in his hand -- the same that he had brought with him.
It seemed as if he were going to leave again this very
night.
Troy turned up the hill and quickened his pace.
Boldwood stepped forward.
" Sergeant Troy ? '
" Yes-i'm Sergeant Troy.'
" Just arrived from up the country, I think ?'
" Just arrived from Bath.'
" I am William Boldwood.'
" Indeed.'
The tone in which this word was uttered was all
that had been wanted to bring Boldwood to the
point.
" I wish to speak a word with you,' he said.
" What about ? '
" About her who lives just ahead there -- and about
a woman you have wronged.'
" I wonder at your impertinence,' said Troy, moving
on.
" Now look here,' said Boldwood, standing in front
of him, " wonder or not, you are going to hold a conver+
sation with me.'
Troy heard the dull determination in Boldwood's
voice, looked at his stalwart frame, then at the thick
cudgel he carried in his hand. He remembered it was
past ten o'clock. It seemed worth while to be civil to
Boldwood.
" Very well, I'll listen with pleasure,' said Troy,
placing his bag on the ground, "only speak low, for
somebody or other may overhear us in the farmhouse
there.'
" Well then -- I know a good deal concerning your
Fanny Robin's attachment to you. I may say, too, that
I believe I am the only person in the village, excepting
Gabriel Oak, who does know it. You ought to marry
her.'
" I suppose I ought. Indeed, l wish to, but I
cannot.'
" Why ? '
Troy was about to utter something hastily; he then
checked
himself and said, "I am too poor.' His voice
was changed. Previously it had had a deviimay-care
tone. It was the voice of a trickster now.
Boldwood's present mood was not critical enough to
notice tones. He continued, "I may as well speak
plainly; and understand, I don't wish to enter into the
questions of right or wrong, woman's honour and shame,
or to express any opinion on your conduct. I intend a
business transaction with you.'
" I see,' said Troy. " Suppose we sit down here.'
An old tree trunk lay under the hedge immediately
opposite, and they sat down.
The tone in which this word was uttered was all
Troy heard the dull determination in Boldwood's
voice, looked at his stalwart frame, then at the thick
plainly ; and understand, I don't wish to enter into the
" I was engaged to be married to Miss Everdene,'
said Boldwood, "but you came and -- -- '
" Not engaged,' said Troy.
" As good as engaged.'
" If I had not turned up she might have become en+
gaged to you.'
" Hang might ! '
" Would, then.'
" If you had not come I should certainly -- yes,
certainly -- have been accepted by this time. If you had
not seen her you might have been married to Fanny.
Well, there's too much difference between Miss Ever+
dene's station and your own for this flirtation with her
ever to benefit you by ending in marriage. So all I ask
is, don't molest her any more. Marry Fanny.
make it worth your while.'
" How will you ?'
" I'll pay you well now, I'll settle a sum of money
upon her, and I'll see that you don't suffer from poverty
in the future. I'll put it clearly. Bathsheba is only
playing with you: you are too poor for her as I said;
so give up wasting your time about a great match you'll
never make for a moderate and rightful match you may
make to-morrow; take up your carpet-bag, turn about,
leave Weatherbury now, this night, and you shall take
fifty pounds with you. Fanny shall have fifty to enable
her to prepare for the wedding, when you have told me
where she is living, and she shall have five hundred
paid down on her wedding-day.'
In making this statement Boldwood's voice revealed
only too clearly a consciousness of the weakness of his
position, his aims, and his method. His manner had
lapsed quite from that of the firm and dignified Bold+
wood of former times; and such a scheme as he had
now engaged in he would have condemned as childishly
imbecile only a few months ago. We discern a grand
force in the lover which helacks whilst a free man; but
there is a breadth of vision in the free man which in
the lover we vainly seek. Where there is much bias
there must be some narrowness, and love, though added
emotion, is subtracted capacity. Boldwood exemplified
this to an abnormal degree: he knew nothing of Fanny
Robin's circumstances or whereabouts, he knew nothing
of Troy's possibilities, yet that was what he said.
" I like Fanny best,' said Troy; "and if, as you say,
Miss Everdene is out of my reach, why I have all to
gain by accepting your money, and marrying Fan. But
she's only a servant.'
" Never mind -- do you agree to my arrangement ?'
" I do.'
" Ah ! ' said Boldwood, in a more elastic voice. "O,
Troy, if you like her best, why then did you step in here
and injure my happiness ? '
" I love Fanny best now,' said Troy. "But
Bathsh -- -- Miss Everdene inflamed me, and displaced
Fanny for a time. It is over now.'
" Why should it be over so soon? And why then
did you come here again ? '
" There are weighty reasons. Fifty pounds at once,
you said !'
" I did,' said Boldwood, " and here they are -- fifty
sovereigns.' He handed Troy a small packet.
" You have everything ready -- it seems that you
calculated on my accepting them,' said the sergeant,
taking the packet.
" I thought you might accept them,' said Boldwood.
" You've only my word that the programme shall be
adhered to, whilst I at any rate have fifty pounds.'
" l had thought of that, and l have considered that
if I can't appeal to your honour I can trust to your --
well, shrewdness we'll call it -- not to lose five hundred
pounds in prospect, and
also make a bitter enemy of a
man who is willing to be an extremely useful friend.'
" Stop, listen ! ' said Troy in a whisper.
A light pit-pat was audible upon the road just above
them.
'By George -- 'tis she,' he continued. 'I must go
on and meet her.'
'She -- who ? '
'Bathsheba.'
'Bathsheba -- out alone at this time o' night .! ' said
Boldwood in amazement, and starting up. ' Why must
you meet her ?'
'She was expecting me to-night -- and I must now
speak to her, and wish her good-bye, according to your
wish. '
'I don't see the necessity of speaking.'
'It can do no harm -- and she'll be wandering about
looking for me if I don't. You shall hear all I say to her.
It will help you in your love-making when I am gone.'
'Your tone is mocking.'
'O no. And renaember this, if she does not know
what has become of me, she will think more about me
than if I tell her flatly I have come to give her up.'
'Will you confine your words to that one point ? -- +
Shall I hear every word you say ? '
'Every word. Now sit still there, and hold my'
carpet bag for me, and mark what you hear.'
The light footstep came closer, halting occasionally,
as if the walker listened for a sound. Troy whistled a
double note in a soft, fluty tone.
'Come to that, is it ! ' murmured Boldwood, uneasily.
'You promised silence,' said Troy.
'I promise again.'
Troy stepped forward.
'Frank, dearest, is that you ? ' The tones were
Bathsheba's.
'O God .! ' said Boldwood.
'Yes,' said Troy to her.
'How late you are,' she continued, tenderly. 'Did
you come by the carrier ? I listened and heard his
wheels entering the village, but it was some time ago,
and I had almost given you up, Frank.'
'I was sure to come,' said Frank. 'You knew I
should, did you not ? '
'Well, I thought you would,' she said, playfully ;
'and, Frank, it is so lucky .! There's not a soul in my
house but me to-night. I've packed them all off so
nobody on earth will know of your visit to your lady's
bower. Liddy wanted to go to her grandfather's to
tell him about her holiday, and I said she might stay
with them till to-morrow -- when you'll be gone again.'
'Capital,' said Troy. ' But, dear me, I. had better
go back for my bag, because my slippers and brush and
comb are in it; you run home whilst I fetch it, and I'll
promise to be in your parlour in ten minutes.'
'Yes.' She turned and tripped up the hill again.
During the progress of this dialogue there was a
nervous twitching of Boldwood's tightly closed lips, and
his face became bathed in a clammy dew. He now
started forward towards Troy. Troy turned to him and
took up the bag.
'Shall I tell her I have come to give her up and
cannot marry her ? ' said the soldier, mockingly.
'No, no; wait a minute. I want to say more to
you -- more to you !. ' said Boldwood, in a hoarse whisper.
'Now,' said Troy, ' you see my dilemma. Perhaps
I am a bad man -- the victim of my impulses -- led away
to do what I ought to leave undone. I can't, however,
marry them both. And I have two reasons for- choosing
Fanny. First, I like her best upon the whole, and
second, you make it worth my while.'
At the same instant Boldwood sprang upon him, and
held him by the neck. Troy felt Boldwood's grasp slowly
tightening. The move was absolutely unexpected.
'A moment,' he gasped. 'You are injuring her you
love .! '
'Well, what do you mean ? ' said the farmer.
Give me breath,' said Troy.
Boldwood loosened his hand, saying, 'By Heaven,
I've a mind to kill you .!'
'And ruin her.'
'Save her.'
'Oh, how can she be saved now, unless I marry her ? '
Boldwood groaned. He reluctantly released the
soldier, and flung him back against the hedge. 'Devil,
you torture me .! ' said he.
Troy rebounded like a ball, and was about to make
a dash at the farmer; but he checked himself, saying
lightly --
'It is not worth while to measure my strength with
you. Indeed it is a barbarous way of settling a quarrel.
I shall shortly leave the army because of the same
conviction. Now after that revelation of how the land
lies with Bathsheba, 'twould be a mistake to kill me,
would it not?'
''Twould be a mistake to kill you,' repeated Boldwood,
mechanically, with a bowed head.
'Better kill yourself.'
' Far better.'
'I'm glad you see it.'
'Troy, make her your wife, and don't act upon what
I arranged just now. The alternative is dreadful, but
take Bathsheba; I give her up .! She must love you
indeed to sell soul and body to you so utterly as she
has done. Wretched woman -- deluded woman -- you
are, Bathsheba .! '
'But about Fanny ? '
'Bathsheba is a woman well to do,' continued Bold+
wood, in nervous anxiety, 'and, Troy, she will make a
good wife ; and, indeed, she is worth your hastening
on your marriage with her .! '
'But she has a wili-not to say a temper, and I shall
be a mere slave to her. I could do anything with poor
Fanny Robin.'
'Troy,' said Boldwood, imploringly, ' I'll do anything
for you, only don't desert her; pray don't desert her,
Troy.'
'Which, poor Fanny ? '
'No ; Bathsheba Everdene. Love her best .! Love
her tenderly !. How shall I get you to see how advan+
tageous it will be to you to secure her at once ?'
'I don't wish to secure her in any new way.'
Boldwood's arm moved spasmodically towards Troy's
person again. He repressed the instinct, and his form
drooped as with pain.
Troy went on --
"I shall soon purchase my discharge, and then -- -- '
'But I wish you to hasten on this marriage !. It will
be better for you both. You love each other, and you
must let me help you to do it.'
'How ? '
'Why, by settling the five hundred on Bathsheba
instead of Fanny, to enable you to marry at once.
No ; she wouldn't have it of me. I'll pay it down to
you on the wedding-day.'
Troy paused in secret amazement at Boldwood's
wild infatuation. He carelessly said, 'And am I to
have anything now ? '
'Yes, if you wish to. But I have not much additional
money with me. I did not expect this; but all I have
is yours.'
Boldwood, more like a somnambulist than a wakeful
man, pulled out the large canvas bag he carried by way
of a purse, and searched it.
'I have twenty-one pounds more with me,' he said.
'Two notes and a sovereign. But before I leave you
I must have a paper signed -- -- '
'Pay me the money, and we'll go straight to her
parlour, and make any arrangement you please to secure
my compliance with your wishes. But she must know
nothing of this cash business.'
' Nothing, nothing,' said Boldwood, hastily. 'Here
is the sum, and if you'll come to my house we'll write
out the agreement for the remainder, and the terms
also.'
' First we'll call upon her.'
'But why? Come with me to-night, and go with
me to-morrow to the surrogate's.'
'But she must be consulted; at any rate informed.'
'Very well; go on.'
They went up the hill to Bathsheba's house. When
they stood at the entrance, Troy said, 'Wait here a
moment.' Opening the door, he glided inside, leaving
the door ajar.
Boldwood waited. In two minutes a light appeared
in the passage. Boldwood then saw that the chain
had been fastened across the door. Troy appeared
inside, carrying a bedroom candlestick.
'What, did you think I should break in ?' said
Boldwood, contemptuously.
'Oh, no; it is merely my humour to secure things.
Will you read this a moment ? I'll hold the light.'
Troy handed a folded newspaper through the slit
between door and doorpost, and put the candle close.
'That's the paragraph,' he said, placing his finger on
a line.
Boldwood looked and read --
'MARRIAGES.
'On the 17th inst., at St. Ambrose's Church, Bath,
by the Rev. G. Mincing, B.A., Francis Troy, only son
of the late Edward Troy, Esq., H.D., of Weatherbury,
and sergeant iith Dragoon Guards, to Bathsheba, only
surviving daughter of the late Mr, John Everdene, of
Casterbridge.'
'This may be called Fort meeting Feeble, hey,
Boldwood ?' said Troy. A low gurgle of derisive
laughter followed the words.
The paper fell from Boldwood's hands. Troy
continued --
'Fifty pounds to marry Fanny, Good. Twenty-+
one pounds not to marry Fanny, but Bathsheba. Good.
Finale : already Bathsheba's husband. Now, Boldwood,
yours is the ridiculous fate which always attends inter+
ference between a man and his wife. And another
word. Bad as I am, I am not such a villain as to
make the marriage or misery of any woman a matter
of huckster and sale. Fanny has long ago left me.
don't know where she is. I have searched everywhere.
Another word yet. You say you love Bathsheba ; yet
on the merest apparent evidence you instantly believe
in her dishonour. A fig for such love !. Now that I've
taught you a lesson, take your money back again.'
'I will not ; I will not !. ' said Boldwood, in a hiss.
'Anyhow I won't have it,' said Troy, contemptuously.
He wrapped the packet of gold in the notes, and threw
the whole into the road.
Boldwood shook his clenched fist at him. 'You
juggler of Satan .! You black hound .! But I'll punish
you yet ; mark me, I'll punish you yet !. '
Another peal of laughter. Troy then closed the
door, and locked himself in.
Throughout the whole of that night Boldwood's dark
downs of Weatherbury like an unhappy Shade in the
Mournful Fields by Acheron.
CHAPTER XXXV
AT AN UPPER WINDOW
IT was very early the next morning -- a time of sun and
dew. The confused beginnings of many birds' songs
spread into the healthy air, and the wan blue of the
heaven was here and there coated with thin webs of
incorporeal cloud which were of no efect in obscuring
day. All the lights in the scene were yellow as to
colour, and all the shadows were attenuated as to form.
The creeping plants about the old manor-house were
bowed with rows of heavy water drops, which had upon
objects behind them the effect of minute lenses of high
magnifying power.
Just before the clock struck five Gabriel Oak and
Coggan passed the village cross, and went on together
to the fields. They were yet barely in view of their
mistress"s house, when Oak fancied he saw the opening
of a casement in one of the upper windows. The two
men were at this moment partially screened by an elder
bush, now beginning to be enriched with black bunches
of fruit, and they paused before emerging from its
shade.
A handsome man leaned idly from the lattice. He
looked east and then west, in the manner of one who
makes a first morning survey. The man was Sergeant
Troy. His red jacket was loosely thrown on, but not
buttoned, and he had altogether the relaxed bearing of
a soldier taking his ease.
Coggan spoke first, looking quietly at the window.
'She has married him ! ' he said.
Gabriel had previously beheld the sight, and he now
stood with his back turned, making no reply.
'I fancied we should know something to-day,' con+
tinued Coggan. 'I heard wheels pass my door just
after dark -- you were out somewhere.'He glanced
round upon Gabriel. 'Good
heavens above us, Oak,
how white your face is; you look like a corpse !.'
'Do I?' said Oak, with a faint smile.
'Lean on the gate: I'll wait a bit.'
',All right, all right. '
They stood by the gate awhile, Gabriel listlessly
staring at the ground. His mind sped into the future,
and saw there enacted in years of leisure the scenes o
repentance that would ensue from this work of haste
That they were married he had instantly decided. Why
had it been so mysteriously managed ? It had become
known that she had had a fearful journey to Bath, owing
to her miscalculating the distance : that the horse had
broken down, and that she had been more than two
days getting there. It was not Bathsheba's way to do
things furtively. With all her faults, she was candour
itself. Could she have been entrapped ? The union
was not only an unutterable grief to him: it amazed
him, notwithstanding that he had passed the preceding
week in a suspicion that such might be the issue of
Troy's meeting her away from home. Her quiet return
with liddy had to some extent dispersed the dread.
Just as that imperceptible motion which appears like
stillness is infinitely divided in its properties from stili
ness itself, so had his hope undistinguishable from
despair differed from despair indeed.
In a few minutes they moved on again towards the
house. The sergeant still looked from the window.
'Morning, comrades .! ' he shouted, in a cheery voice,
when they came up.
Coggan replied to the greeting. ' Bain't ye going to
answer the man ?' he then said to Gabriel. 'I'd say
good morning -- you needn't spend a hapeth of meaning
upon it, and yet keep the man civil.'
Gabriel soon decided too that, since the deed was
done, to put the best face upon the matter would be the
greatest kindness to her he loved.
'Good morning, Sergeant Troy,' he returned, in a
ghastly voice.
'A rambling, gloomy house this,' said Troy, smiling.
' Why -- they may not be married .! ' suggested Coggan.
' Perhaps she's not there.'
Gabriel shook his head. The soldier turned a little
towards the east, and the sun kindled his scarlet coat
to an orange glow.
'But it is a nice old house,' responded Gabriel.
'Yes-i suppose so; but I feel like new wine in an
old bottle here. My notion is that sash-windows should
be put throughout, and these old wainscoted walls
brightened up a bit ; or the oak cleared quite away, and
the walls papered.'
'It would be a pity, I think.'
'Well, no. A philosopher once said in my hearing
that the old builders, who worked when art was a living
thing, had no respect for the work of builders who went
before them, but pulled down and altered as they
thought fit; and why shouldn't we ? ''Creation and
preservation don't do well together,'' says he, ''and a
million of antiquarians can't invent a style.'' My mind
exactly. I am for niaking this place more modern, that
we may be cheerful whilst we can.'
The military man turned and surveyed the interior
of the room, to assist his ideas of improvement in this
direction. Gabriel and Coggan began to move on.
' Oh, Coggan,' said Troy, as if inspired by a recollec+
tion ' do you know if insanity has ever appeared in Mr.
Boldwood's family ? '
Jan reflected for a moment.
'I once heard that an uncle of his was queer in his
head, but I don't know the rights o't,' he said.
'It is of no importance,' said Troy, lightly. 'Well,
I shall be down in the fields with you some time this
week ; but I have a few matters to attend to first. So
good-day to you. We shall, of course, keep on just as
friendly terms as usual. I'm not a proud man : nobody
is ever able to say that of Sergeant Troy. However,
what is must be, and here's half-a-crown to drink my
health, men.'
Troy threw the coin dexterously across the front plot
and over the fence towards Gabriel, who shunned it in
its fall, his face turning to an angry red. Coggan
twirled his eye, edged
forward, and caught the money
in its ricochet upon the road.
' very weli-you keep it, Coggan,' said Gabriel with
disdain and almost fiercely. 'As for me, I'll do with+
out gifts from him !'
'Don't show it too much,' said Coggan, musingly.
'For if he's married to her, mark my words, he'll buy
his discharge and be our master here. Therefore 'tis
well to say '' Friend '' outwardly, though you say
''Troublehouse '' within. '
' Weli-perhaps it is best to be silent; but I can't
go further than that. I can't flatter, and if my place
here is only to be kept by smoothing him down, my
place must be lost.'
A horseman, whom they had for some time seen in
the distance, now appeared close beside them.
' There's Mr. Boldwood,' said Oak. ' I wonder what
Troy meant by his question.'
Coggan and Oak nodded respectfully to the farmer,
just checked their paces to discover if they were wanted,
and finding they were not stood back to let him pass on.
The only signs of the terrible sorrow Boldwood had
been combating through the night, and was combating
now, were the want of colour in his welidefined face,
the enlarged appearance of the veins in his forehead
and temples, and the sharper lines about his mouth.
The horse bore him away, and the very step of the
animal seemed significant of dogged despair. Gabriel, for
a minute, rose above his own grief in noticing Boldwood's.
He saw the square figure sitting erect upon the horse,
the head turned to neither side, the elbows steady by
the hips, the brim of the hat level and undisturbed in
its onward glide, until the keen edges of Boldwood's
shape sank by degrees over the hill. To one who knew
the man and his story there was something more striking
in this immobility than in a collapse. The clash of
discord between mood and matter here was forced
painfully home to the heart ; and, as in laughter there are
more dreadful phases than in tears, so was there in the
steadiness of this agonized man an expression deeper
than a cry.
WEALTH IN JEOPARDY -- THE RVEEL
ONE night, at the end of August, when Bathsheba's
experiences as a married woman were still new, and
when the weather was yet dry and sultry, a man stood
motionless in the stackyard of Weatherbury Upper
Farm, looking at the moon and sky.
The night had a sinister aspect. A heated breeze
from the south slowly fanned the summits of lofty
objects, and in the sky dashes of buoyant cloud were
sailing in a course at right angles to that of another
stratum, neither of them in the direction of the breeze
below. The moon, as seen through these films, had
a lurid metallic look. The fields were sallow with the
impure light, and all were tinged in monochrome, as
if beheld through stained glass. The same evening
the sheep had trailed homeward head to tail, the
behaviour of the rooks had heen confused, and the
horses had moved with timidity and caution.
Thunder was imminent, and, taking some secondary
appearances into consideration, it was likely to be
followed by one of the lengthened rains which mark
the close of dry weather for the season. Before twelve
hours had passed a harvest atmosphere would be a
bygone thing.
Oak gazed with misgiving at eight naked and un'
protected ricks, massive and heavy with the rich
produce of one-half the farm for that year. He went
on to the barn.
This was the night which had been selected by
Sergeant Troy -- ruling now in the room of his wife --
for giving the harvest supper and dance. As Oak
approached the building the sound of violins and a
tambourine, and the regular jigging of many feet, grew
more distinct. He came close to the large doors, one
of which stood slightly ajar, and looked in.
The central space, together with the recess at one
end, was
emptied of all incumbrances, and this area,
covering about two-thirds of the whole, was appropriated
for the gathering, the remaining end, which was piled
to the ceiling with oats, being screened off with sail'
cloth. Tufts and garlands of green foliage decomted
the walls, beams, and extemporized chandeliers, and
immediately opposite to Oak a rostrum had been
erected, bearing a table and chairs. Here sat three
fiddlers, and beside them stood a frantic man with his
hair on end, perspiration streaming down his cheeks,
and a tanabourine quivering in his hand.
The dance ended, and on the black oak floor in the
midst a new row of couples formed for another.
'Now, ma'am, and no offence I hope, I ask what
dance you would like next ?' said the first violin.
'Really, it makes no difference,' said the clear voice
of Bathsheba, who stood at the inner end of the build+
ing, observing the scene from behind a table covered
with cups and viands. Troy was lolling beside her.
'Then,' said the fiddler, 'I'll venture to name that
the right and proper thing is ''The Soldier's Joy'' --
there being a gallant soldier married into the farm --
hey, my sonnies, and gentlemen all ? '
'It shall be ''The Soldier's Joy,''' exclaimed a
chorus.
'Thanks for the compliment,' said the sergeant
THE REVEL
gaily, taking Bathsheba by the hand and leading her
to the top of the dance. 'For though I have pur+
chased my discharge from Her Most Gracious Majesty's
regiment of cavalry the 11th Dragoon Guards, to attend
to the new duties awaiting me here, I shall continue a
soldier in spirit and feeling as long as I live.'
So the dance began. As to the merits of 'The
Soldier's Joy,' there cannot be, and never were, two
opinions. It has been observed in the musical circles
of Weatherbury and its vicinity that this melody, at
the end of three-quarters of an hour of thunderous
footing, still possesses more stimulative properties for
the heel and toe than the majority of other dances at
their first opening. 'The Soldier's Joy' has, too, an
additional charm, in being so admirably adapted to
the tambourine aforesaid -- no mean instrument in the
hands of a performer
who understands the proper
convulsions, spasms, St. vitus's dances, and fearful
frenzies necessary when exhibiting its tones in their
highest perfection.
The immortal tune ended, a fine DD rolling forth
from the bass-viol with the sonorousness of a cannonade,
and Gabriel delayed his entry no longer. He avoided
Bathsheba, and got as near as possible to the platform,
where Sergeant Troy was now seated, drinking brandy+
and-water, though the others drank without exception
cider and ale. Gabriel could not easily thrust himself
within speaking distance of the sergeant, and he sent
a message, asking him to come down for a moment.
'The sergeant said he could not attend.
'Will you tell him, then,' said Gabriel, 'that I only
stepped ath'art to say that a heavy rain is sure to fall
soon, and that something should be done to protect
the ricks ?'
'M. Troy says it will not rain,' returned the
messenger, 'and he cannot stop to talk to you about
such fidgets.'
In Juxtaposition with Troy, Oak had a melancholy
tendency to look like a candle beside gas, and ill at
ease, he went out again, thinking he would go home ;
for, under the circumstances, he had no heart for the
scene in the barn. At the door he paused for a
moment : Troy was speaking.
'Friends, it is not only the harvest home that we
are celebrating to-night; but this is also a Wedding
Feast. A short time ago I had the happiness to lead
to the altar this lady, your mistress, and not until now
have we been able to give any public flourish to the
event in Weatherbury. That it may be thoroughly
well done, and that every man may go happy to bed,
I have ordered to be brought here some bottles of
brandy and kettles of hot water. A treble-strong
goblet will he handed round to each guest.'
Bathsheba put her hand upon his arm, and, with
upturned pale face, said imploringly, ' No -- don't give
it to them -- pray don't, Frank .! It will only do them
harm : they have had enough of everything.'
'True -- we don't wish for no more, thank ye,' said
one or two.
'Pooh .! ' said the sergeant contemptuously, and
raised his
voice as if lighted up by a new idea.
' Friends,' he said, ' we'll send the women-folk home .!
'Tis time they were in bed. Then we cockbirds will
have a jolly carouse to ourselves .! If any of the men
show the white feather, let them look elsewhere for a
winter's work.'
Bathsheba indignantly left the barn, followed by
all the women and children. The musicians, not
looking upon themselves as ' company,' slipped quietly
away to their spring waggon and put in the horse.
Thus Troy and the men on the farm were left sole
occupants of the place. Oak, not to appear unneces+
sarily disagreeable, stayed a little while ; then he, too,
arose and quietly took his departure, followed by a
friendly oath from the sergeant for not staying to a
second round of grog.
Gabriel proceeded towards his home. In approach+
ing the door, his toe kicked something which felt and
sounded soft, leathery, and distended, like a boxing+
glove. It was a large toad humbly travelling across
the path. Oak took it up, thinking it might be better
to kill the creature to save it from pain; but finding
it uninjured, he placed it again among the grass. He
knew what this direct message from the Great Mother
meant. And soon came another.
When he struck a light indoors there appeared upon
the table a thin glistening streak, as if a brush of varnish
had been lightly dragged across it. Oak's eyes followed
the serpentine sheen to the other side, where it led up
to a huge brown garden-slug, which had come indoors
to-night for reasons of its own. It was Nature's second
way of hinting to him that he was to prepare for foul
weather.
Oak sat down meditating for nearly an hour.
During this time two black spiders, of the kind common
in thatched houses, promenaded the ceiling, ultimately
dropping to the floor. This reminded him that if there
was one class of manifestation on this matter that he
thoroughly understood, it was the instincts of sheep.
He left the room, ran across two or three fields towards
the flock, got upon a hedge, and looked over among
them.
They were crowded close together on the other side
around some
furze bushes, and the first peculiarity ob+
servable was that, on the sudden appearance of Oak's
head over the fence, they did not stir or run away.
They had now a terror of something greater than their
terror of man. But this was not the most noteworthy
feature : they were all grouped in such a way that their
tails, without a single exception, were towards that half
of the horizon from which the storm threatened. There
was an inner circle closely huddled, and outside these
they radiated wider apart, the pattern formed by the
flock as a whole not being unlike a vandyked lace
collar, to which the clump of furze-bushes stood in the
position of a wearer's neck.
opinion. He knew now that he was right, and that
Troy was wrong. Every voice in nature was unanimous
in bespeaking change. But two distinct translations
attached to these dumb expressions. Apparently there
was to be a thunder-storm, and afterwards a cold con+
tinuous rain. The creeping things seemed to know all
about the later rain, hut little of the interpolated
thunder-storm ; whilst the sheep knew all about the
thunder-storm and nothing of the later rain.
This complication of weathers being uncommon,
was all the more to be feared. Oak returned to the
stack-yard. All was silent here, and the conical tips of
the ricks jutted darkly into the sky. There were five
wheat-ricks in this yard, and three stacks of barley.
The wheat when threshed would average about thirty
quarters to each stack ; the barley, at least forty. Their
value to Bathsheba, and indeed to anybody, Oak
mentally estimated by the following simple calcula+
tion : --
5 x 30 = 150 quarters= 500fl.
3 x 40=120 quarters= 250l.
Total . . 750l.
Seven hundred and fifty pounds in the divinest form
that money can wear -- that of necessary food for man
and beast : should the risk be run cf deteriorating this
bulk of corn to less than half its value, because of the
instability of a woman ? 'Never, if I can prevent it.! '
said Gabriel.
Such was the argument that Oak set outwardly before
him. But man, even to himself, is a palimpsest, having
an ostensible writing, and another beneath the lines.
It is possible that there was this golden legend under
the utilitarian one: 'I will help to my last effort the
woman I have loved so dearly.'
He went back to the barn to endeavour to obtain
assistance for covering the ricks that very
night. All
was silent within, and he would have passed on in the
belief that the party had broken up, had not a dim
light, yellow as saffron by contrast with the greenish
whiteness outside, streamed through a knot-hole in the
folding doors.
Gabriel looked in. An unusual picture met his
eye.
The candles suspended among the evergreens had
burnt down to their sockets, and in some cases the
leaves tied about them were scorched. Many of the
lights had quite gone out, others smoked and stank,
grease dropping from them upon the floor. Here,
under the table, and leaning against forms and chairs
in every conceivable attitude except the perpendicular, !'
were the wretched persons of all the work-folk, the hair
of their heads at such low levels being suggestive of
mops and brooms. In the midst of these shone red
and distinct the figure of Sergeant Troy, leaning back
in a chair. Coggan was on his back, with his mouth
open, huzzing forth snores, as were several others ; the
united breathings of the horizonal assemblage forming
a subdued roar like London from a distance. Joseph
Poorgrass was curled round in the fashion of a hedge+
hog, apparently in attempts to present the least possible
portion of his surface to the air; and behind him was
dimly visible an unimportant remnant of William Smali
bury. The glasses and cups still stood upon the table,
a water-jug being overturned, from which a small rill,
after tracing its course with marvellous precision down
the centre of the long table, fell into the neck of the
unconscious Mark Clark, in a steady, monotonous drip,
like the dripping of a stalactite in a cave.
Gabriel glanced hopelessly at the group, which, with
one or two exceptions, composed all the able-bodied
men upon the farm. He saw at once that if the ricks
were to be saved that night, or even the next morning,
he must save them with his own hands.
A faint ' ting-ting ' resounded from under Coggan's
waistcoat. It was Coggan's watch striking the hour of
two.
Oak went to the recumbent form of Matthew Moon,
who usually undertook the rough thatching of the home+
stead, and shook him. The shaking was without effect.
Gabriel shouted in his ear, ' where's your thatching+
beetle and rick-stick and spars ? '
' Under the staddles,' said Moon, mechanically, with
the unconscious promptness of a medium.
Gabriel let go his head, and it dropped upon the
floor like a bowl. He then went to Susan Tall's
husband.
' where's the key of the granary ? '
No answer. The question was repeated, with the
same result. To be shouted to at night was evidently
less of a novelty to Susan Tall's husband than to
Matthew Moon. Oak flung down Tall's head into the
corner again and turned away.
To be just, the men were not greatly to blame for
this painful and demoralizing termination to the
evening's entertainment. Sergeant Troy had so strenu+
ously insisted, glass in hand, that drinking should be
the bond of their union, that those who wished to refuse
hardly liked to be so unmannerly under the circum+
stances. Having from their youth up been entirely un+
accustomed to any liquor stronger than cider or mild
ale, it was no wonder that they had succumbed, one
and all, with extraordinary uniformity, after the lapse of
about an hour.
Gabriel was greatly depressed. This debauch boded
ill for that wilful and fascinating mistress whom the
faithful man even now felt within him as the embodi+
ment of all that was sweet and bright and hopeless.
He put out the expiring lights, that the barn might
not be endangered, closed the door upon the men in
their deep and oblivious sleep, and went again into the
lone night. A hot breeze, as if breathed from the
parted lips of some dragon about to swallow the globe,
fanned him from the south, while directly opposite in
the north rose a grim misshapen body of
cloud, in the
very teeth of the wind. So unnaturally did it rise that
one could fancy it to be lifted by machinery from below.
Meanwhile the faint cloudlets had flown back into the
south-east corner of the sky, as if in terror of the large
cloud, like a young brood gazed in upon by some
monster.
Going on to the village, Oak flung a small stone
against the window of Laban Tall's bedroom, expecting
Susan to open it ; but nobody stirred. He went round
to the back door, which had been left unfastened for
Laban's entry, and passed in to the foot of the stair+
case.
'Mrs. Tall, I've come for the key of the granary,
to get at the rick-cloths,' said Oak, in a stentorian
voice.
'Is that you ? ' said Mrs. Susan Tall, half awake.
' Yes,' said Gabriel.
'Come along to bed, do, you drawlatching rogue --
keeping a body awake like this .'
'It isn't Laban -- 'tis Gabriel Oak. I want the key
of the granary.'
'Gabriel. what in the name of fortune did you
pretend to be Laban for ?'
' I didn't. I thought you meant -- -- '
'yes you did !. what do you want here ?'
'The key of the granary.'
"Take it then. 'Tis on the nail. People coming
disturbing women at this time of night ought -- -- '
Gabriel took the key, without waiting to hear the
conclusion of the tirade. Ten minutes later his lonely
figure might have been seen dragging four large water+
proof coverings across the yard, and soon two of these
heaps of treasure in grain were covered snug -- two cloths
to each. Two hundred pounds were secured. Three
wheat-stacks remained open, and there were no more
cloths. Oak looked under the staddles and found a
fork. He mounted the third pile of wealth and began
operating, adopting the plan of sloping the upper
sheaves one over the other; and, in addition, filling
the interstices with the material of some untied sheaves.
So far all was well. By this hurried contrivance
Bathsheba's
property in wheat was safe for at any rate
a week or two, provided always that there was not
much wind.
Next came the barley. This it was only possible to
protect by systematic thatching. Time went on, and
the moon vanished not to reappear. It was the
farewell of the ambassador previous to war. The
night had a haggard look, like a sick thing; and there
came finally an utter expiration of air from the whole
heaven in the form of a slow breeze, which might have
been likened to a death. And now nothing was heard
in the yard but the dull thuds of the beetle which drove
in the spars, and the rustle of thatch in the intervals.
THE STORM
THE STORM -- THE TWO TOGETHER
A LIGHT flapped over the scene, as if reflected from
phosphorescent wings crossing the sky, and a rumble
filled the air. It was the first move of the approaching
storm.
The second peal was noisy, with comparatively little
visible lightning. Gabriel saw a candle shining in Bath+
sheba's bedroom, and soon a shadow swept to and fro
upon the blind.
Then there came a third flash. Manoeuvres of a
most extraordinary kind were going on in the vast
firmamental hollows overhead. The lightning now was
the colour of silver, and gleamed in the heavens like a
mailed army. Rumbles became rattles. Gabriel from
his elevated position could see over the landscape at
least half-a-dozen miles in front. Every hedge, bush,
and tree was distinct as in a line engraving. In a
paddock in the same direction was a herd of heifers,
and the forms of these were visible at this moment in
the act of galloping about in the wildest and maddest
confusion, flinging their heels and tails high into the air,
their heads to earth. A poplar in the immediate fore+
ground was like an ink stroke on burnished tin. Then
the picture vanished, leaving the darkness so intense
that Gabriel worked entirely by feeling with his hands.
He had stuck his ricking-rod, or poniard, as it was
indifferently called -- a long iron lance, polished by
handling -- into the stack, used to support the sheaves
instead of the support called a groom used on houses,
A blue light appeared in the zenith, and in some in+
describable manner flickered down near the top of the
rod. It was the fourth of the larger flashes. A moment
later and there was a smack -- smart, clear, and short,
Gabriel felt his position to be anything but a safe one,
and he resolved to descend.
Not a drop of rain had fallen as yet. He wiped his
weary brow, and looked again at the black forms of
the unprotected
stacks. Was his life so valuable to
him after all? What were his prospects that he
should be so chary of running risk, when important
and urgent labour could not be carried on without
such risk ? He resolved to stick to the stack. How+
ever, he took a precaution. Under the staddles was
a long tethering chain, used to prevent the escape of
errant horses. This he carried up the ladder, and
sticking his rod through the clog at one end, allowed
the other end of the chain to trail upon the ground
The spike attached to it he drove in. Under the
shadow of this extemporized lightning-conductor he
felt himself comparatively safe.
Before Oak had laid his hands upon his tools again
out leapt the fifth flash, with the spring of a serpent
and the shout of a fiend. It was green as an
emerald, and the reverberation was stunning. What
was this the light revealed to him? In the open
ground before him, as he looked over the ridge of
the rick, was a dark and apparently female form.
Could it be that of the only venturesome woman in
the parish -- Bathsheba ? The form moved on a step :
then he could see no more.
"Is that you, ma'am ? ' said Gabriel to the darkness.
"Who is there ?' said the voice of Bathsheba,
THE TWO TOGETHER
"Gabriel. I am on the rick, thatching.'
"O, Gabriel ! -- and are you ? I have come about
them. The weather awoke me, and I thought of the
corn. I am so distressed about it -- can we save it any+
how ? I cannot find my husband. Is he with you ?'
"He is not here.'
"Do you know where he is ?'
"Asleep in the barn.'
"He promised that the stacks should be seen to,
and now they are all neglected ! Can I do anything
to help ? Liddy is afraid to come out. Fancy finding
you here at such an hour ! Surely I can do something ? '
"You can bring up some reed-sheaves to me, one by
one, ma'am; if you are not afraid to come up the ladder
in the dark,' said Gabriel. "Every moment is precious
now, and that would save a good deal of time. It is
not very dark when the lightning has been gone a bit.'
"I'll do anything ! ' she said, resolutely. She instantly
took a sheaf upon her shoulder, clambered up close to
his heels, placed it behind the rod, and descended for
another. At her third ascent the rick suddenly brightened
with the brazen glare of shining majolica -- every knot
in every straw was visible. On the slope in front of him
appeared two human shapes, black as jet. The rick
lost its sheen -- -the shapes vanished. Gabriel turned his
head. It had been the sixth flash which had come from
the east behind him, and the two dark forms on the
slope had been the shadows of himself and Bathsheba.
Then came the peal. It hardly was credible that
such a heavenly light could be the parent of such a
diabolical sound.
"How terrible ! ' she exclaimed, and clutched him by
the sleeve. Gabriel turned, and steadied her on her
aerial perch by holding her arm. At the same moment,
while he was still reversed in his attitude, there was
more light, and he saw, as it were, a copy of the tall
poplar tree on the hill drawn in black on the wall of
the barn. It was the shadow of that tree, thrown across
by a secondary flash in the west.
The next flare came. Bathsheba was on the ground
now, shouldering another sheaf, and she bore its dazzle
without flinching -- thunder and ali-and again ascended
with the load. There was then a silence everywhere
for four or five minutes, and the crunch of the spars,
as Gabriel hastily drove them in, could again be distinctly
heard. He thought the crisis of the storm had passed.
But there came a burst of light.
"Hold on ! ' said Gabriel, taking the sheaf from her
shoulder, and grasping her arm again.
Heaven opened then, indeed. The flash was almost
too novel for its inexpressibly dangerous nature to be
at once realized, and they could only comprehend the
magnificence of its beauty. It sprang from east, west,
north, south, and was a perfect dance of death. The
forms of skeletons appeared in the air, shaped with
blue fire for bones -- dancing, leaping, striding, racing
around, and mingling altogether in unparalleled con+
fusion. With these were intertwined undulating snakes of
green, and behind these was a broad mass of lesser light.
Simultaneously came from every part of the tumbling
sky what may be called a shout ; since, though no shout
ever came near it, it was more of the nature of a shout
than of anything eise earthly. In the meantime one of
the grisly forms had alighted upon the point of Gabriel's
rod, to run invisibly down it, down the chain, and into
the earth. Gabriel was almost blinded, and he could
feel Bathsheba's warm arm tremble in his hand -- a
sensation novel and thrilling enough ; but love, life,
everything human, seemed small and trifling in such
close juxtaposition with an infuriated universe.
Oak had hardly time to gather up these impressions
into a thought, and to see how strangely the red feather
of her hat shone in this light, when the tall tree on the
hill before mentioned seemed on fire to a white heat,
and a new one among these terrible voices mingled with
the last crash of those preceding. It was a stupefying
blast, harsh and pitiless, and it fell upon their ears in a
dead, flat blow, without that reverberation which lends
the tones of a drum to more distant thunder. By the
lustre reflected from every part of the earth and from the
wide domical scoop above it, he saw that the tree was
sliced down the whole length of its tall, straight stem, a
huge riband of bark being apparently flung off. The
other portion remained erect, and revealed the bared
surface as a strip of white down the front. The
lightning had struck the tree. A sulphurous smell
filled the air; then all was silent, and black as a cave
in Hinnom.
" We had a narrow escape ! ' said Gabriel, hurriedly.
" You had better go down.'
Bathsheba said nothing ; but he could distinctly hear
her rhythmical pants, and the recurrent rustle of the
sheaf beside her in response to her frightened pulsations.
She descended the ladder, and, on second thoughts, he
followed her. The darkness was now impenetrable by
the sharpest vision. They both stood still at the
bottom, side by side. Bathsheba appeared to think
only of the weather -- Oak thought only of her just then.
At last he said --
"The storm seems to have passed now, at any
rate.'
" I think so too,' said Bathsheba. " Though there
are multitudes of gleams, look ! '
The sky was now filled with an incessant light,
frequent repetition melting into complete continuity, as
an unbroken sound results from the successive strokes
on a gong.
" Nothing serious,' said he. " I cannot understand
no rain falling. But Heaven be praised, it is all the
better for us. I am now going up again.'
" Gabriel, you are kinder than I deserve ! I will stay
and help you yet. O, why are not some of the others
here ! '
" They would have been here if they could,' said Oak,
in a hesitating way.
'O, I know it ali-all,' she said, adding slowly :
" They are all asleep in the barn, in a drunken sleep, and
my husband among them. That's it, is it not ? Don't
think I am a timid woman and can't endure things.'
"I am not certain,' said Gabriel. 'I will go and see,'
He crossed to the barn, leaving her there alone. He
looked through the chinks of the door. All was in
total darkness, as he had left it, and there still arose, as
at the former time, the steady buzz of many snores.
He felt a zephyr curling about his cheek, and turned.
It was Bathsheba's breath -- she had followed him, and
was looking into the same chink.
He endeavoured to put off the immediate and pain+
ful subject of their thoughts by remarking gently, "lf
you'll come back again, miss -- ma'am, and hand up a
few more; it would save much time.'
Then Oak went back again, ascended to the top,
stepped off the ladder for greater expedition, and went
on thatching. She followed, but without a sheaf
" Gabriel,' she said, in a strange and impressive voice.
Oak looked up at her. She had not spoken since
he left the barn. The soft and continual shimmer of
the dying lightning showed a marble face high against
the black sky of the opposite quarter. Bathsheba was
sitting almost on the apex of the stack, her feet gathered
up beneath her, and resting on the top round of the
ladder.
" Yes, mistress,' he said.
"I suppose you thought that when I galloped away
to Bath that night it was on purpose to be married ?"
'I did at last -- not at first,' he answered, somewhat
surprised at the abruptness with which this new subject
was broached.
" And others thought so, too ? '
" Yes.'
"And you blamed me for it ?'
" Weli-a little.'
"I thought so. Now, I care a little for your good
opinion, and I want to explain something-i have
longed to do it ever since I returned, and you looked so
gravely at me. For if I were to die -- and I may die
soon -- it would be dreadful that you should always think
mistakenly of me. Now, listen.'
Gabriel ceased his rustling.
'I went to Bath that night in the full intention of
breaking off my engagement to Mr. Troy. It was owing
to circumstances which occurred after I got there that
-- that we were married. Now, do you see the matter
in a new light?'
" I do -- somewhat.'
" I must, I suppose, say more, now that I have
begun. And perhaps it's no harm, for you are certainly
under no delusion that I ever loved you, or that I can
have any object in speaking, more than that object I
have mentioned. Well, I was alone in a strange city,
and the horse was lame. And at last I didn't know
what to do. I saw, when it was too late, that scandal
might seize hold of me for meeting him alone in that
way. But I was coming away, when he suddenly said
he had that day seen a woman more beautiful than I,
and that his constancy could not be counted on unless
I at once became his.... And I was grieved and
troubled -- -- ' She cleared her voice, and waited a
moment, as if to gather breath. " And then, between
jealousy and distraction, I married him ! ' she whispered
with desperate impetuosity.
Gabriel made no reply.
"He was not to blame, for it was perfectly true about
-- about his seeing somebody else,' she quickly added.
"And now I don't wish for a single remark from you
upon the subject --
indeed, I forbid it. I only wanted
you to know that misunderstood bit of my history before
a time comes when you could never know it. -- You want
some more sheaves ? '
She went down the ladder, and the work proceeded.
Gabriel soon perceived a languor in the movements of
his mistress up and down, and he said to her, gently as
a mother --
"I think you had better go indoors now, you are
tired. I can finish the rest alone. If the wind does
not change the rain is likely to keep off.'
"If I am useless I will go,' said Bathsheba, in a
flagging cadence. 'But O, if your life should be lost !'
" You are not useless; but I would rather not tire
you longer. You have done well.'
"And you better ! ' she said, gratefully. ! Thank you
for your devotion, a thousand times, Gabriel ! Good+
night-i know you are doing your very best for me.'
She diminished in the gloom, and vanished, and he
heard the latch of the gate fall as she passed through.
He worked in a reverie now, musing upon her story, and
upon the contradictoriness of that feminine heart which
had caused her to speak more warmly to him to-night
than she ever had done whilst unmarried and free to
speak as warmly as she chose.
He was disturbed in his meditation by a grating
noise from the coach-house. It was the vane on the
roof turning round, and this change in the wind was the
signal for a disastrous rain.
RAIN
RAIN -- ONE SOLITARY MEETS ANOTHER
IT was now five o'clock, and the dawn was promising
to break in hues of drab and ash.
The air changed its temperature and stirred itself
more vigorously. Cool breezes coursed in transparent
eddies round Oak's face. The wind shifted yet a point
or two and blew stronger. In ten minutes every wind
of heaven seemed to be roaming at large. Some of the
thatching on the wheat-stacks was now whirled fantas+
tically aloft, and had to be replaced and weighted with
some rails that lay near at hand. This done, Oak slaved
away again at the barley. A huge drop of rain smote
his face, the wind snarled round every corner, the trees
rocked to the bases of their trunks, and the twigs clashed
in strife. Driving in spars at any point and on any
system, inch by inch he covered more and more safely
from ruin this distracting impersonation of seven hundred
pounds. 'The rain came on in earnest, and Oak soon felt
the water to be tracking cold and clammy routes down
his back. Ultimately he was reduced welinigh to a
homogeneous sop, and the dyes of his clothes trickled
down and stood in a pool at the foot of the ladder.
The rain stretched obliquely through the dull atmo+
sphere in liquid spines, unbroken in continuity between
their beginnings in the clouds and their points in him.
Oak suddenly remembered that eight months before
this time he had been fighting against fire in the same
spot as desperately as he was fighting against water
now -- and for a futile love of the same woman. As for
her -- -- But Oak was generous and true, and dis+
missed his reflections.
It was about seven o'clock in the dark leaden
morning when Gabriel came down from the last stack,
and thankfully exclaimed, "It is done .! ' He was
drenched, weary, and sad, and yet not so sad as drenched
and weary, for he was cheered by a sense of success in
a good cause.
Faint sounds came from the barn, and he looked
that way. Figures stepped singly and in pairs through
the doors -- all walking awkwardly, and abashed, save
the foremost, who wore a red jacket, and advanced
with his hands in his pockets, whistling. The others
shambled after with a conscience-stricken air : the whole
procession was not unlike Flaxman's group of the suitors
tottering on towards the infernal regions under the
conduct of Mercury. The gnarled shapes passed into
the village, Troy, their leader, entering the farmhouse.
Not a single one of them had turned his face to the
ricks, or apparently bestowed one thought upon their
condition.
Soon Oak too went homeward, by a different route
from theirs. In front of him against the wet glazed
surface of the lane he saw a person walking yet more
slowly than himself under an umbrella. The man
turned and plainly started; he was Boldwood.
" How are you this morning, sir ?' said Oak.
"Yes, it is a wet day. -- Oh, I am well, very well, I
thank you ; quite well.'
"I am glad to hear it, sir.'
Boldwood seemed to awake to the present by degrees.
" You look tired and ill, Oak,' he said then, desultorily
regarding his companion.
" I am tired. You look strangely altered, sir.'
"I? Not a bit of it : I am well enough. What put
that into your head ?'
"I thought you didn't look quite so topping as you
used to, that was all.'
" Indeed, then you are mistaken,' said Boldwood,
shortly. "Nothing hurts me. My constitution is an
iron one.'
"I've been working hard to get our ricks covered,
and was barely in time. Never had such a struggle in
my life.... Yours of course are safe, sir.'
" O yes.' Boldwood added, after an interval of
silence : " What did you ask, Oak ? '
" Your ricks are all covered before this time ? '
"No.'
" At any rate, the large ones upon the stone staddles ?'
" They are not.'
"Them under the hedge ?'
" No. I forgot to tell the thatcher to set about it.'
" Nor the little one by the stile ?'
"Nor the little one by the stile. I overlooked the
ricks this year.'
'Then not a tenth of your corn will come to measure,
sir.'
" Possibly not.
" Overlooked them,' repeated Gabriel slowly to him+
self. It is difficult to describe the intensely dramatic
effect that announcement had upon Oak at such a
moment. All the night he had been feeling that the
neglect he was labouring to repair was abnormal and
isolated -- the only instance of the kind within the circuit
of the county. Yet at this very time, within the same
parish, a greater waste had been going on, uncomplained
of and disregarded. A few months earlier Boldwood's
forgetting his husbandry would have been as preposter+
ous an idea as a sailor forgetting he was in a ship. Oak
was just thinking that whatever he himself might have
suffered from Bathsheba's marriage, here was a man
who had suffered more, when Boldwood spoke in a
changed voice -- that of one who yearned to make a
confidence and relieve his heart by an outpouring.
"Oak, you know as well as I that things have gone
wrong with me lately. I may as well own it. I was
going to get a little settled in life; but in some way my
plan has come to nothing.'
"I thought my mistress would have married you,'
said Gabriel, not knowing enough of the full depths of
Boldwood's love to keep silence on the farmer's account,
and determined not to evade discipline by doing so on
his own. 'However, it is so sometimes, and nothing
happens that we expect,' he added, with the repose of
a man whom misfortune had inured rather than sub+
dued.
'I daresay I am a joke about the parish,' said Bold+
wood, as if the subject came irresistibly to his tongue,
and with a miserable lightness meant to express his
indifference.
" O no -- I don't think that.'
-- But the real truth of the matter is that there was
not, as some fancy, any jilting on -- her part. No
engagement ever existed between me and Miss Ever+
dene. People say so, but it is untrue: she never
promised me .! ' Boldwood stood still now and turned
his wild face to Oak. 'O, Gabriel,' he continued, "I
am weak and foolish, and I don't know what, and I
can't fend off my miserable grief ! ... I had some faint
belief in the mercy of God till I lost that woman. Yes,
He prepared a gourd to shade me, and like the prophet
I thanked Him and was glad. But the next day He
prepared a worm to smite the gourd and wither it; and
I feel it is better to die than to live.!"
A silence followed. Boldwood aroused himself from
the momentary mood of confidence into which he had
drifted, and walked on again, resuming his usual reserve,
" No, Gabriel,' he resumed, with a carelessness which
was like the smile on the countenance of a skull: "it
was made more of by other people than ever it was by
us. I do feel a little regret occasionally, but no woman
ever had power over me for any length of time. Well,
good morning ; I can trust you not to mention to others
what has passed between us two here.'
COMING HOME -- A CRY
ON the turnpke road, between Casterbridge and
Weatherbury, and about three miles from the former
which pervade the highways of this undulating part of
South Wessex. I returning from market it is usual
for the farmers and other gig-gentry to alight at the
bottom and walk up.
One Saturday evening in the month of October
Bathsheba's vehicle was duly creeping up this incline.
She was sitting listlessly in the second seat of the gig,
whilst walking beside her in farmer's marketing suit
of unusually fashionable cut was an erect, welimade
young man. Though on foot, he held the reins and
whip, and occasionally aimed light cuts at the horse's
ear with the end of the lash, as a recreation. This
man was her husband, formerly Sergeant Troy, who,
having bought his discharge with Bathsheba's money,
was gradually transforming himself into a farmer of a
spirited and very modern school. People of unalter+
able ideas still insisted upon calling him 'Sergeant'
when they met him, which was in some degree owing
to his having still retained the welishaped moustache
of his military days, and the soldierly bearing insepar+
able from his form and training.
"Yes, if it hadn't been for that wretched rain I
should have cleared two hundred as easy as looking,
my love,' he was saying. "Don't you see, it altered
all the chances? To speak like a book I once read,
wet weather is the narrative, and fine days are the
episodes, of our country's history; now, isn't that
true?'
' But the time of year is come for changeable weather.'
"Well, yes. The fact is, these autumn races are the
ruin of everybody. Never did I see such a day as 'twas .!
'Tis a wild open place, just out of Budmouth, and a
drab sea rolled in
towards us like liquid misery. Wind
and rain -- good Lord !. Dark ? Why, 'twas as black
as my hat before the last race was run. 'Twas five
o'clock, and you couldn't see the horses till they were
almost in, leave alone colours. The ground was as
heavy as lead, and all judgment from a fellow's experi+
ence went for nothing. Horses, riders, people, were
all blown about like ships at sea. Three booths were
blown over, and the wretched folk inside crawled out
upon their hands and knees; and in the next field
were as many as a dozen hats at one time. Aye,
Pimpernel regularly stuck fast, when about sixty yards
off, and when I saw Policy stepping on, it did knock
my heart against the lining of my ribs, I assure you,
my love.!'
" And you mean, Frank,' said Bathsheba, sadly --
her voice was painfully lowered from the fulness and
vivacity of the previous summer -- "that you have lost
more than a hundred pounds in a month by this
dreadful horse-racing ? O, Frank, it is cruel; it is
foolish of you to take away my money so. We shall
have to leave the farm; that will be the end of it !.'
' Humbug about cruel. Now, there 'tis again --
turn on the waterworks ; that's just like you.'
"But you'll promise me not to go to Budmouth
second meeting, won't you ? ' she implored. Bathsheba
was at the full depth for tears, but she maintained a
dry eye.
"I don't see why I should; in fact, if it turns out to
be a fine day, I was thinking of taking you.'
"Never, never.! I'll go a hundred miles the other
way first. I hate the sound of the very word.!'
"But the question of going to see the race or staying
at home has very little to do with the matter. Bets are
all booked safely enough before the race begins, you
may depend. Whether it is a bad race for me or a
good one, will have very little to do with our going
there next Monday.'
"But you don't mean to say that you have risked
anything on this one too .! ' she exclaimed, with an
agonized look.
"There now, don't you be a little fool. Wait till you
are told. Why, Bathsheba, you have lost all the pluck
and sauciness you formerly had, and upon my life if I
had known what a
chicken-hearted creature you were
under all your boldness, I'd never have-i know what.'
A flash of indignation might have been seen in
Bathsheba's dark eyes as she looked resolutely ahead
after this reply. They moved on without further
speech, some early-withered leaves from the trees which
hooded the road at this spot occasionally spinning
downward across their path to the earth.
A woman appeared on the brow of the hill. The
ridge was in a cutting, so that she was very near the
husband and wife before she became visible. Troy had
turned towards the gig to remount, and whilst putting
his foot on the step-the woman passed behind him.
Though the overshadowing trees and the approach
of eventide enveloped them in gloom, Bathsheba could
see plainly enough to discern the extreme poverty of
the woman's garb, and the sadness of her face.
"Please, sir, do you know at what time Casterbridge
Union-house closes at night ? '
A CRY
The woman said these words to Troy over his
shoulder.
Troy started visibly at the sound of the voice; yet
he seemed to recover presence of mind sufficient to
prevent himself from giving way to his impulse to
suddenly turn and face her. He said, slowly --
" I don't know."
The woman, on hearing him speak, quickly looked
up, examined the side of his face, and recognized the
soldier under the yeoman's garb. Her face was drawn
into an expression which had gladness and agony both
among its elements. She uttered an hysterical cry,
and fell down.
" O, poor thing.!' exclaimed Bathsheba, instantly
preparing to alight.
"Stay where you are, and attend to the horse!'
said Troy, peremptorily throwing her the reins and
the whip. "Walk the horse to the top: I'll see to
the woman.'
" But i -- -'
" Do you hear? Clk -- Poppet.!'
The horse, gig, and Bathsheba moved on.
"How on earth did you come here? I thought
you were miles away, or dead.! Why didn't you
write to me?' said Troy to the woman, in a strangely
gentle, yet hurried voice, as he lifted her up.
" I feared to."
'Have you any money?'
"None."
"Good Heaven -- I wish I had more to give you!.
Here's -- wretched -- the merest trifle. It is every
farthing I have left. I have none but what my wife
gives me, you know, and I can't ask her now.'
The woman made no answer.
"I have only another moment,' continued Troy;
'and now listen. Where are you going to-night?
Casterbridge Union?'
"Yes; I thought to go there.'
" You shan't go there; yet, wait. Yes, perhaps for
to-night ; I can do nothing better -- worse luck.! Sleep
there to-night, and stay there to-morrow. Monday is
the first free day I have; and on Monday morning,
at ten exactly, meet me on Grey's Bridge just out of the
town. I'll bring all the money I can muster. You
shan't want-i'll see that, Fanny; then I'll get you a
lodging somewhere. Good-bye till then. I am a brute
-- but good-bye.!'
After advancing the distance which completed the
ascent of the hill, Bathsheba turned her head. The
woman was upon her feet, and Bathsheba saw her
withdrawing from Troy, and going feebly down the
hill by the third milestone from Casterbridge. Troy
then came on towards his wife, stepped into the gig,
took the reins from her hand, and without making any
observation whipped the horse into a trot. He was
rather agitated.
"Do you know who that woman was?' said Bath+
sheba, looking searchingly into his face.
"I do,' he said, looking boldly back into hers.
"I thought you did,' said she, with angry hauteur,
and still regarding him. " Who is she?'
He suddenly seemed to think that frankness would
benefit neither of the women.
'Nothing to either of us,' he said. "I know her
by sight."
'What is her name?'
"How should I know her name ?'
"I think you do.'
"Think if you will, and be -- -- " The sentence was
completed by a smart cut of the whip round Poppet's
flank, which caused the animal to start forward at a
wild pace. No more was said.
ON CASTERBRIDGE HIGHWAY
FOR a considerable time the woman walked on. Her
steps became feebler, and she strained her eyes to look
afar upon the naked road, now indistinct amid the
penumbrae of night. At length her onward walk
dwindled to the merest totter, and she opened a gate
within which was a haystack. Underneath this she sat
down and presently slept.
When the woman awoke it was to find herself in the
depths of a moonless and starless night. A heavy un+
broken crust of cloud stretched across the sky, shutting
out every speck of heaven ; and a distant halo which
hung over the town of Casterbridge was visible against
the black concave, the luminosity appearing the
brighter by its great contrast with the circumscribing
darkness. Towards this weak, soft glow the woman
turned her eyes.
"If I could only get there.!' she said. "Meet him
the day after to-morrow: God help me! Perhaps I
shall be in my grave before then.'
A manor-house clock from the far depths of shadow
struck the hour, one, in a small, attenuated tone. After
midnight the voice of a clock seems to lose in breadth
as much as in length, and to diminish its sonorousness
to a thin falsetto.
Afterwards a light -- two lights -- arose frona the re+
mote shade, and grew larger. A carriage rolled along
the toad, and passed the gate. It probably contained
some late diners-out. The beams from one lamp shone
for a moment upon the crouching woman, and threw
her face into vivid relieff. The face was young in the
groundwork, old in the finish ; the general contours
were flexuous and childlike, but the finer lineaments
had begun to be sharp and thin.
The pedestrian stood up, apparently with revived
determination, and looked around. The road appeared
to be
familiar to her, and she carefully scanned the fence
as she slowly walked along. Presently there became
visible a dim white shape; it was another milestone.
She drew her fingers across its face to feel the marks.
"Two more!' she said.
She leant against the stone as a means of rest for a
short interval, then bestirred herself, and again pursued
her way. For a slight distance she bore up bravely,
afterwards flagging as before. This was beside a lone
copsewood, wherein heaps of white chips strewn upon
the leafy ground showed that woodmen had been
faggoting and making hurdles during the day. Now
there was not a rustle, not a breeze, not the faintest
clash of twigs to keep her company. The woman
looked over the gat, opened it, and went in. Close
to the entrance stood a row of faggots, bound and un+
bound, together with stakes of all sizes.
For a few seconds the wayfarer stood with that tense
stillness which signifies itself to be not the end but
merely the suspension, of a previous motion. Her
attitude was that of a person who listens, either to the
external world of sound, or to the imagined discourse of
thought. A close criticism might have detected signs
proving that she was intent on the latter alternative.
Moreover, as was shown by what followed, she was
oddly exercising the faculty of invention upon the spe+
ciality of the clever Jacquet Droz, the designer of auto+
matic substitutes for human limbs.
By the aid of the Casterbridge aurora, and by feeling
with her hands, the woman selected two sticks from the
heaps. These sticks were nearly straight to the height
of three or four feet, where each branched into a fork
like the letter Y. She sat down, snapped off the small
upper twigs, and carried the remainder with her into
the road. She placed one of these forks under each
arm as a crutch, tested them, timidly threw her whole
weight upon them -- so little that it was -- and swung
herself forward. The girl had made for herself a
material aid.
The crutches answered well. The pat of her feet,
and the tap of her sticks upon the highway, were all the
sounds that
came from the traveller now. She had
passed the last milestone by a good long distance, and
began to look wistfully towards the bank as if calculating
upon another milestone soon. The crutches, though
so very useful, had their limits of power. Mechanism
only transfers labour, being powerless to supersede it,
and the original amount of exertion was not cleared
away; it was thrown into the body and arms. She was
exhausted, and each swing forward became fainter. At
last she swayed sideways, and fell.
Here she lay, a shapeless heap, for ten minutes and
more. The morning wind began to boom dully over
the flats, and to move afresh dead leaves which had
lain still since yesterday. The woman desperately
turned round upon her knees, and next rose to her
feet. Steadying herself by the help of one crutch, she
essayed a step, then another, then a third, using the
crutches now as walking-sticks only. Thus she pro+
gressed till descending Mellstock Hill another milestone
appeared, and soon the beginning of an iron-railed fence
came into view. She staggered across to the first post,
clung to it, and looked around.
The Casterbridge lights were now individually visible,
It was getting towards morning, and vehicles might be
hoped for, if not expected soon. She listened. There
was not a sound of life save that acme and sublimation
of all dismal sounds, the hark of a fox, its three hollow
notes being rendered at intervals of a minute with the
precision of a funeral bell.
Less than a mile.!' the woman murmured. "No;
more,' she added, after a pause. 'The mile is to the
county hall, and my resting-place is on the other side
Casterbridge. A little over a mile, and there I am! '
After an interval she again spoke. "Five or six steps to
a yard -- six perhaps. I have to go seventeen hundred
yards. A hundred times six, six hundred. Seventeen
times that. O pity me, Lord.!'
Holding to the rails, she advanced, thrusting one
hand forward upon the rail, then the other, then leaning
over it whilst she dragged her feet on beneath.
This woman was not given to soliloquy; but ex,
tremity of feeling lessens the individuality of the weak,
as it increases
that of the strong. She said again in the
same tone, "I'll believe that the end lies five posts for+
ward, and no further, and so get strength to pass them.'
This was a practical application of the principle that
a half-feigned and fictitious faith is better than no faith
at all.
She passed five posts and held on to the fifth.
"I'll pass five more by believing my longed-for spot
is at the next fifth. I can do it.'
she passed five more.
"It lies only five further.'
she passed five more.
"But it is five further.'
She passed them.
'That stone bridge is the end of my journey,' she
said, when the bridge over the Froom was in view.
She crawled to the bridge. During the effort each
breath of the woman went into the air as if never to
return again.
"Now for the truth of the matter,' she said, sitting
down. "The truth is, that I have less than half a mile.'
Self-beguilement with what she had known all the time
to be false had given her strength to come over half
a mile that she would have been powerless to face in
the lump. The artifice showed that the woman, by
some mysterious intuition, had grasped the paradoxical
truth that blindness may operate more vigorously than
prescience, and the short-sighted effect more than the
far-seeing ; that limitation, and not comprehensiveness,
is needed for striking a blow.
The half-mile stood now before the sick and weary
woman like a stolid Juggernaut. It was an impassive
King of her world. The road here ran across Durnover
Moor, open to the road on either side. She surveyed
the wide space, the lights, herself, sighed, and lay down
against a guard-stone of the bridge.
Never was ingenuity exercised so sorely as the
traveller here exercised hers. Every conceivable aid,
m&thod, stratagem, mechanism, by which these last
desperate eight hundred yards could be overpasscd by a
human being unperceived, was revolved in her busy
brain, and dismissed as impracticable. She thought of
sticks, wheels, crawling -- she even thought of rolling.
But the exertion demanded by either of these latter two
was greater than to walk erect. The faculty of con+
trivance was worn out, Hopelessness had come at
last.
" No further.!' she whispered, and closed her eyes.
From the stripe of shadow on the opposite side of
the bridge a portion of shade seemed to detach itself
and move into isolation upon the pale white of the road.
It glided noiselessly towards the recumbent woman.
She became conscious of something touching her
hand; it was softness and it was warmth. She
opened her eye's, and the substance touched her face.
A dog was licking her cheek.
He was huge, heavy, and quiet creature, standing
darkly against the low horizon, and at least two feet
higher than the present position of her eyes. Whether
Newfoundland, mastiff, bloodhound, or what not, it was
impossible to say. He seemed to be of too strange and
mysterious a nature to belong to any variety among those
of popular nomenclature. Being thus assignable to no
breed, he was the ideal embodiment of canine greatness
-- a generalization from what was common to all. Night,
in its sad, solemn, and benevolent aspect, apart from its
stealthy and cruel side, was personified in this form
Darkness endows the small and ordinary ones among
mankind with poetical power, and even the suffering
woman threw her idea nto figure.
In her reclining position she looked up to him just
as in earlier times she had, when standing, looked up
to a man. The animal, who was as homeless as she,
respectfully withdrew a step or two when the woman
moved, and, seeing that she did not repulse him, he
licked her hand again.
A thought moved within her like lightning. "Perhaps
I can make use of him-i might do it then!'
She pointed in the direction of Casterbridge, and
the dog seemed to misunderstand : he trotted on. Then,
finding she could not follow, he came back and whined.
The ultimate and saddest singularity of woman's effort
and invention was reached when, with a quickened breath+
ing, she rose to a stooping posture, and, resting her two
little arms
upon the shoulders of the dog, leant firmly
thereon, and murmured stimulating words. Whilst she
sorrowed in her heart she cheered with her voice, and
what was stranger than that the strong should need
encouragement from the weak was that cheerfulness
should be so well stimulated by such utter dejection.
Her friend moved forward slowly, and she with small
mincing steps moved forward beside him, half her
weight being thrown upon the animal. Sometimes
she sank as she had sunk from walking erect, from
the crutches, from the rails. The dog, who now
thoroughly understood her desire and her incapacity,
was frantic in his distress on these occasions ; he would
tug at her dress and run forward. She always called
him back, and it was now to be observed that the
woman listened for human sounds only to avoid them.
It was evident that she had an object in keeping her
presence on the road and her forlorn state unknown.
Their progress was necessarily very slow. They
reached the bottom of the town, and the Casterbridge
lamps lay before them like fallen Pleiads as they turned
to the left into the dense shade of a deserted avenue of
chestnuts, and so skirted the borough. Thus the town
was passed, and the goal was reached.
On this much-desired spot outside the town rose a
picturesque building. Originally it had been a mere
case to hold people. The shell had been so thin, so
devoid of excrescence, and so closely drawn over the
accommodation granted, that the grim character of
what was beneath showed through it, as the shape of
a body is visible under a winding-sheet.
Then Nature, as if offended, lent a hand. Masses
of ivy grew up, completely covering the walls, till the
place looked like an abbey; and it was discovered that
the view from the front, over the Casterbridge chimneys,
was one of the most magnificent in the county. A
neighbouring earl once said that he would give up a
year's rental to have at his own door the view enjoyed
by the inmates from theirs -- and very probably the
inmates would have given up the view for his year's
rental.
This stone edifice consisted of a central mass and
two wings, whereon stood as sentinels a few slim
chimneys, now gurgling sorrowfully to the slow wind.
In the wall was a gate, and by the gate a belipull
formed of a hanging wire. The woman raised herself
as high as possible upon her knees, and could just
reach the handle. She moved it and fell forwards in
a bowed attitude, her face upon her bosom.
It was getting on towards six o'clock, and sounds of
movement were to be heard inside the building which
was the haven of rest to this wearied soul. A little door
by the large one was opened, and a man appeared inside.
He discerned the panting heap of clothes, went back
for a light, and came again. He entered a second
time, and returned with two women.
These lifted the prostrate figure and assisted her in
through the doorway. The man then closed the door.
How did she get here ?" said one of the women.
"The Lord knows,' said the other.
There is a dog outside," murmured the overcome
traveller. " Where is he gone ? He helped me.'
I stoned him away,' said the man.
The little procession then moved forward -- the man
in front bearing the light, the two bony women next,
supporting between them the small and supple one.
Thus they entered the house and disappeared.
SUSPICION
SUSPICION -- FANNY IS SENT FOR
BATHSHEBA said very little to her husband all that
evening of their return from market, and he was not
disposed to say much to her. He exhibited the un+
pleasant combination of a restless condition with a
silent tongue. The next day, which was Sunday, passed
nearly in the same manner as regarded their taciturnity,
Bathsheba going to church both morning and afternoon.
This was the day before the Budmouth races. In the
evening Troy said, suddenly --
" Bathsheba, could you let me have twenty pounds ?"
Her countenance instantly sank. ' Twenty pounds ?
she said.
'The fact is, I want it badly.' The anxiety upon
Troy's face was unusual and very marked. lt was a
culmination of the mood he had been in all the day.
"Ah !. for those races to-morrow.'
Troy for the moment made no reply. Her mistake
had its advantages to a man who shrank from having
his mind inspected as he did now. "Well, suppose I
do want it for races ?' he said, at last.
"O, Frank.!' Bathsheba replied, and there was such
a volume of entreaty in the words. "Only such a few
weeks ago you said that I was far sweeter than all your
other pleasures put together, and that you would give
them all up for me; and now, won't you give up this
one, which is more a worry than a pleasure? Do,
Frank. Come, let me fascinate you by all I can do
-- by pretty words and pretty looks, and everything I
can think of -- to stay at home. Say yes to your wife --
say yes.!'
The tenderest and softest phases of Bathsheba's
nature were prominent now -- advanced impulsively for
his acceptance, without any of the disguises and defences
which the wariness of her character when she was cool
too frequently threw
over them. Few men could have
resisted the arch yet dignified entreaty of the beautiful
face, thrown a little back and sideways in the weli
known attitude that expresses more than the words it
accompanies, and which seems to have heen designed
for these special occasions. Had the woman not been
his wife, Troy would have succumbed instantly ; as it
was, he thought he would not deceive her longer.
"The money is not wanted for racing debts at all,'
he said.
" What is it for ?' she asked. " You worry me a great
deal by these mysterious responsibilities, Frank."
Troy hesitated. He did not now love her enough
to allow himself to be carried too far by her ways. Yet
it was necessary to be civil. "You wrong me by such
a suspicious manner, he said. " Such strait-waistcoating
as you treat me to is not becoming in you at so early a
date.'
"I think that I have a right to grumble a little if I
pay,' she said, with features between a smile and a
pout.
Exactly; and, the former being done, suppose we
proceed to the latter. Bathsheba, fun is all very well,
but don't go too far, or you may have cause to regret
something.'
She reddened. " I do that already,' she said, quickly
" What do you regret ? '
SUSPICION
"That my romance has come to an end.'
" All romances end at marriage.'
'I wish you wouldn't talk like that. You grieve me
to my soul by being smart at my expense.'
" You are dull enough at mine. I believe you hate
me.'
" Not you -- only your faults. I do hate them.'
"'Twould be much more becoming if you set your+
self to cure them. Come, let's strike a balance with
the twenty pounds, and be friends.'
She gave a sigh of resignation. 'I have about that
sum here for household expenses. If you must have it,
take it.'
"Very good. Thank you. I expect I shall have
gone away before you are in to breakfast to-morrow.'
"And must you go ? Ah !. there was a time, Frank,
when it would have taken a good many promises to
other people to drag you away from me. You used to
call me darling, then.
But it doesn't matter to you how
my days are passed now.'
"I must go, in spite of sentiment.' Troy, as he
spoke, looked at his watch, and, apparently actuated by
<1non lucendo>1 principles, opened the case at the back,
revealing, snugly stowed within it, a small coil of hair.
Bathsheba's eyes had been accidentally lifted at that
moment, and she saw the action and saw the hair. She
flushed in pain and surprise, and some words escaped
her before she had thought whether or not it was wise
to utter them. "A woman's curl of hair !' she said.
"O, Frank, whose is that ?'
Troy had instantly closed his watch. He carelessly
replied, as one who cloaked some feelings that the sight
had stirred. ' Why, yours, of course. Whose should it
be ? I had quite forgotten that I had it.'
' What a dreadful fib, Frank.!'
" I tell you I had forgotten it.!' he said, loudly.
'I don't mean that -- it was yellow hair.'
"Nonsense.'
"That's insulting me. I know it was yellow. Now
whose was it ? I want to know.'
"Very welii'll tell you, so make no more ado. It
is the hair of a young woman I was going to marry
before I knew you.'
" You ought to tell me her name, then.'
"I cannot do that.'
"Is she married yet?'
"No.'
"Is she alive?'
" Yes.'
"Is she pretty ?'
" Yes.'
'It is wonderful how she can be, poor thing, under
such an awful affliction!'
" Affliction -- what affliction ? ' he inquired, quickly.
" Having hair of that dreadful colour.'
" Oh -- ho-i like that.!' said Troy, recovering him+
self. "Why, her hair has been admired by everybody
who has seen her since she has worn it loose, which has
not been long. It is
beautiful hair. People used to
turn their heads to look at it, poor girl.!'
"Pooh! that's nothing -- that's nothing!' she ex+
claimed, in incipient accents of pique. 'If I cared for
your love as much as I used to I could say people had
turned to look at mine.'
"Bathsheba, don't be so fitful and jealous. You
knew what married life would be like, and shouldn't
have entered it if you feared these contingencies.'
Troy had by this time driven her to bitterness: her
heart was big in her throat, and the ducts to her eyes
were painfully full. Ashamed as she was to show
emotion, at last she burst out: --
"This is all I get for loving you so well! Ah! when
I married you your life was dearer to me than my own.
I would have died for you -- how truly I can say that I
would have died for you.! And now you sneer at my
foolishness in marrying you. O! is it kind to me to
throw my mistake in my face ? Whatever opinion you
may have of my wisdom, you should not tell me of it so
mercilessly, now that I am in your power.'
" I can't help how things fall out,' said Troy; "upon
my heart, women will be the death of me.!'
"Well you shouldn't keep people's hair. You'll
burn it, won't you, Frank?'
Frank went on as if he had not heard her. "There
are considerations even before my consideration for you;
reparations to be made -- ties you know nothing of If
you repent of marrying, so do I.'
Trembling now, she put her hand upon his arm,
saying, in mingled tones of wretchedness and coaxing,
"I only repent it if you don't love me better than any
woman in the world.! I don't otherwise, Frank. You
don't repent because you already love somebody better
than you love me, do you ?'
"I don't know. Why do you say that?'
"You won't burn that curl. You like the woman
who owns that pretty hair -- yes; it is pretty -- more
beautiful than my miserable black mane! Well, it is
no use; I can't help being ugly. You must like her
best, if you will!'
"Until to-day, when I took it from a drawer, I have
never looked upon that bit of hair for several months --
that I am ready to swear.'
"But just now you said "ties;" and then -- that
woman we met?'
"'Twas the meeting with her that reminded me of
the hair.'
"Is it hers, then ?'
"Yes. There, now that you have wormed it out of
me, I hope you are content.'
"And what are the ties ?'
"Oh! that meant nothing -- a mere jest.'
"A mere jest ! ' she said, in mournful astonishment.
"Can you jest when I am so wretchedly in earnest ?
Tell me the truth, Frank. I am not a fool, you know,
although I am a woman, and have my woman's moments.
Come! treat me fairly,' she said, looking honestly and
fearlessly into his face. "I don't want much; bare
justice -- that's all! Ah! once I felt I could be content
with nothing less than the highest homage from the
husband I should choose. Now, anything short of
cruelty will content me. Yes! the independent and
spirited Bathsheba is come to this.!'
"For Heaven's sake don't be so desperate! "Troy
said, snappishly, rising as he did so, and leaving the
room.
Directly he had gone, Bathsheba burst into great
sobs -- dry-eyed sobs, which cut as they came, without
any softening by tears. But she determined to repress
all evidences of feeling. She was conquered; but she
would never own it as long as she lived. Her pride
was indeed brought low by despairing discoveries of her
spoliation by marriage with a less pure nature than her
own. She chafed to and fro in rebelliousness, like a
caged leopard; her whole soul was in arms, and the
blood fired her face. Until she had met Troy, Bath+
sheba had heen proud of her position as a woman; it
had been a glory to her to know that her lips had been
touched hy no man's on earth -- that her waist had
never been encircled by a lover's arm. She hated
herself now. In those earlier days she had always
nourished a secret contempt for girls who were the
slaves of the first goodiooking young fellow who should
choose to salute them. She had never taken kindly to
the idea of
marriage in the abstract as did the majority
of women she saw about her. In the turmoil of her
anxiety for her lover she had agreed to marry him; but
the perception that had accompanied her happiest hours
on this account was rather that of self-sacrifice than of
promotion and honour. Although she scarcely knew
the divinity's name, Diana was the goddess whom
Bathsheba instinctively adored. That she had never,
by look, word, or sign, encouraged a man to approach
her -- that she had felt herself sufficient to herself, and
had in the independence of her girlish heart fancied
there was a certain degradation in renouncing the
simplicity of a maiden existence to become the humbler
half of an indifferent matrimonial whole -- were facts
now bitterly remembered. O, if she had never
stooped to folly of this kind, respectable as it was, and
could only stand again, as she had stood on the hill at
Norcombe, and dare Troy or any other man to pollute
a hair of her head by his interference!.
The next morning she rose earlier than usual, and
had the horse saddled for her ride round the farm in
the customary way. When she came in at half-past
eight -- their usual hour for breakfasting -- she was in+
formed that her husband had risen, taken his breakfast,
and driven off to Casterbridge with the gig and Poppet.
After breakfast she was cool and collected -- quite
herself in fact -- and she rambled to the gate, intending
to walk to another quarter of the farm, which she still
personally superintended as well as her duties in the
house would permit, continually, however, finding her+
self preceded in forethought by Gabriel Oak, for whom
she began to entertain the genuine friendship of a sister.
Of course, she sometimes thought of him in the light of
an old lover, and had momentary imaginings of what
life with him as a husband would have been like; also
of life with Boldwood under the same conditions. But
Bathsheba, though she could feel, was not much given
to futile dreaming, and her musings under this head
were short and entirely confined to the times when
Troy's neglect was more than ordinarily evident.
She saw coming up the road a man like Mr. Boldwood.
It was Mr. Boldwood. Bathsheba blushed painfully,
and watched. The farmer stopped when still a long
way off, and held up his hand to Gabriel Oak, who was
in a footpath across the field. The two men then
approached each other and seemed to engage in
earnest conversation.
Thus they continued for a long time. Joseph Poor+
grass now passed near them, wheeling a barrow of apples
up the hill to Bathsheba's residence. Boldwood and
Gabriel called to him, spoke to him for a few minutes,
and then all three parted, Joseph immediately coming
up the hill with his barrow.
Bathsheba, who had seen this pantomime with some
surprise, experienced great relief when Boldwood turned
back again. 'Well, what's the message, Joseph ? ' she
said.
He set down his barrow, and, putting upon himself
the refined aspect that a conversation with a lady re+
quired, spoke to Bathsheba over the gate.
"You'll never see Fanny Robin no more -- use nor
principai-ma'am.'
" Why ?'
"Because she's dead in the Union.'
" Fanny dead -- never.!'
" Yes, ma'am.'
" What did she die from ?"
"I don't know for certain; but I should be inclined
to think it was from general neshness of constitution.
She was such a limber maid that 'a could stand no
hardship, even when I knowed her, and 'a went like a
candle-snoff, so 'tis said. She was took bad in the
morning, and, being quite feeble and worn out, she
died in the evening. She belongs by law to our parish;
and Mr. Boldwood is going to send a waggon at three
this afternoon to fetch her home here and bury her.'
"Indeed I shall not let Mr. Boldwood do any such
thing-i shall do it! Fanny was my uncle's servant,
and, although I only knew her for a couple of days,
FANNY IS SENT FOR
she belongs to me. How very, very sad this is.! --
the idea of Fanny being in a workhouse.' Bathsheba
had begun to know what suffering was, and she spoke
with real feeling.... "Send across to Mr. Boldwood's,
and say that Mrs. Troy will take upon herself the duty
of fetching an old servant of the family.... We
ought not to put her in a waggon; we'll get a hearse.'
" There will hardly be time, ma'am, will there?'
" Perhaps not,' she said, musingly. " When did you
say we must be at the door -- three o'clock?'
" Three o'clock this afternoon, ma'am, so to speak it.'
"Very weli-you go with it. A pretty waggon is
better than an ugly hearse, after all. Joseph, have the
new spring waggon with the blue body and red wheels,
and wash it very clean. And, Joseph -- -- '
" Yes, ma'am.'
' Carry with you some evergreens and flowers to put
upon her coffin -- indeed, gather a great many, and
completely bury her in them. Get some boughs of
laurustinus, and variegated box, and yew, and boy'siove;
ay, and some hunches of chrysanthemum. And let old
Pleasant draw her, because she knew him so well.'
'I will, ma'am. I ought to have said that the
Union, in the form of four labouring men, will meet me
when I gets to our churchyard gate, and take her and
bury her according to the rites of the Board of Guardians,
as by law ordained.'
" Dear me -- Casterbridge Union -- and is Fanny come
to this?' said Bathsheba, musing. "I wish I had known
of it sooner. I thought she was far away. How long
has she lived there?'
"On'y been there a day or two.'
"Oh.! -- then she has not been staying there as a
regular inmate?'
" No. She first went to live in a garrison-town t'other
side o' Wessex, and since then she's been picking up a
living at seampstering in Melchester for several months,
at the house of a very respectable widow-woman who
takes in work of that sort. She only got handy the
Union-house on Sunday morning 'a b'lieve, and 'tis sup+
posed here and there that she had traipsed every step
of the way from Melchester. Why she left her place,
I can't say, for I don't know; and as to a lie, why, I
wouldn't tell it. That's the short of the story, ma'am.'
"Ah-h .! '
No gem ever flashed from a rosy ray to a white one
more rapidly than changed the young wife's counten+
ance whilst this word came from her in a long-drawn
breath. "Did she walk along our turnpike-road?' she
said, in a suddenly restless and eager voice.
"I believe she did.... Ma'am, shall I call Liddy?
You bain't well, ma'am, surely ? You look like a lily --
so pale and fainty.!'
"No; don't call her; it is nothing. When did she
pass Weatherbury?'
"Last Saturday night.'
"That will do, Joseph; now you may go.'
" Certainly, ma'am.'
" Joseph, come hither a moment. What was the
colour of Fanny Robin's hair?'
"Really, mistress, now that 'tis put to me so judge+
and-jury like, I can't call to mind, if ye'll believe me.!'
"Never mind; go on and do what I told you. Stop
-- well no, go on.'
She turned herself away from him, that he might no
longer notice the mood which had set its sign so visibly
upon her, and went indoors with a distress:ng sense of
faintness and a beating brow. About an hour after, she
heard the noise of the waggon and went out, still with a
painful consciousness of her bewildered and troubled
look. Joseph, dressed in his best suit of clothes, was
putting in the horse to start. The shrubs and flowers
were all piled in the waggon, as she had directed
Bathsheba hardly saw them now.
" Whose sweetheart did you say, Joseph?'
'I don't know, ma'am.'
"Are you quite sure?'
" Yes, ma'am, quite sure.'
"Sure of what?'
"I'm sure that all I know is that she arrived in the
morning and died in the evening without further parley.
What Oak and Mr. Boldwood told me was only these
few words. "Little Fanny Robin is dead, Joseph,'
Gabriel said, looking in my face in his steady old way.
I was very sorry, and I said, "Ah!. -- and how did she
come to die?' "Well, she's dead in Casterhridge
Union," he said; "and perhaps 'tisn't much matter
about how she came to die. She reached the Union
early Sunday morning, and died in the afternoon -- that's
clear enough." Then I asked what she'd been doing
lately, and Mr. Boldwood turned round to me then, and
left off spitting a thistle with the end of his stick. He
told me about her having lived by seampstering in
Melchester, as I mentioned to you, and that she walked
therefrom at the end of last week, passing near here
Saturday night in the dusk. They then said I had
better just name a hent of her death to you, and away
they went. Her death might have been brought on by
biding in the night wind, you know, ma'am; for people
used to say she'd go off in a decline: she used to cough
a good deal in winter time. However, 'tisn't much
odds to us about that now, for 'tis all over.'
"Have you heard a different story at all?' She
looked at him so intently that Joseph's eyes quailed.
"Not a word, mistress, I assure 'ee.!" he said.
"Hardly anybody in the parish knows the news yet.'
"I wonder why Gabriel didn't bring the message to
me himself. He mostly makes a point of seeing me
upon the most trifling errand.' These words were
merely murmured, and she was looking upon the ground.
"Perhaps he was busy, ma'am,' Joseph suggested.
"And sometimes he seems to suffer from things upon
his mind, connected with the time when he was better
off than 'a is now. 'A's rather a curious item, but a
very understanding shepherd, and learned in books.'
'Did anything seem upon his mind whilst he was
speaking to you about this?'
'I cannot but say that there did, ma'am. He was
terrible down, and so was Farmer Boldwood.'
'Thank you, Joseph. That will do. Go on now,
or you'll be late.'
Bathsheba, still unhappy, went indoors again. In
the course of the afternoon she said to Liddy, Who had
been informed of the occurrence, " What was the colour
of poor Fanny Robin's hair? Do you know? I cannot
recollect-i only saw her for a day or two.'
"It was light, ma'am; but she wore it rather short,
and packed away under her cap, so that you would
hardly notice it. But I have seen her let it down when
she was going to bed, and it looked beautiful then.
Real golden hair.'
" Her young man was a soldier, was he not?'
"Yes. In the same regiment as Mr. Troy. He says
he knew him very well.'
" What, Mr. Troy says so? How came he to say
that?'
"One day I just named it to him, and asked him if
he knew Fanny's young man. He said, "O yes, he
knew the young man as well as he knew himself, and
that there wasn't a man in the regiment he liked
better."'
"Ah! Said that, did he ?'
"Yes; and he said there was a strong likeness be+
tween himself and the other young man, so that some+
times people mistook them -- -- '
' Liddy, for Heaven's sake stop your talking.!' said
Bathsheba, with the nervous petulance that comes from
worrying perceptions.
JOSEPH AND HIS BURDEN
plate.) He covered the
whole with a black cloth, threadbare, but decent, the
taiiboard of the waggon was returned to its place, one
of the men handed a certificate of registry to Poorgrass,
and both entered the door, closing it hehind them.
Their connection with her, short as it had been, was
over for ever.
Joseph then placed the flowers as enjoined, and the
evergreens around the flowers, till it was difficult to
divine what the waggon contained; he smacked his
whip, and the rather pleasing funeral car crept down
the hill, and along the road to Weatherbury.
The afternoon drew on apace, and, looking to the
right towards the sea as he walked beside the horse, Poor+
grass saw strange clouds and scrolls of mist rolling over
the long ridges which girt the landscape in that quarter.
They came in yet greater volumes, and indolently crept
across the intervening valleys, and around the withered
papery flags of the moor and river brinks. Then their
dank spongy forms closed in upon the sky. It was
a sudden overgrowth of atmospheric fungi which had
their roots in the neighbouring sea, and by the time
that horse, man, and corpse entered Yalbury Great
Wood, these silent workings of an invisible hand had
reached them, and they were completely enveloped,
this being the first arrival of the autumn fogs, and the
first fog of the series.
The air was as an eye suddenly struck blind. The
waggon and its load rolled no longer on the horizontal
division between clearness and opacity, but were
imbedded in an elastic body of a monotonous pallor
throughout. There was no perceptible motion in the
air, not a visible drop of water fell upon a leaf of the
beeches, birches, and firs composing the wood on either
side. The trees stood in an attitude of intentness, as if
they waited longingly for a wind to come and rock
them. A startling quiet overhung all surrounding things
-- so completely, that the crunching of the waggon+
wheels was as a great noise, and small rustles, which
had never ohtained a hearing except by night, were dis+
tinctly individualized.
Joseph Poorgrass looked round upon his sad burden
as it loomed faintly through the flowering laurustinus,
then at the
unfathomable gloom amid the high trees on
each hand, indistinct, shadowless, and spectreiike in
their monochrome of grey. He felt anything but cheer+
ful, and wished he had the company even of a child or
dog. Stopping the home, he listened. Not a footstep
or wheel was audible anywhere around, and the dead
silence was broken only by a heavy particle falling from
a tree through the evergreens and alighting with a smart
rap upon the coffin of poor Fanny. The fog had by
this time saturated the trees, and this was the first
dropping of water from the overbrimming leaves. The
hollow echo of its fall reminded the waggoner painfully
of the grim Leveller. Then hard by came down another
drop, then two or three. Presently there was a continual
tapping of these heavy drops upon the dead leaves, the
road, and the travellers. The nearer boughs were beadcd
with the mist to the greyness of aged men, and the rusty+
red leaves of the beeches were hung with similar drops,
like diamonds on auburn hair.
At the roadside hamlet called Roy-Town, just beyond
this wood, was the old inn Buck's Head. It was about
a mile and a half from Weatherbury, and in the meridian
times of stage-coach travelling had been the place
where many coaches changed and kept their relays
of horses. All the old stabling was now pulled down,
and little remained besides the habitable inn itself,
which, standing a little way back from the road, sig+
nified its existence to people far up and down the
highway by a sign hanging from the horizontal bough
of an elm on the opposite side of the way.
Travellers -- for the variety <1tourist>1 had hardly
developed into a distinct species at this date -- some+
times said in passing, when they cast their eyes up to
the sign-bearing tree, that artists were fond of repre+
senting the signboard hanging thus, but that they
themselves had never before noticed so perfect an
instance in actual working order. It was near this tree
that the waggon was standing into which Gabriel Oak
crept on his first journey to Weatherbury; but, owing
to the darkness, the sign and the inn had been un+
observed.
The manners of the inn were of the old-established
type. Indeed, in the minds of its frequenters they
existed as unalterable formule : <1e.g.>1 --
Rap with the bottom of your pint for more liquor.
For tobacco, shout.
In calling for the girl in waiting, say, "Maid.!'
Ditto for the landlady, 'Old Soul.!' etc., etc.
It was a relief to Joseph's heart when the friendly
signboard came in view, and, stopping his horse
immediately beneath it, he proceeded to fulfil an
intention made a long time before. His spirits were
oozing out of him quite. He turned the horse's head
to the green bank, and entered the hostel for a mug
of ale.
Going down into the kitchen of the inn, the floor
of which was a step below the passage, which in its
BUCK'S HEAD
turn was a step below the road outside, what should
Joseph see to gladden his eyes but two copper-coloured
discs, in the form of the countenances of Mr. Jan
Coggan and Mr. Mark Clark. These owners of the
two most appreciative throats in the neighbourhood,
within the pale of respectability, were now sitting face
to face over a threeiegged circular table, having an
iron rim to keep cups and pots from being accidentally
elbowed off; they might have been said to resemble
the setting sun and the full moon shining <1vis-a*-vis>1
across the globe.
" Why, 'tis neighbour Poorgrass.!' said Mark Clark.
"I'm sure your face don't praise your mistress's table,
Joseph.'
"I've had a very pale companion for the last four
miles,' said Joseph, indulging in a shudder toned
down by resignation. 'And to speak the truth, 'twas
beginning to tell upon me. I assure ye, I ha'n't seed
the colour of victuals or drink since breakfast time
this morning, and that was no more than a dew-bit
afield.'
"Then drink, Joseph, and don't restrain yourself!.'
said Coggan, handing him a hooped mug three+
quarters full.
Joseph drank for a moderately long time, then for
a longer time, saying, as he lowered the jug, "'Tis
pretty drinking -- very
pretty drinking, and is more
than cheerful on my melancholy errand, so to speak it.'
"True, drink is a pleasant delight,' said Jan, as one
who repeated a truism so familiar to his brain that he
hardly noticed its passage over his tongue ; and,
lifting the cup, Coggan tilted his head gradually
backwards, with closed eyes, that his expectant soul
might not be diverted for one instant from its bliss
by irrelevant surroundings.
"Well, I must be on again,' said Poorgmss. "Not
but that I should like another nip with ye; but the
parish might lose confidence in me if I was seed
here.'
" Where be ye trading o't to to-day, then, Joseph ?'
"Back to Weatherbury. I've got poor little Fanny
Robin in my waggon outside, and I must be at the
churchyard gates at a quarter to five with her.'
'Ay-i've heard of it. And so she's nailed up in
parish boards after all, and nobody to pay the bell
shilling and the grave half-crown.'
"The parish pays the grave half-crown, but not the
bell shilling, because the bell's a luxery: but 'a can
hardly do without the grave, poor body. However, I
expect our mistress will pay all.'
"A pretty maid as ever I see.! But what's yer hurry,
Joseph ? The pore woman's dead, and you can't bring
her to life, and you may as well sit down comfortable,
and finish another with us.'
"I don't mind taking just the least thimbleful ye
can dream of more with ye, sonnies. But only a few
minutes, because 'tis as 'tis.'
"Of course, you'll have another drop. A man's
twice the man afterwards. You feel so warm and
glorious, and you whop and slap at your work without
any trouble, and everything goes on like sticks a+
breaking. Too much liquor is bad, and leads us to
that horned man in the smoky house ; but after all,
many people haven't the gift of enjoying a wet, and
since we be highly favoured with a power that way,
we should make the most o't.'
"True,' said Mark Clark. "'Tis a talent the Lord
has mercifully bestowed upon us, and we ought not
to neglect it. But, what with the parsons and clerks
and schooipeople and serious tea-parties, the merry
old ways of good life have gone to the dogs -- upon
my carcase, they have.!'
" Well, really, I must be onward again now,' said
Joseph.
'Now, now, Joseph; nonsense.! The poor woman
is dead, isn't she, and what's your hurry?'
"Well, I hope Providence won't be in a way with
me for my doings,' said Joseph, again sitting down.
'I've been troubled with weak moments lately, 'tis
true. I've been drinky once this month already, and
I did not go to church a-Sunday, and I dropped a
curse or two yesterday; so I don't want to go too far
for my safety. Your next world is your next world,
and not to be squandered offhand.'
'I believe ye to be a chapeimember, Joseph. That
I do.'
'Oh, no, no.! I don't go so far as that.'
" For my part,' said Coggan, "I'm staunch Church
of England.'
" Ay, and faith, so be I,' said Mark Clark.
"I won't say much for myself; I don't wish to,'
Coggan continued, with that tendency to talk on
principles which is characteristic of the barley-corn.
"But I've never changed a single doctrine : I've stuck
like a plaster to the old faith I was born in. Yes;
there's this to be said for the Church, a man can
belong to the Church and bide in his cheerful old
inn, and never trouble or worry his mind about
doctrines at all. But to be a meetinger, you must
go to chapel in all winds and weathers, and make
yerself as frantic as a skit. Not but that chapei
members be clever chaps enough in their way. They
can lift up beautiful prayers out of their own heads, all
about their families and shipwmcks in the newspaper.'
"They can -- they can,' said Mark Clark, with cor+
roborative feeling ; "but we Churchmen, you see, must
have it all printed aforehand, or, dang it all, we should
no more know what to say to a great gaffer like the
Lord than babes unborn,'
" Chapeifolk be more hand-in-glove with them above
than we,' said Joseph, thoughtfully.
" Yes,' said Coggan. " We know very well that if
anybody do go to heaven, they will. They've worked
hard for it, and they
deserve to have it, such as 'tis.
I bain't such a fool as to pretend that we who stick
to the Church have the same chance as they, because
we know we have not. But I hate a feller who'll
change his old ancient doctrines for the sake of getting
to heaven. I'd as soon turn king's-evidence for the
few pounds you get. Why, neighbours, when every
one of my taties were frosted, our Parson Thirdly
were the man who gave me a sack for seed, though
he hardly had one for his own use, and no money to
buy 'em. If it hadn't been for him, I shouldn't hae
had a tatie to put in my garden. D'ye think I'd
turn after that? No, I'll stick to my side; and if we
be in the wrong, so be it : I'll fall with the fallen .! '
" Well said -- very well said,' observed Joseph. --
" However, folks, I must be moving now: upon my life
I must. Pa'son Thirdly will be waiting at the church
gates, and there's the woman a-biding outside in the
waggon.'
" Joseph Poorgmss, don't be so miserable.! Pa'son
Thirdly won't mind. He's a generous man ; he's found
me in tracts for years, and I've consumed a good many
in the course of a long and shady life; but he's never
been the man to cry out at the expense. Sit down.'
The longer Joseph Poorgrass remained, the less his
spirit was troubled by the duties which devolved upon
him this afternoon. The minutes glided by uncounted,
until the evening shades began perceptibly to deepen,
and the eyes of the three were but sparkling points
on the surface of darkness. Coggan's repeater struck
six from his pocket in the usual still small tones.
At that moment hasty steps were heard in the entry,
and the door opened to admit the figure of Gabriel Oak,
followed by the maid of the inn bearing a candle. He
stared sternly at the one lengthy and two round faces
of the sitters, which confronted him with the expressions
of a fiddle and a couple of warming-pans. Joseph Poor+
grass blinked, and shrank several inches into the back+
ground.
' Upon my soul, I'm ashamed of you ; 'tis disgraceful,
Joseph, disgraceful!. " said Gabriel, indignantly. " Coggan,
you call yourself a man, and don't know better than this.'
Coggan looked up indefinitely at Oak, one or other
of his eyes occasionally opening and closing of its own
accord, as if it were not a member, but a dozy individual
with a distinct personality.
" Don't take on so, shepherd!' said Mark Clark,
looking reproachfully at the candle, which appeared
to possess special features of interest for his eyes.
'Nobody can hurt a dead woman,' at length said
Coggan, with the precision of a machine. "All that
could be done for her is done -- she's beyond us : and
why should a man put himself in a tearing hurry for
lifeless clay that can neither feel nor see, and don't
know what you do with her at all? If she'd been
alive, I would have been the first to help her. If she
now wanted victuals and drink, I'd pay for it, money
down. But she's dead, and no speed of ours will
bring her to life. The woman's past us -- time spent
upon her is throwed away: why should we hurry to
do what's not required ? Drink, shepherd, and be
friends, for to-morrow we may be like her.'
" We may,' added Mark Clark, emphatically, at once
drinking himself, to run no further risk of losing his
chance by the event alluded to, Jan meanwhile merging
his additional thoughts of to-morrow in a song : --
To-mor-row, to-mor-row !
And while peace and plen-ty I find at my board,
With a heart free from sick-ness and sor-row,
With my friends will I share what to-day may af-ford,
And let them spread the ta-ble to-mor-row.
To-mor -- row', to-mor -- +
"Do hold thy horning, Jan.!' said Oak; and turning
upon Poorgrass, " as for you, Joseph, who do your wicked
deeds in such confoundedly holy ways, you are as drunk
as you can stand.'
"No, Shepherd Oak, no! Listen to reason, shepherd.
All that's the matter with me is the affliction called a
multiplying eye, and that's how it is I look double to
you-i mean, you look double to me.'
A multiplying eye is a very bad thing,' said Mark
Clark.
It always comes on when I have been in a public --
house a little time,' said Joseph Poorgrass, meekly.
"Yes; I see two of every sort, as if I were some holy
man living in the times of King Noah and entering
into the ark.... Y-y-y-yes,' he added, becoming much
affected by the picture of himself as a person thrown
away, and shedding tears; "I feel too good for England :
I ought to have lived in Genesis by rights, like the other
men of sacrifice, and then I shouldn't have b-b-been
called a d-d-drunkard in such a way.!'
"I wish you'd show yourself a man of spirit, and not
sit whining there.!'
"Show myself a man of spirit ? ... Ah, well! let
me take the name of drunkard humbly-iet me be a
man of contrite knees-iet it be .! l know that I always
do say "Please God' afore I do anything, from my
getting up to my going down of the same, and I be
willing to take as much disgrace as there is in that
holy act. Hah, yes.! ... But not a man of spirit ?
Have I ever allowed the toe of pride to be lifted
against my hinder parts without groaning manfully that
I question the right to do so? I inquire that query
boldly?'
" We can't say that you have, Hero Poorgrass,'
admitted Jan.
"Never have I allowed such treatment to pass un+
questioned!. Yet the shepherd says in the face of that
rich testimony that I be not a man of spirit! Well,
let it pass by, and death is a kind friend !.'
Gabriel, seeing that neither of the three was in a fit
state to Cake charge of the waggon for the remainder of
the journey, made no reply, but, closing the door again
upon them, went across to where the vehicle stood, now
getting indistinct in the fog and gloom of this mildewy
time. He pulled the horse's head from the large patch
of turf it had eaten bare, readjusted the boughs over
the coffin, and drove along through the unwholesome
night.
It had gradually become rumoured in the village
that the body to be brought and buried that day was
all that was left of the unfortunate Fanny Robin who
had followed the Eleventh from Casterbridge through
Melchester and onwards. But,
thanks to Boldwood's
reticence and Oak's generosity, the lover she had followed
had never been individualized as Troy. Gabriel hoped
that the whole truth of the matter might not be published
till at any rate the girl had been in her grave for a few
days, when the interposing barriers of earth and time,
and a sense that the events had been somewhat shut
into oblivion, would deaden the sting that revelation and
invidious remark would have for Bathsheba just now.
By the time that Gabriel reached the old manor+
house, her residence, which lay in his way to the church,
it was quite dark. A man came from the gate and said
through the fog, which hung between them like blown
flour --
"Is that Poorgrass with the corpse?'
Gabriel recognized the voice as that of the parson.
" The corpse is here, sir,' said Gabriel.
"I have just been to inquire of Mrs. Troy if she could
tell me the reason of the delay. I am afraid it is too
late now for the funeral to be performed with proper
decency. Have you the registrar's certificate ? '
" No,' said Gabriel. "I expect Poorgrass has that ;
and he's at the Buck's Head. I forgot to ask him
for it.'
"Then that settles the matter. We'll put off the
funeral till to-morrow morning. The body may be
brought on to the church, or it may be left here at
the farm and fetched by the bearers in the morning.
They waited more than an hour, and have now gone
home.'
Gabriel had his reasons for thinking the latter a
most objectionable plan, notwithstanding that Fanny
had been an inmate of the farm-house for several years
in the lifetime of Bathsheba's uncle. Visions of several
unhappy contingencies which might arise from this delay
flitted before him. But his will was not law, and he
went indoors to inquire of his mistress what were her
wishes on the subject. He found her in an unusual
mood : her eyes as she looked up to him were suspicious
and perplexed as with some antecedent thought. Troy
had not yet returned. At first Bathsheba assented with
a mien of indifference to his proposition that they should
go on to the church at once with their burden; but
immediately
afterwards, following Gabriel to the gate,
she swerved to the extreme of solicitousness on Fanny's
account, and desired that the girl might be brought into
the house. Oak argued upon the convenience of leaving
her in the waggon, just as she lay now, with her flowers
and green leaves about her, merely wheeling the vehicle
into the coach-house till the morning, but to no purpose,
"It is unkind and unchristian,' she said, 'to leave the
poor thing in a coach-house all night.'
Very well, then,' said the parson. "And I will
arrange that the funeral shall take place early to+
morrow. Perhaps Mrs. Troy is right in feeling that we
cannot treat a dead fellow-creature too thoughtfully
We must remember that though she may have erred
grievously in leaving her home, she is still our sister :
and it is to be believed that God's uncovenanted
mercies are extended towards her, and that she is a
member of the flock of Christ.'
The parson's words spread into the heavy air with a
sad yet unperturbed cadence, and Gabriel shed an
honest tear. Bathsheba seemed unmoved. Mr.
Thirdly then left them, and Gabriel lighted a lantern.
Fetching three other men to assist him, they bore the
unconscious truant indoors, placing the coffin on two
benches in the middle of a little sitting-room next the
hall, as Bathsheba directed.
Every one except Gabriel Oak then left the room.
He still indecisively lingered beside the body. He was
deeply troubled at the wretchedly ironical aspect that
circumstances were putting on with regard to Troy's
wife, and at his own powerlessness to counteract them,
(n spite of his careful manoeuvring all this day, the very
worst event that could in any way have happened in
connection with the burial had happened now. Oak
imagined a terrible discovery resulting from this after+
noon's work that might cast over Bathsheba's life a shade
which the interposition of many lapsing years might but
indifferently lighten, and which nothing at all might
altogether remove.
Suddenly, as in a last attempt to save Bathsheba
from, at any rate, immediate anguish, he looked again,
as he had looked before, at the chalk writing upon the
coffinlid. The scrawl was this simple one, " Fanny
Robin and child.' Gabriel took his handkerchief and
carefully rubbed out the two latter words, leaving visible
the inscription " Fanny' Robin ' only. He then left the
room, and went out quietly by the front door.
FANNY'S REVENGE
! DO you want me any longer ma'am ? " inquired Liddy,
at a later hour the same evening, standing by the door
with a chamber candlestick in her hand and addressing
Bathsheba, who sat cheerless and alone in the large
parlour beside the first fire of the season.
" No more to-night, Liddy.'
"l'll sit up for master if you like, ma'am. I am not
at all afraid of Fanny, if I may sit in my own room and '
have a candle. She was such a childlike, nesh young
thing that her spirit couldn't appear to anybody if it
tried, I'm quite sure.'
"O no, no! You go to bed. I'll sit up for him
myself till twelve o'clock, and if he has not arrived by
that time, I shall give him up and go to bed too.'
It is half-past ten now.'
'Oh! is it?'
Why don't you sit upstairs, ma'am ? '
" Why don't I ? ' said Bathsheba, desultorily. 'It
isn t worth while -- there's a fire here, Liddy.' She
suddenly exclaimed in an impulsive and excited whisper,
Have you heard anything strange said of Fanny?'
The words had no sooner escaped her than an expres+
sion of unutterable regret crossed her face, and she
burst into tears.
"No -- not a word !' said Liddy, looking at the
weeping woman with astonishment. 'What is it makes
you cry so, ma'am; has anything hurt you ? ' She came
to Bathsheba's side with a face full of sympathy.
" No, Liddy-i don't want you any more. I can
hardly say why I have taken to crying lately: I never
used to cry. Good-night.'
Liddy then left the parlour and closed the door.
Bathsheba was lonely and miserable now ; not lone+
lier actually than she had heen before her marriage;
but her loneliness then was to that of the present time
as the solitude of a mountain is to the solitude of a
cave. And within the last day or two had come these
disquieting thoughts about her husband's past. Her
wayward sentiment that evening concerning Fanny's
temporary resting-place had been the result of a strange
complication of impulses in Bathsheba's bosom. Per+
haps it would be more accurately described as a
determined rebellion against her prejudices, a revulsion
from a lower instinct of uncharitableness, which would
have withheld all sympathy from the dead woman, be+
cause in life she had preceded Bathsheba in the atten+
tions of a man whom Bathsheba had by no means
ceased from loving, though her love was sick to death
just now with the gravity of a further misgiving.
In five or ten minutes there was another tap at the
door. Liddy reappeared, and coming in a little way
stood hesitating, until at length she said, !Maryann has
just heard something very strange, but I know it isn't
true. And we shall be sure to know the rights of it in
a day or two.'
"What is it ?'
" Oh, nothing connected with you or us, ma'am. It
is about Fanny. That same thing you have heard.'
"I have heard nothing.'
"I mean that a wicked story is got to Weatherbury
within this last hour -- that -- -- ' Liddy came close to
her mistress and whispered the remainder of the sentence
slowly into her ear, inclining her head as she spoke in
the direction of the room where Fanny lay.
Bathsheba trembled from head to foot.
"I don't believe it ! ' she said, excitedly. 'And
there's only one name written on the coffin-cover.'
"Nor I, ma'am. And a good many others don't;
for we should surely have been told more about it if it
had been true -- don't you think so, ma'am ? '
"We might or we might not.'
Bathsheba turned and looked into the fire, that
Liddy might not see her
face. Finding that her mistress
was going to say no more, Liddy glided out, closed the
door softly, and went to bed.
Bathsheba's face, as she continued looking into the
fire that evening, might have excited solicitousness on
her account even among those who loved her least.
The sadness of Fanny Robin's fate did not make Bath+
sheba's glorious, although she was the Esther to this
poor Vashti, and their fates might be supposed to stand
in some respects as contrasts to each other. When
Liddy came into the room a second time the beautiful
eyes which met hers had worn a listless, weary look+
When she went out after telling the story they had ex+
pressed wretchedness in full activity. Her simple
country nature, fed on old-fashioned principles, was
troubled by that which would have troubled a woman
of the world very little, both Fanny and her child, if she
had one, being dead.
Bathsheba had grounds for conjecturing a connection
between her own history and the dimly suspected
tragedy of Fanny's end which Oak and Boldwood never
for a moment credited her with possessing. The
meeting with the lonely woman on the previous Saturday
night had been unwitnessed and unspoken of. Oak
may have had the best of intentions in withholding for
as many days as possible the details of what had
happened to Fanny ; but had he known that Bathsheba's
perceptions had already been exercised in the matter,
he would have done nothing to lengthen the minutes of
suspense she was now undergoing, when the certainty
which must terminate it would be the worst fact suspected
after all.
She suddenly felt a longing desire to speak to some
one stronger than herself, and so get strength to sustain
her surmised position with dignity and her carking
doubts with stoicism. Where could she find such a
friend? nowhere in the house. She was by far the
coolest of the women under her roof. Patience and
suspension of judgement for a few hours were what she
wanted to learn, and there was nobody to teach her.
Might she but go to Gabriel Oak ! -- but that could not
be. What a way Oak had, she thought, of enduring
things. Boldwood, who seemed so much deeper and
higher and stronger in
feeling than Gabriel, had not
yet learnt, any more than she herself, the simple
lesson which Oak showed a mastery of by every turn
and look he gave -- that among the multitude of interests
by which he was surrounded, those which affected his
personal welibeing were not the most absorbing and
important in his eyes. Oak meditatively looked upon
the horizon of circumstances without any special regard
to his own standpoint in the midst. That was how
she would wish to be. But then Oak was not racked
by incertitude upon the inmost matter of his bosom, as
she was at this moment. Oak knew all about Fanny
that he wished to know -- she felt convinced of that.
If she were to go to him now at once and say no more
than these few words, !What is the truth of the story?'
he would feel bound in honour to tell her. It would
be an inexpressible relief. No further speech would
need to be uttered. He knew her so well that no
eccentricity of behaviour in her would alarm him.
She flung a cloak roundher, went to the door and
opened it. Every blade, every twig was still. The air
was yet thick with moisture, though somewhat less dense
than during the afternoon, and a steady smack of drops
upon the fallen leaves under the boughs was almost
musical in its soothing regularity. lt seemed better to
be out of the house than within it, and Bathsheba closed
the door, and walked slowly down the lane till she came
opposite to Gabriel's cottage, where he now lived alone,
having left Coggan's house through being pinched for
room. There was a light in one window only', and that
was downstairs. The shutters were not closed, nor was
any blind or curtain drawn over the window, neither
robbery nor observation being a contingency which could
do much injury to the occupant of the domicile. Yes,
it was Gabriel himself who was sitting up : he was reading,
From her standing-place in the road she could see him
plainly, sitting quite still, his light curly head upon his
hand, and only occasionally looking up to snuff the
candle which stood beside him. At length he looked
at the clock, seemed surprised at the lateness of the
hour, closed his book, and arose. He was going to bed,
she knew, and if she tapped it must be done at once.
Alas for her resolve ! She felt she could not do it,
Not for worlds now could she give a hint about her
misery to him, much less ask him plainly for information
on the cause of Fanny's death. She must suspect, and
guess, and chafe, and bear it all alone.
Like a homeless wanderer she lingered by the bank,
as if lulled and fascinated by the atmosphere of content
which seemed to spread from that little dwelling, and
was so sadly lacking in her own. Gabriel appeared in
an upper room, placed his light in the window-bench,
and then -- knelt down to pray. The contrast of the
picture with her rebellious and agitated existence at this
same time was too much for her to bear to look upon
longer. It was not for her to make a truce with
trouble by any such means. She must tread her giddy
distracting measure to its last note, as she had begun it.
With a swollen heart she went again up the lane, and
entered her own door.
More fevered now by a reaction from the first feelings
which Oak's example had raised in her, she paused in
the hall, looking at the door of the room wherein Fanny
lay. She locked her fingers, threw back her head, and
strained her hot hands rigidly across her forehead, saying,
with a hysterical sob, 'Would to God you would speak
and tell me your secret, Fanny .! . , . O, I hope, hope
it is not true that there are two of you ! ... If I could
only look in upon you for one little minute, I should
know all !. '
A few moments passed, and she added, slowly, 'And
I will'
Bathsheba in after times could never gauge the mood
which carried her through the actions following this
murmured resolution on this memorable evening of her
life. She went to the lumber-closet for a screw-driver.
At the end of a short though undefined time she found
herself in the small room, quivering with emotion, a mist
before her eyes, and an excruciating pulsation in her
brain, standing beside the uncovered coffin of the girl
whose conjectured end had so entirely engrossed her, and
saying to herself in a husky voice as she gazed within --
'It was best to know the worst, and I know it now.!'
She was conscious of having brought about this
situation by a series of actions done as by one in an
extravagant dream ; of following that idea as to method,
which had burst upon her in the hall with glaring
obviousness, by gliding to the top of the stairs, assuring
herself by listening to the heavy breathing of her maids
that they were asleep, gliding down again, turning the
handle of the door within which the young girl lay, and
deliberately setting herself to do what, if she had antici+
pated any such undertaking at night and alone, would
have horrified her, but which, when done, was not so
dreadful as was the conclusive proof of her husband's
conduct which came with knowing beyond doubt the
last chapter of Fanny's story.
Bathsheba's head sank upon her bosom, and the
breath which had been bated in suspense, curiosity, and
interest, was exhaled now in the form of a whispered
wail: 'Oh-h-h!' she said, and the silent room added
length to her moan.
Her tears fell fast beside the unconscious pair in the
coffin: tears of a complicated origin, of a nature inde+
scribable, almost indefinable except as other than those
of simple sorrow. Assuredly their wonted fires must
have lived in Fanny's ashes when events were so shaped
as to chariot her hither in this natural, unobtrusive, yet
effectual manner. The one feat alone -- that of dying --
by which a mean condition couId be resolved into a
grand one, Fanny had achieved. And to that had
destiny subjoined this rencounter to-night, which had,
in Bathsheba's wild imagining, turned her companion's
failure to success, her humiliation to triumph, her luck
lessness to ascendency; et had thrown over herself a
garish light of mockery, and set upon all things about
her an ironical smile.
Fanny's face was framed in by that yeIIow hair of
hers; and there was no longer much room for doubt as
to the origin of the curl owned by Troy. In Bath+
sheba's heated fancy the innocent white countenance
expressed a dim triumphant consciousness of the pain
she was retaliating for her pain with all the merciless
rigour of the Mosaic law: 'Burning for burning; wound
for wound: strife for strife.
Bathsheba indulged in contempIations of escape from
her position by immediate death, which thought she,
though it was an inconvenient and awful way, had limits
to its inconvenience and awfulness that could not be
overpassed ; whilst the shames of life were measureless.
Yet even this scheme of extinction by death was out
FANNY'S REVENGE
tamely copying her rival's method without the reasons
which had glorified it in her rival's case. She glided
rapidly up and down the room, as was mostly her habit
hen excited, her hands hanging clasped in front of her,
as she thought and in part expressed in brocken words :
O, I hate her, yet I don't mean that I hate her, for
it is grievous and wicked; and yet I hate her a little !
yes, my flesh insists upon hating her, whether my spirit
is willing or no !.... If she had only lived, I could
ave been angry and cruel towards her with some justifi+
cation ; but to be vindictive towards a poor dead woman
recoils upon myself. O God, have mercy,! I am
miserable at all this !. '
Bathsheba became at this moment so terrified at her
own state of mind that she looked around for some sort
of refuge from herself. The vision of Oak kneeling
down that night recurred to her, and with the imitative
instinct which animates women she seized upon the idea,
resolved to kneel, and, if possible, pray. Gabriel had
prayed ; so would she.
She knelt beside the coffin, covered her face with her
hands, and for a time the room was silent as a tomb.
whether from a purely mechanical, or from any other
cause, when Bathsheba arose it was with a quieted spirit,
and a regret for the antagonistic instincts which had
seized upon her just before.
In her desire to make atonement she took flowers
from a vase by the window, and began laying them
around the dead girl's head. Bathsheba knew no other
way of showing kindness to persons departed than by
giving them flowers. She knew not how long she
remained engaged thus. She forgot time, life, where
she was, what she was doing. A slamming together of
the coach-house doors in the yard brought her to her+
self again. An instant after, the front door opened and
closed, steps crossed the hall, and her husband appeared
at the entrance to the room, looking in upon her.
He beheld it all by degrees, stared in stupefaction at
the scene, as if he thought it an illusion raised by some
fiendish
incantation. Bathsheba, pallid as a corpse on
end, gazed back at him in the same wild way.
So little are instinctive guesses the fruit of a legitimate
induction, that at this moment, as he stood with the
door in his hand, Troy never once thought of Fanny in
connection with what he saw. His first confused idea
was that somebody in the house had died.
'Weli-what ? ' said Troy, blankly.
'I must go ! I must go ! ' said Bathsheba, to herself
more than to him. She came with a dilated eye towards
the door, to push past him.
' What's the matter, in God's name ? who's dead ?'
said Troy.
'I cannot say; let me go out. I want air.! ' she
continued.
'But no; stay, I insist ! ' He seized her hand, and
then volition seemed to leave her, and she went off into
a state of passivity. He, still holding her, came up the
room, and thus, hand in hand, Troy and Bathsheba
approached the coffin's side.
The candle was standing on a bureau close by them,
and the light slanted down, distinctly enkindling the
cold features of both mother and babe. Troy looked
in, dropped his wife's hand, knowledge of it all came
over him in a lurid sheen, and he stood still.
So still he remained that he could be imagined to
have left in him no motive power whatever. The
clashes of feeling in all directions confounded one
another, produced a neutrality, and there was motion in
none.
'Do you know her?' said Bathsheba, in a small
enclosed echo, as from the interior of a cell.
'I do,' said Troy.
'Is it she?'
'It is.'
He had originally stood perfectly erect. And now,
in the welinigh congealed immobility of his frame
could be discerned an incipient movement, as in the
darkest night may be discerned light after a while.
He was gradually sinking forwards. The lines of his
features softened, and dismay modulated to illiimitable
sadness. Bathsheba was regarding him from the other
side, still with parted lips and distracted eyes.
Capacity
for intense feeling is proportionate to the general
intensity of the nature ,and perhaps in all Fanny's
sufferings, much greater relatively to her strength, there
never was a time she suffered in an absolute sense
what Bathsheba suffered now.
What Troy did was to sink upon his knees with
an indefinable union of remorse and reverence upon
his face, and, bending over Fanny Robin, gently kissed
her, as one would kiss an infant asleep to avoid
awakening it.
At the sight and sound of that, to her, unendurable
act, Bathsheba sprang towards him. All the strong
feelings which had been scattered over her existence
since she knew what feeling was, seemed gathered
together into one pulsation now. The revulsion from
her indignant mood a little earlier, when she had
meditated upon compromised honour, forestalment,
eclipse in maternity by another, was violent and entire.
All that was forgotten in the simple and still strong
attachment of wife to husband. She had sighed for
her self-completeness then, and now she cried aloud
against the severance of the union she had deplored.
She flung her arms round Troy's neck, exclaiming wildly
from the deepest deep of her heart --
' Don't -- don't kiss them !. O, Frank, I can"t bear
it-i can't ! I love you better than she did: kiss me
too, Frank -- kiss me ! You will, Frank, kiss me too !'
There was something so abnormal and startling in
the childlike pain and simplicity of this appeal from a
woman of Bathsheba's calibre and independence, that
Troy, loosening her tightly clasped arms from his neck,
looked at her in bewilderment. It was such and unex+
pected revelation of all women being alike at heart, even
those so different in their accessories as Fanny and this
one beside him, that Troy could hardly seem to believe
her to be his proud wife Bathsheba. Fanny's own
spirit seemed to be animating her frame. But this was
the mood of a few instants only. When the momentary
'I will not kiss you!' he said pushing her away.
Had the wife now but gone no further. Yet,
perhaps. under the harrowing circumstances, to speak
out was the one wrong
act which can be better under+
stood, if not forgiven in her, than the right and politic
one, her rival being now but a corpse. All the feeling
she had been betrayed into showing she drew back to
herself again by a strenuous effort of self-command.
'What have you to say as your reason ?' she asked
her bitter voice being strangely low -- quite that of
another woman now.
'I have to say that I have been a bad, black-hearted
man,' he answered.
less than she.'
'Ah! don't taunt me, madam. This woman is more
to me, dead as she is, than ever you were, or are, or can
be. If Satan had not tempted me with that face of
yours, and those cursed coquetries, I should have
He turned to Fanny then. 'But never mind, darling,'
wife.!'
At these words there arose from Bathsheba's lips a
long, low cry of measureless despair and indignation,
such a wail of anguish as had never before been heard
within those old-inhabited walls. It was the ??????????
of her union with Troy.
"If she's -- that, -- what -- am I ? ' she added, as a
continuation of the same cry, and sobbing pitifully:
and the rarity with her of such abandonment only made
the condition more dire.
" You are nothing to me -- nothing,' said Troy,
heartlessly. 'A ceremony before a priest doesn't make
a marriage. I am not morally yours.'
A vehement impulse to flee from him, to run from
this place, hide, and escape his words at any price, not
stopping short of death itself, mastered Bathsheba now.
She waited not an instant, but turned to the door and
ran out.
UNDER A TREE -- REACTION
BATHSHEBA went along the dark road, neither know'
ing nor caring about the direction or issue of her flight.
The first time that she definitely noticed her position
was when she reached a gate leading into a thicket over+
hung by some large oak and beech trees. On looking
into the place, it occurred to her that she had seen it
by daylight on some previous occasion, and that what
appeared like an impassable thicket was in reality a
brake of fern now withering fast. She could think of
nothing better to do with her palpitating self than to go
in here and hide; and entering, she lighted on a spot
sheltered from the damp fog hy a reclining trunk, where
she sank down upon a tangled couch of fronds and
stems. She mechanically pulled some armfuls round
her to keep off the breezes, and closed her eyes.
Whether she slept or not that night Bathsheba was
not clearly aware. But it was with a freshened exist+
ence and a cooler brain that, a long time afterwards, she
became conscious of some interesting proceedings which
were going on in the trees above her head and around.
A coarse-throated chatter was the first sound.
It was a sparrow just waking.
Next : ' Chee-weeze-weeze-weeze .! ' from another
retreat.
It was a finch.
Third : ' Tink-tink-tink-tink-a-chink ! ' from the hedge,
It was a robin.
' Chuck-chuck-chuck !. ' overhead.
A squirrel.
Then, from the road, 'With my ra-ta-ta, and my
rum-tum-tum ! '
It was a ploughboy. Presently he came opposite,
and she believed from his voice that he was one of
the boys on her own farm. He was followed by a
shambling tramp of heavy feet, and
looking through
the ferns Bathsheba could just discern in the wan light
of daybreak a team of her own horses. They stopped
to drink at a pond on the other side of the way'. She
watched them flouncing into the pool, drinking, tossing
up their heads, drinking again, the water dribbling
from their lips in silver threads. There was another
flounce, and they came out of the pond, and turned
back again towards the farm.
She looked further around. Day was just dawning,
and beside its cool air and colours her heated actions
and resolves of the night stood out in lurid contrast.
She perceived that in her lap, and clinging to her
hair, were red and yellow leaves which had come
down from the tree and settled silently upon her
during her partial sleep. Bathsheba shook her dress to
get rid of them, when multitudes of the same family lying
round about her rose and fiuttered away in the breeze
thus created, 'like ghosts from an enchanter fleeing.'
There was an opening towards the east, and the
glow from the as yet unrisen sun attracted her eyes
thither. From her feet, and between the beautiful
yellowing ferns with their feathery arms, the ground
sloped downwards to a hollow, in which was a species
of swamp, dotted with fungi. A morning mist hung
over it now -- a fulsome yet magnificent silvery veil,
full of light from the sun, yet semi-opaque -- the hedge
behind it being in some measure hidden by its hazy
luminousness. Up the sides of this depression grew
sheaves of the common rush, and here and there a
peculiar species of flag, the blades of which glistened
in the enaerging sun, like scythes. But the general
aspect of the swamp was malignant. From its moist
and poisonous coat seemed to be exhaled the essences
of evil things in the earth, and in the waters under
the earth. The fungi grew in all manner of positions
from rotting leaves and tree stumps, some exhibiting
to her listless gaze their clammy tops, others their
oozing gills. Some were marked with great splotches,
red as arterial blood, others were saffron yellow, and
others tall and attenuated, with stems like macaroni.
Some were leathery and of richest browns. The
hollow seemed a nursery of pestilences small and
great, in the immediate neighbourhood of comfort
and health, and Bathsheba arose with a tremor at the
thought of having
passed the night on the brink of
so dismal a place.
'l'here were now other footsteps to be heard along
the road. Bathsheba's nerves were still unstrung :
she crouchcd down out of sight again, and the pedes+
trian came into view. He was a schoolboy, with a
bag slung over his shoulder containing his dinner,
and a hook in his hand. He paused by the gate,
and, without looking up, continued murmuring words
in tones quite loud enough to reach her ears.
'''O Lord, O Lord, O Lord, O Lord, O Lord'': --
that I know out o' book. ''Give us, give us, give us,
give us, give us '' : -- that I know. ''Grace that, grace that,
grace that, grace that '' : -- that I know.' Other words
followed to the same effect. The boy was of the
dunce class apparently; the book was a psalter, and
this was his way of learning the collect. In the worst
attacks of trouble there appears to be always a super+
ficial film of consciousness which is left disengaged
and open to the notice of trifles, and Bathsheba was
faintly amused at the boy's method, till he too passed on.
By this time stupor had given place to anxiety, and
anxiety began to make room for hunger and thirst.
A form now appeared upon the rise on the other side
of the swamp, half-hidden by the mist, and came
towards Bathsheba. The woman -- for it was a woman
-- approached with her face askance, as if looking
earnestly on all sides of her. When she got a little
further round to the left, and drew nearer, Bathsheba
could see the newcomer's profile ngainst the sunny
sky', and knew the wavy sweep from forehead to chin,
with neither angle nor decisive line anywhere about
it, to be the familiar contour of Liddy Smallbury.
Bathsheba's heart bounded with gratitude in the
thought that she was not altogether deserted, and she
jumped up. ' O, Liddy .! ' she said, or attempted to say;
but the words had only been framed hy her lips; there
came no sound. She had lost her voice by exposure
to the clogged atmosphere all these hours of night.
'O, ma'am.! I am so glad I have found you,' said
the girl, as soon as she saw Bathsheba.
' You can't come across,' Bathsheba said in a whisper,
wihich she
vainly endeavoured to make loud enough to
reach Liddy's ears. Liddy, not knowing this, stepped
down upon the swamp, saying, as she did so, 'It will
bear me up, I think.'
Bathsheba never forgot that transient little picture
of Liddy crossing the swamp to her there in the
morning light. Iridescent bubbles of dank subter+
ranean breath rose from the sweating sod beside the
waiting maid's feet as she trod, hissing as they burst
and expanded away to join the vapoury firmament above.
Liddy did not sink, as Bathsheba had anticipated.
She landed safely on the other side, and looked up
at the beautiful though pale and weary face of her
young mistress.
'Poor thing ! ' said Liddy, with tears in her eyes,
Do hearten yourself up a little, ma'am. However
did -- -- '
'I can't speak above a whisper -- my voice is gone
for the present,' said Bathsheba, hurriedly. ' I suppose
the damp air from that hollow has taken it away
Liddy, don't question me, mind. Who sent you --
anybody ? '
' Nobody. I thought, when I found you were not
at home, that something cruel had happened. I fancy
I heard his voice late last night; and so, knowing
something was wrong -- -- '
'Is he at home?'
'No ; he left just before I came out.'
'Is Fanny taken away ? '
' Not yet. She will soon be -- at nine o'clock.'
'we won't go home at present, then. Suppose we
walk about in this wood ?'
Liddy, without exactly understanding everything, or
anything, in this episode, assented, and they walked
together further among the trees.
'But you had better come in, ma'am, and have
something to eat. You will die of a chill! '
'I shall not come indoors yet -- perhaps never.'
'Shall I get you something to eat, and something
else to put over your head besides that little shawl?'
'If you will, Liddy.'
Liddy vanished, and at the end of twenty minutes
returned with a cloak, hat, some slices of bread and
butter, a tea-cup, and some hot tea in a little china jug
"Is Fanny gone ? ' said Bathsheba.
' No,' said her companion, pouring out the tea.
Bathsheba wrapped herself up and ate and drank
sparingly. Her voice was then a little clearer, and
trifling colour returned to her face. 'Now we'll walk
about again,' she said.
They wandered about the wood for nearly two
REACTION
hours, Bathsheba replying in monosyllables to Liddy's
prattle, for her mind ran on one subject, and one only.
She interrupted with --
'l wonder if Fanny is gone by this time ? '
'I will go and see.'
She came back with the information that the
men were just taking away the corpse; that Bathsheba
had been inquired for; that she had replied to the
effect that her mistress was unwell and could not be
seen.
'Then they think I am in my bedroom ?'
' Yes.' Liddy then ventured to add: ' You said
when I first found you that you might never go home
again -- you didn't mean it, ma'am ? '
'No; I've altered my mind. It is only women with
no pride in them who run away from their husbands.
There is one position worse than that of being found
dead in your husband's house from his iliusage, and
that is, to be found alive through having gone away to
The house of somebody else. l've thought of it all this
morning, and I've chosen my course. A runaway wife
is an encumbrance to everybody, a burden to herself and
a byword -- all of which make up a heap of misery
greater than any that comes by staying at home --
though this may include the trifling items of insult,
beating, and starvation. Liddy, if ever you marry --
God forbid that you ever should ! -- you'll find yourself
in a fearful situation ; but mind this, don't you flinch.
Stand your ground, and be cut to pieces. That's
what I'm going to do.'
' O, mistress, don't talk so .! ' said Liddy,-taking her
hand; 'but I knew you had too much sense to bide
away. May I ask what dreadful thing it is that has
happened between you and him ?'
' You may ask; but I may not tell.'
In about ten minutes they returned to the house by
a cimuitous route, entering at the rear. Bathsheba
glided up the
back stairs to a disused attic, and her
companion followed.
'Liddy,' she said, with a lighter heart, for youth an
hope had begun to reassert themselves; ' you are to b
my confidante for the present -- somebody must be -- and
I choose you. Well, I shall take up my abode here fo
a while. Will you get a fire lighted, put down a piece
of carpet, and help me to make the place comfortable.
Afterwards, I want you and Maryann to bring up that
little stump bedstead in the small room, and the be
belonging to it, and a table, and some other things.
What shall I do to pass the heavy time away ?'
'Hemming handkerchiefs is a very good thing,' said
Liddy.
'O no, no .! I hate needlework-i always did.'
'knitting ? '
' And that, too.'
'You might finish your sampler. Only the carn
tions and peacocks want filling in; and then it could
be framed and glazed, and hung beside your aunt'
ma'am.'
' Samplers are out of date -- horribly countrified. No
Liddy, I'll read. Bring up some books -- not new ones.
I haven't heart to read anything new.'
'Some of your uncle's old ones, ma'am ? '
' Yes. Some of those we stowed away in boxes.' ,
faint gleam of humour passed over her face as she said:
'Bring Beaumont and Fletcher's Mai'd's Tragedy,- an
the Mourning Bride ,- and-iet me see -- Niht Thoghts,
and the Vanity of Human Wishes.'
'And that story of the black man, who murdered his
wife Desdemona? It is a nice dismal one that would
suit you excellent just now.'
' Now, Liddy, you've been looking into my book
without telling me; and I said you were not to ! How
do you know it would suit me? It wouldn't suit me a
all.'
'But if the others do -- -- '
' No, they don't ; and I won't read dismal books.
Why should I read dismal books, indeed ? Bring me
Love in a Village, and Maid of the Mill, and Doctor
Syntax, and some volumes of the Spectator.'
All that day Bathsheba and Liddy lived in the attic
in a state of
barricade ; a precaution which proved to be
needless as against Troy, for he did not appear in the
neighbourhood or trouble them at all. Bathsheba sat
at the window till sunset, sometimes attempting to read,
at other times watching every movement outside without
much purpose, and listening without much interest to
every sound.
The sun went down almost blood-red that night, and
a livid cloud received its rays in the east. Up against
this dark background the west front of the church
tower -- the only part of the edifice visible from the
farm-house windows -- rose distinct and lustrous, the
vane upon the summit bristling with rays. Hereabouts,
at six o'clock, the young men of the village gathered,
as was their custom, for a game of Prisoners' base. The
spot had been consecrated to this ancient diversion from
time immemorial, the old stocks conveniently forming
a base facing the boundary of the churchyard, in front
of which the ground was trodden hard and bare as a
pavement by the players. She could see the brown
and black heads of the young lads darting about right
and left, their white shirt-sleeves gleaming in the sun;
whilst occasionally a shout and a peal of hearty laughter
varied the stillness of the evening air. They continued
playing for a quarter of an hour or so, when the game
concluded abruptly, and the players leapt over the wall
and vanished round to the other side behind a yew-tree,
which was also half behind a beech, now spreading in
one mass of golden foliage, on which the branches
traced black lines.
'Why did the base-players finish their game so
suddenly?' Bathsheba inquired, the next time that
Liddy entered the room.
' I think 'twas because two men came just then from
Casterbridge and began putting up grand carved
tombstone,' said Liddy. 'The lads went to see whose
it was.'
' Do you know ? ' Bathsheba asked.
' I don't,' said Liddy.
TROY'S ROMANTICISM
WHEN Troy's wife had left the house at the previous
midnight his first act was to cover the dead from sight.
This done he ascended the stairs, and throwing himself
down upon the bed dressed as he was, he waited miser+
ably for the morning.
Fate had dealt grimly with him through the last four+
and-twenty hours. His day had been spent in a way
which varied very materially from his intentions regard+
ing it. There is always an inertia to be overcome in
striking out a new line of conduct -- not more in our+
selves, it seems, than in circumscribing events, which
appear as if leagued together to allow no novelties in
the way of amelioration.
Twenty pounds having been secured from Bathsheba,
he had managed to add to the sum every farthing he
could muster on his own account, which had been seven
pounds ten. With this money, twenty-seven pounds ten
in all, he had hastily driven from the gate that morning
to keep his appointment with Fanny Robin.
On reaching Casterbridge he left the horse and trap
at an inn, and at five minutes before ten came back to
the bridge at the lower end of the town, and sat himself
upon the parapet. The clocks struck the hour, and no
Fanny appeared. In fact, at that moment she was being
robed in her grave-clothes by two attendants at the
Union poorhouse -- the first and last tiring-women the
gentle creature had ever been honoured with. The
quarter went, the half hour. A rush of recollection
came upon Troy as he waited: this was the second
time she had broken a serious engagement with him
In anger he vowed it should be the last, and at eleven
o'clock, when he had lingered and watched the stone
of the bridge till he knew every lichen upon their face
and heard the chink of the ripples underneath till they
oppressed him, he jumped from his seat, went to the inn
for his gig, and in a bitter mood of indifference con+
cerning the past, and recklessness about the future,
drove on to Budmouth races.
He reached the race-course at two o'clock, and re+
mained either there or in the town till nine, But
Fanny's image, as it had appeared to him in the sombre
shadows of that Saturday evening, returned to his mind,
backed up by Bathsheba's reproaches. He vowed he
would not bet, and he kept his vow, for on leaving the
town at nine o'clock in the evening he had diminish
his cash only to the extent of a few shillings.
He trotted slowly homeward, and it was now that
was struck for the first time with a thought that Fanny
had been really prevented by illness from keeping her
promise. 'This time she could have made no mistake
He regretted that he had not remained in Casterbridge
and made inquiries. Reaching home he quietly un+
harnessed the horse and came indoors, as we have seen,
to the fearful shock that awaited him.
As soon as it grew light enough to distinguish objects,
Troy arose from the coverlet of the bed, and in a mood
of absolute indifference to Bathsheba's whereabouts, a
almost oblivious of her existence, he stalked downstairs
and left the house by the back door. His walk was
towards the churchyard, entering which he searched
around till he found a newly dug unoccupied grave --
the grave dug the day before for Fanny. The position
of this having been marked, he hastened on to Caster+
bridge, only pausing
whereon he had last seen Fanny alive.
Reaching the town, Troy descended into a side
street and entered a pair of gates surmounted by a board
bearing the words, 'Lester, stone and marble mason.'
Within were lying about stones of all sizes and designs,
inscribed as being sacred to the memory of unnamed
persons who had not yet died.
Troy was so unlike himself now in look, word, and
deed, that the want of likeness was perceptible even to
his own consciousness. His method of engaging himself
in this business of purchasing a tomb was that of an
absolutely unpractised man. He could not bring him+
self to consider, calculate, or
economize. He waywardly
wished for something, and he set about obtaining it like
a child in a nursery. 'I want a good tomb,' he said to
the man who stood in a little office within the yard.
'I want as good a one as you can give me for twenty+
seven pounds,'
It was all the money he possessed.
'That sum to include everything?'
' Everything. Cutting the name, carriage to Weather+
bury, and erection. And I want it now at once .'
' We could not get anything special worked this
week.
'If you would like one of these in stock it could be
got ready immediately.'
'Very well,' said Troy, impatiently. 'Let's see what
you have.'
'The best I have in stock is this one, 'said the stone+
cutter, going into a shed. ' Here's a marble headstone
beautifully crocketed, with medallions beneath of typical
subjects ; here's the footstone after the same pattern,
and here's the coping to enclose the- grave. The
slabs are the best of their kind, and I can warrant them
'Well, I couId add the name, and put it up at
visitor who wore not a shred of mourning. Troy then
settled the account and went away. In the afternoon
almost done. He waited in the yard till the tomb was
way to Weatherbury, giving directions to the two men
the grave of the person named in the inscription.
bridge. He carried rather a heavy basket upon his
occasionally at bridges and
gates, whereon he deposited
returning in the darkness, the men and the waggon
the work was done, and, on being assured that it was,
Troy entered Weatherbury churchyard about ten
had marked the vacant grave early in the morning. It
extent from the view of passers along the road -- a spot
and bushes of alder, but now it was cleared and made
the ground elsewhere.
Here now stood the tomb as the men had stated, snow+
white and shapely in the gloom, consisting of head and
foot-stone, and enclosing border of marble-work uniting
them. In the midst was mould, suitable for plants.
Troy deposited his basket beside the tomb, and
vanished for a few minutes. When he returned he
carried a spade and a lantern, the light of which he
directed for a few moments upon the marble, whilst he
read the inscription. He hung his lantern on the lowest
bough of the yew-tree, and took from his basket flower+
roots of several varieties. There were bundles of snow+
drop, hyacinth and crocus bulbs, violets and double
daisies, which were to bloom in early spring, and of
carnations, pinks, picotees, lilies of the valley, forget-me+
not, summer's-farewell, meadow-saffron and others, for
the later seasons of the year.
Troy laid these out upon the grass, and with an im+
passive face set to work to plant them. The snowdrops
were arranged in a line on the outside of the coping,
the remainder within the enclosure of the grave. The
crocuses and hyacinths were to grow in rows; some of
the summer flowers he placed over her head and feet,
the lilies and forget-me-nots over her heart. The
remainder were dispersed in the spaces between these.
Troy, in his prostration at this time, had no percep+
tion that in the futility of these romantic doings, dictated
by a remorseful reaction from previous indifference, there
was any element
of absurdity. Deriving his idiosyn+
crasies from both sides of the Channel, he showed at
such junctures as the present the inelasticity of the
Englishman, together with that blindness to the line
where sentiment verges on mawkishness, characteristic
of the French.
lt was a cloudy, muggy, and very dark night, and
the rays from Troy's lantern spread into the two old
yews with a strange illuminating power, flickering, as it
seemed, up to the black ceiling of cloud above. He
felt a large drop of rain upon the back of his hand, and
presently one came and entered one of the holes of the
lantern, whereupon the candle sputtered and went out+
Troy was weary and it being now not far from midnight,
and the rain threatening to increase, he resolved to leave
the finishing touches of his labour until the day should
break. He groped along the wall and over the graves
in the dark till he found himself round at the north side.
Here he entered the porch, and, reclining upon the
bench within, fell asleep.
THE GURGOYLE : ITS DOINGS
THE tower of Weatherbury Church was a square
erection of fourteenth-century date, having two stone
gurgoyles on each of the four faces of its parapet. Of
these eight carved protuberances only two at this time
continued to serve the purpose of their erection -- that
of spouting the water from the lead roof within. One
mouth in each front had been closed hy bygone church+
wardens as superfluous, and two others were broken
away and choked -- a matter not of much consequence
to the welibeing of the tower, for the two mouths which
still remained open and active were gaping enough to do
all the work.
It has been sometimes argued that there is no truer
criterion of the vitality of any given art-period than the
power of the master-spirits of that time in grotesque ;
and certainly in the instance of Gothic art there is no
disputing the proposition. Weatherbury tower was a
somewhat early instance of the use of an ornamental
parapet in parish as distinct from cathedral churches,
and the gurgoyles, which are the necessary correlatives
of a parapet, were exccptionally prominent -- of the
boldest cut that the hand could shape, and of the most
original design that a human brain could conceive.
There was, so to speak, that symmetry in their distortion
which is less the characteristic of British than of
Continental grotesques of the period. All the eight
were different from each other. A beholder was con+
vinced that nothing on earth could be more hideous
than those he saw on the north side until he went
round to the south. Of the two on this latter face, only
that at the south-eastern corner concerns the story. It
was too human to be called like a dragon, too impish
to be like a man, too animal to be like a fiend, and not
enough like a bird to be called a griffin. This horrible
stone entity was fashioned as if covered with a
wrinkled
hide; it had short, erect ears, eyes starting from their
sockets, and its fingers and hands were seizing the
corners of its mouth, which they thus seemed to pull
open to give free passage to the water it vomited. The
lower row of teeth was quite washed away, though the
upper still remained. Here and thus, jutting a couple
of feet from the wall against which its feet rested as a
support, the creature had for four hundred years
laughed at the surrounding landscape, voicelessly in
dry weather, and in wet with a gurgling and snorting
sound.
Troy slept on in the porch, and the rain increased
outside. Presently the gurgoyle spat. In due time a
small stream began to trickle through the seventy feet
of aerial space between its mouth and the ground, which
the water-drops smote like duckshot in their accelerated
velocity. The stream thickened in substance, and in+
creased in power, gradually spouting further and yet
further from the side of the tower. When the rain fell
in a steady and ceaseless torrent the stream dashed
downward in volumes.
We follow its course to the ground at this point of
time. The end of the liquid parabola has come forward
from the wall, has advanced over the plinth mouldings,
over a heap of stones, over the marble border, into the
midst of Fanny Robin's grave.
The force of the stream had, until very lately, been
received upon some loose stones spread thereabout,
which had acted as a shield to the soil under the onset.
These during the summer had been cleared from the
ground, and there was now nothing to resist the down+
fall but the bare earth. For several years the stream
had not spouted so far from the tower as it was doing
on this night, and such a contingency had been over+
looked. Sometimes this obscure corner received no
inhabitant for the space of two or three years, and
then it was usually but a pauper, a poacher, or other
sinner of undignified sins.
The persistent torrent from the gurgoyle's jaws
directed all its vengeance into the grave. The rich
tawny mould was stirred into motion, and boiled like
chocolate. The water accumulated and washed deeper
down, and the roar of the pool thus formed spread into
the night as the head and chief among other noises of
the kind created by the deluging rain. The flowers so
carefully planted by Fanny's repentant lover began to
move and writhe in their bed. The winter-violets
turned slowly upside down, and became a mere mat of
mud. Soon the snowdrop and other bulbs danced in
the boiling mass like ingredients in a cauldron. Plants
of the tufted species were loosened, rose to the surface,
and floated of.
Troy did not awake from his comfortless sleep till it
was broad day. Not having been in bed for two nights
his shouldrrs felt stiff his feet tender, and his head
heavy. He remembered his position, arose, shivered,
took the spade, and again went out.
The rain had quite ceased, and the sun was shining
through the green, brown, and yellow leaves, now
sparkling and varnished by the raindrops to the bright+
ness of similar effects in the landscapes of Ruysdael and
Hobbema, and full of all those infinite beauties that
arise from the union of water and colour with high
lights. The air was rendered so transparent by the
heavy fall of rain that the autumn hues of the middle
distance were as rich as those near at hand, and the
remote fields intercepted by the angle of the tower ap+
peared in the same plane as the tower itself.
He entered the gravel path which would take him
behind the tower. The path, instead of being stony as
it had been the night before, was browned over with a
thin coating of mud. At one place in the path he saw
a tuft of stringy roots washed white and clean as a
bundle of tendons. He picked it up -- surely it could
not be one of the primroses he had planted? He saw
a bulb, another, and another as he advanced. Beyond
doubt they were the crocuses. With a face of perplexed
dismay Troy turned the corner and then beheld the
wreck the stream had made.
The pool upon the grave had soaked away into the
ground, and in its place was a hollow. The disturbed
earth was washed over the grass and pathway in the
guise of the brown mud he had already seen, and it
spotted the marble tombstone with the same stains.
Nearly all the flowers were washed clean out of the
ground, and they lay, roots upwards, on the spots whither
they had been splashed by the stream.
Troy's brow became heavily contracted. He set his
teeth closely, and his compressed lips moved as those of
one in great pain. This singular accident, by a strange
confluence of emotions in him, was felt as the sharpest
sting of all. Troy's face was very expressive, and any
observer who had seen him now would hardly have
believed him to be a man who had laughed, and sung,
and poured love-trifles into a woman's ear. To curse
his miserable lot was at first his impulse, but even that
lowest stage of rebellion needed an activity whose
absence was necessarily antecedent to the existence of the
morbid misery which wrung him. The sight, coming
as it did, superimposed upon the other dark scenery of
the previous days, formed a sort of climax to the whole
panorama, and it was more than he could endure.
Sanguine by nature, Troy had a power of eluding
grief by simply adjourning it. He could put off the
consideration of any particular spectre till the matter
had become old and softened by time. The planting
of flowers on Fanny's grave had been perhaps but a
species of elusion of the primary grief, and now it was
as if his intention had been known and circumvented.
Almost for the first time in his life, Troy, as he stood
by this dismantled grave, wished himself another man.
lt is seldom that a person with much animal spirit does
not feel that the fact of his life being his own is the one
qualification which singles it out as a more hopeful life
than that of others who may actually resemble him in
every particular. Troy had felt, in his transient way,
hundreds of times, that he could not envy other people
their condition, because the possession of that condition
would have necessitated a different personality, when he
desired no other than his own. He had not minded
the peculiarities of his birth, the vicissitudes of his life,
the meteoriike uncertainty of all that related to him,
because these appertained to the hero of his story,
without whom there would have been no story at all for
him; and it seemed to be only in the nature of things
that matters would right themselves at some proper date
and wind up well. This very morning the illusion
completed its disappearance, and, as it were, all of a
sudden, Troy hated himself. The suddenness was
probably more
apparent than real. A coral reef which
just comes short of the ocean surface is no more to the
horizon than if it had never been begun, and the mere
finishing stroke is what often appears to create an event
which has long been potentially an accomplished thing.
He stood and mediated -- a miserable man. Whither
should he go ? " He that is accursed, let him be accursed
still,' was the pitiless anathema written in this spoliated
effort of his new-born solicitousness. A man who has
spent his primal strength in journeying in one direction
has not much spirit left for reversing his course. Troy
had, since yesterday, faintly reversed his ; but the merest
opposition had disheartened him. To turn about would
have been hard enough under the greatest providential
encouragement; but to find that Providence, far from
helping him into a new course, or showing any wish
that he might adopt one, actuallyjeered his first trembling
and critical attempt in that kind, was more than nature
could bear.
He slowly withdrew from the grave. He did not
attempt to fill up the hole, replace the flowers, or do
anything at all. He simply threw up his cards and
forswore his game for that time and always. Going out
of the churchyard silently and unobserved -- none of the
villagers having yet risen -- he passed down some fields
at the back, and emerged just as secretly upon the high
road. Shortly afterwards he had gone from the village.
Meanwhile, Bathsheba remained a voluntary prisoner
in the attic. The door was kept locked, except during
the entries and exits of Liddy, for whom a bed had
been arranged in a small adjoining room. The light
of Troy's lantern in the churchyard was noticed about
ten o'clock by the maid-servant, who casually glanced
from the window in that direction whilst taking her
supper, and she called Bathsheba's attention to it.
They looked curiously at the phenomenon for a time,
until Liddy was sent to bed.
bathsheba did not sleep very heavily that night.
When her attendant was unconscious and softly breath+
ing in the next room, the mistress of the house was
still looking out of the window at the faint gleam
spreading from among the trees --
not in a steady shine,
but blinking like a revolving coastiight, though this
appearance failed to suggest to her that a person was
passing and repassing in front of it. Bathsheba sat
here till it began to rain, and the light vanished, when
she withdrew to lie restlessly in her bed and re-enact
in a worn mind the lurid scene of yesternight.
Almost before the first faint sign of dawn appeared
she arose again, and opened the window to obtain a full
breathing of the new morning air, the panes being now
wet with trembling tears left by the night rain, each
one rounded with a pale lustre caught from primrose+
hued slashes through a cloud low down in the awaken+
ing sky. From the trees came the sound of steady
dripping upon the drifted leaves under them, and from
the direction of the church she could hear another noise
-- peculiar, and not intermittent like the rest, the purl
of water falling into a pool.
Liddy knocked at eight o'clock, and Bathsheba un+
locked the door.
" What a heavy rain we've had in the night, ma'am!.'
said Liddy, when her inquiries about breakfast had been
made.
" Yes ; very heavy.'
"Did you hear the strange noise from the church
yard?'
"I heard one strange noise. I've been thinking it
must have been the water from the tower spouts.'
"Well, that's what the shepherd was saying, ma'am.
He's now gone on to see.
"Oh!. Gabriel has been here this morning!.'
"Only just looked in in passing -- quite in his old way,
which I thought he had left off lately. But the tower
spouts used to spatter on the stones, and we are puzzled,
for this was like the boiling of a pot.'
Not being able to read, think, or work, Bathsheba asked
Liddy to stay and breakfast with her. The tongue of the
more childish womian still ran upon recent events. "Are
you going across to the church, ma'am?' she asked.
"Not that I know of,' said Bathsheba.
"I thought you might like to go and see where they
have put Fanny. The trees hide the place from your
window.'
Bathsheba had all sorts of dreads about meeting her
husband. "Has Mr. Troy been in to-night?' she said
" No, ma'am ; I think he's gone to Budmouth.
Budmouth! The sound of the word carried with
it a much diminished perspective of him and his deeds;
there were thirteen miles interval betwixt them now.
She hated questioning Liddy about her husband's
movements, and indeed had hitherto sedulously avoided
doing so; but now all the house knew that there had
been some dreadful disagreement between them, and
it was futile to attempt disguise. Bathsheba had
reached a stage at which people cease to have any
appreciative regard for public opinion.
"What makes you think he has gone there?' she said.
"Laban Tall saw him on the Budmouth road this
morning before breakfast.'
Bathsheba was momentarily relieved of that wayward
heaviness of the past twenty-four hours which had
quenched the vitality of youth in her without sub+
stituting the philosophy of maturer years, and the
resolved to go out and walk a little way. So when
breakfast was over, she put on her bonnet, and took
a direction towards the church. It was nine o'clock,
and the men having returned to work again from their
first meal, she was not likely to meet many of them in
the road. Knowing that Fanny had been laid in the
reprobates' quarter of the graveyard, called in the parish
'behind church,' which was invisible from the road, it
was impossible to resist the impulse to enter and look
upon a spot which, from nameless feelings, she at the
same time dreaded to see. She had been unable to
overcome an impression that some connection existed
between her rival and the light through the trees.
Bathsheba skirted the buttress, and beheld the hole
and the tomb, its delicately veined surface splashed and
stained just as Troy had seen it and left it two hours
earlier. On the other side of the scene stood Gabriel.
His eyes, too, were fixed on the tomb, and her arrival
having been noiseless, she had not as yet attracted his
attention. Bathsheba did not at once perceive that the
grand tomb and the disturbed grave were Fanny's, and
she looked on both sides and around for some humbler
mound,
earthed up and clodded in the usual way. Then
her eye followed Oak's, and she read the words with
which the inscription opened : --
"Erected by Francis Troy in Beloved Memory of
Fanny Robin.'
Oak saw her, and his first act was to gaze inquiringly
and learn how she received this knowledge of the
authorship of the work, which to himself had caused
considerable astonishment. But such discoveries did
not much affect her now. Emotional convulsions seemed
to have become the commonplaces of her history, and
she bade him good morning, and asked him to fill in
the hole with the spade which was standing by. Whilst
Oak was doing as she desired, Bathsheba collected the
flowers, and began planting them with that sympathetic
manipulation of roots and leaves which is so conspicuous
in a woman's gardening, and which flowers seem to
understand and thrive upon. She requested Oak to
get the churchwardens to turn the leadwork at the
mouth of the gurgoyle that hung gaping down upon
them, that by this means the stream might be directed
sideways, and a repetition of the accident prevented.
Finally, with the superfluous magnanimity of a woman
whose narrower instincts have brought down bitterness
upon her instead of love, she wiped the mud spots from
the tomb as if she rather liked its words than otherwise,
ADVENTURES BY THE SHORE
TROY wandered along towards the south. A composite
feeling, made up of disgust with the, to him, humdrum
tediousness of a farmer's life, gloomly images of her who
lay in the churchyard, remorse, and a general averseness
to his wife's society, impelled him to seek a home in any
place on earth save Weatherbury. The sad accessories
of Fanny's end confronted him as vivid pictures which
threatened to be indelible, and made life in Bathsheba's
house intolerable. At three in the afternoon he found
himself at the foot of a slope more than a mile in length,
which ran to the ridge of a range of hills lying parallel
with the shore, and forming a monotonous barrier between
the basin of cultivated country inland and the wilder
scenery of the coast. Up the hill stretched a road
nearly straight and perfectly white, the two sides
approaching each other in a gradual taper till they
met the sky at the top about two miles off. Through+
out the length of this narrow and irksome inclined plane
not a sign of life was visible on this garish afternoon
Troy toiled up the road with a languor and depression
greater than any he had experienced for many a day
and year before. The air was warm and muggy, and
the top seemed to recede as he approached.
At last he reached the summit, and a wide and
novel prospect burst upon him with an effect almost like
that of the Pacific upon Balboa's gaze. The broad
steely sea, marked only by faint lines, which had a
semblance of being etched thereon to a degree not deep
enough to disturb its general evenness, stretched the
whole width of his front and round to the right, where,
near the town and port of Budmouth, the sun bristled
down upon it, and banished all colour, to substitute in
its place a clear oily polish. Nothing moved in sky,
land, or sea, except a frill of milkwhite foam along the
nearer angles of the
shore, shreds of which licked the
contiguous stones like tongues.
He descended and came to a small basin of sea
enclosed by the cliffs. Troy's nature freshened within
him ; he thought he would rest and bathe here before
going farther. He undressed and plunged in. Inside
the cove the water was uninteresting to a swimmer,
being smooth as a pond, and to get a little of the ocean
swell, Troy presently swam between the two projecting
spurs of rock which formed the pillars of Hercules to
this miniature Mediterranean. Unfortunately for Troy
a current unknown to him existed outside, which, un+
important to craft of any burden, was awkward for a
swimmer who might be taken in it unawares. Troy
found himself carried to the left and then round in a
swoop out to sea.
He now recollected the place and its sinister
character. Many bathers had there prayed for a dry
death from time to time, and, like Gonzalo also, had
been unanswered ; and Troy began to deem it possible
that he might be added to their number. Not a boat
of any kind was at present within sight, but far in the
distance Budmouth lay upon the sea, as it were quietly
regarding his efforts, and beside the town the harbour
showed its position by a dim meshwork of ropes and
spars. After welinigh exhausting himself in attempts
to get back to the mouth of the cove, in his weakness
swimming several inches deeper than was his wont,
keeping up his breathing entirely by his nostrils, turning
upon his back a dozen times over, swimming <1en papillon>1
and so on, Troy resolved as a last resource to tread
water at a slight incline, and so endeavour to reach the
shore at any point, merely giving himself a gentle
impetus inwards whilst carried on in the general direc+
tion of the tide. This, necessarily a slow process, he
found to be not altogether so difficult, and though there
was no choice of a landing-place -- the objects on shore
passing by him in a sad and slow procession -- he per+
ceptibly approached the extremity of a spit of land yet
further to the right, now well defined against the sunny
portion of the horizon- While the swimmer s eye's were
fixed upon the spit as his only means of salvation on
this side of the
Unknown, a moving object broke the
outline of the extremity, and immediately a ship's boat
appeared manned with several sailor lads, her bows
towards the sea.
All Troy's vigour spasmodically revived to prolong
the struggle yet a little further. Swimming with his
right arm, he held up his left to hail them, splashing
upon the waves, and shouting with all his might. From
the position of the setting sun his white form was
distinctly visible upon the now deep-hued bosom of the
sea to the east of the boat, and the men saw him at
once. Backing their oars and putting the boat about,
they pulled towards him with a will, and in five or six
minutes from the time of his first halloo, two of the
sailors hauled him in over the stern.
They formed part of a brig's crew, and had come
ashore for sand. Lending him what little clothing they
could spare among them as a slight protection against
late they made again towards the roadstead where their
And now night drooped slowly upon the wide watery
levels in front; and at no great distance from them,
where the shoreiine curved round, and formed a long
riband of shade upon the horizon, a series of points of
yellow light began to start into existence, denoting the
spot to be the site of Budmouth, where the lamps were
being lighted along the parade. The cluck of their
oars was the only sound of any distinctness upon the
sea, and as they laboured amid the thickening shades
the lampiights grew larger, each appearing to send a
flaming sword deep down into the waves before it, until
there arose, among other dim shapes of the kind, the
form of the vessel for which they were bound.
DOUBTS ARISE -- DOUBTS LINGER
BATHSHEBA underwent the enlargement of her
Husband's absence from hours to days with a slight
feeling of suprise, and a slight feeling of relief; yet
neither sensation rose at any time far above the level
commonly designated as indifference. She belonged to
him : the certiinties of that position were so well defined,
and the reasonable probabilies of its issue so bounded
that she could not speculate on contingenciezs. Taking
no further interest in herself as a splendid woman, she
acquired the indifferent feelings of an outsider in contem+
plating her probable fate as a singular wretch ; for Bath+
sheba drew herself and her future in colours that no
reality could exceed for darkness. Her original vigorous
pride of youth had sickened, and with it had declined
all her anzieties about coming years, since anxiety
recognizes a better and a worse alternative, and Bath+
sheba had made up her mind that alternatives on any
noteworthy scale had ceased for her. Soon, or later --
and that not very late -- her husband would be home
again. And then the days of their tenancy of the
Upper Farm would be numbered. There had origin+
ally been shown by the agent to the estate some distrust
of Bathsheba's tenure as James Everdene's successor,
on the score of her sex, and her youth, and her beauty ;
but the peculiar nature of her uncle's will, his own
frequent testimony before his death to her cleverness
in such a pursuit, and her vigorous marshalling of the
numerous flocks and herds which came suddenly into
her hands before negotiations were concluded, had won
confidence in her powers, and no further objections had
been raised. She had latterly been in great doubt as
to what the legal effects of her marriage would be upon
her position; but no notice had been taken as yet of
her change of name, and only one point was clear -- that
in the event of her own or her husband's inability to
meet the agent at the
forthcoming January rent-day,
very little consideration would be shown, and, for that
matter, very little would be deserved. Once out of the
farm, the approach of poverty would be sure.
Hence Bathsheba lived in a perception that her
purposes were broken of. She was not a woman who
could hope on without good materials for the process,
differing thus from the less far-Sighted and energetic,
though more petted ones of the sex, with whom hope
goes on as a sort of clockwork which the merest food
and shelter are sufficient to wind up; and perceiving
clearly that her mistake had been a fatal one, she
accepted her position, and waited coldly for the end.
The first Saturday after Troy's departure she went
to Casterbridge alone, a journey she had not before
taken since her marriage. On this Saturday Bathsheba
was passing slowly on foot through the crowd of rural
business-men gathered as usual in front ot the market+
house, who were as usual gazed upon by the burghers
with feelings that those healthy lives were dearly paid
for by exclusion from possible aldermanship, when a
man, who had apparently been following her, said some
words to another on her left hand. Bathsheba's ears
were keen as those of any wild animal, and she dis+
tinctly heard what the speaker said, though her back
was towards him
"I am looking for Mrs. Troy. Is that she there?'
" Yes ; that's the young lady, I believe,' said the
the person addressed.
"I have some awkward news to break to her. Her
husband is drowned.'
As if endowed with the spirit of prophecy, Bathsheba
gasped out, "No, it is not true; it cannot be true!'
Then she said and heard no more. The ice of self+
command which had latterly gathered over her was
broken, and the currents burst forth again, and over
whelmed her. A darkness came into her eyes, and she
fell.
But not to the ground. A gloomy man, who had
been observing her from under the portico of the old
corn-exchange when she passed through the group
without, stepped quickly to her side at the moment of
her exclamation, and caught her in his arms as she sank
down.
"What is it?' said Boldwood, looking up at the
bringer of the big news, as he supported her.
"Her husband was drowned this week while bathing
in Lulwind Cove. A coastguardsman found his clothes,
and brought them into Budmouth yestersay.'
Thereupon a strange fire lighted up Boldwood's eye,
and his face flushed with the suppressed excitement of
an unutterable thought. Everybody's glance was now
centred upon him and the unconsious Bathsheba. He
lifted her bodily off the ground, and smoothed down
the folds of her dress as a child might have taken a
storm-beaten bird and arranged its ruffled plumes, and
bore her along the pavement to the King's Arms Inn.
Here he passed with her under the archway into a
private room; and by the time he had deposited -- so
lothly -- the precious burden upon a sofa, Bathsheba had
opened her eyes. Remembering all that had occurred,
she murmured, 'I want to go home .! '
Boldwood left the room. He stood for a moment in
the passage to recover his senses. The experience had
been too much for his consciousness to keep up with,
and now that he had grasped it it had gone again. For
those few heavenly, golden moments she had been in his
arms. What did it matter about her not knowing it? She
had been close to his breast ; he had been close to hers.
He started onward again, and sending a woman to
her, went out to ascertain all the facts of the case.
These appeared to be limited to what he had already
heard. He then ordered her horse to be put into the
gig, and when all was ready returned to inform her.
He found that, though still pale and unwell, she had in
the meantime sent for the Budmouth man who brought
the tidings, and learnt from him all there was to know.
Being hardly in a condition to drive home as she
had driven to town, Boldwood, with every delicacy of
manner and feeling, offered to get her a driver, or to
give her a seat in his phaeton, which was more com+
fortable than her own conveyance. These proposals
Bathsheba gently declined, and the farmer at once de+
parted.
About half-an-hour later she invigorated herself by
an effort, and took her seat and the reins as usuai-in
external
appearance much as if nothing had happened.
She went out of the town by a tortuous back street, and
drove slowly along, unconscious of the road and the
scene. The first shades of evening were showing them+
selves when Bathsheba reached home, where, silently
alighting and leaving the horse in the hands of the boy,
she proceeded at once upstairs. Liddy met her on the
landing. The news had preceded Bathsheba to Weather+
bury by half-an-hour, and Liddy looked inquiringly into
her mistress's face. Bathsheba had nothing to say.
She entered her bedroom and sat by the window, and
thought and thought till night enveloped her, and the
extreme lines only of her shape were visible. Somebody
came to the door, knocked, and opened it.
' Well, what is it, Liddy ? ' she said.
'I was thinking there must be something got for you
to wear,' said Liddy, with hesitation.
'What do you mean ?'
' Mourning.'
' No, no, no,' said Bathsheba, hurriedly.
'But I suppose there must be something done for
poor -- -- '
' Not at present, I think. It is not necessary.'
' Why not, ma'am ? '
' Because he's still alive.'
' How do you know that ? ' said Liddy, amazed.
' I don't know it. But wouldn't it have heen different,
or shouldn't I have heard more, or wouldn't they have
found him, Liddy ? -- or-i don't know how it is, but
death would have been different from how this is. I am
perfectly convinced that he is still alive .! '
Bathsheba remained firm in this opinion till Monday,
when two circumstances conjoined to shake it. The
first was a short paragraph in the local newspaper, which,
beyond making by a methodizing pen formidable pre+
sumptive evidence of Troy's death by drowning, con+
tained the important testimony of a young Mr. Barker,
M.D., of Budmouth, who spoke to being an eyewitness
of the accident, in a letter to the editor. In this he
stated that he was passing over the cliff on the remoter
side of the
cove just as the sun was setting. At that
time he saw a bather carried along in the current outside
the mouth of the cove, and guessed in an instant that
there was but a poor chance for him unless he should
be possessed of unusual muscular powers. He drifted
behind a projection of the coast, and Mr. Barker followed
along the shore in the same direction. But by the time
that he could reach an elevation sufficiently great to
command a view of the sea beyond, dusk had set in, and
nothing further was to be seen.
The other circumstance was the arrival of his clothes,
when it became necessary for her to examine and identify
them -- though this had virtually been done long before
by those who inspected the letters in his pockets. It
was so evident to her in the midst of her agitation that
Troy had undressed in the full conviction of dressing
again almost immediately, that the notion that anything
but death could have prevented him was a perverse one
to entertain.
Then Bathsheba said to herself that others were
assured in their opinion; strange that she should not
be. A stmnge reflection occured to her, causing her
face to flush. Suppose that Troy had followed Fanny
into another world. Had he done this intentionally, yet
contrived to make his death appear like an accident ?
Nevertheless, this thought of how the apparent might
differ from the reai-made vivid by her bygone jealousy
of Fanny, and the remorse he had shown that night
-- did not blind her to the perception of a likelier
difference, less tragic, but to herself far more disastrous.
When alone late that evening beside a small fire, and
much calmed down, Bathsheba took Troy's watch into
her hand, which had been restored to her with the rest
of the articles belonging to him. She opened the case
as he had opened it before her a week ago. There was
the little coil of pale hair which had been as the fuze to
this great explosion.
'He was hers and she was his; they should be gone
together,' she said. 'I am nothing to either of them,
and why should I keep her hair?' She took it in her
hand, and held it over the fire. ' No-i'll not burn it
-i'll keep it in memory of her, poor thing !. ' she added,
snatching back her hand.
OAK'S ADVANCEMENY -- A GREAT HOPE
THE later autumn and the winter drew on apace,
and the leaves lay thick upon the turf of the glades
and the mosses of the woods. Bathsheba, having
previously been living in a state of suspended feeling
which was not suspense, now lived in a mood of
quietude which was not precisely peacefulness. While
she had known him to be alive she could have thought
of his death with equanimity; but now that it might be
she had lost him, she regretted that he was not hers
still. She kept the farm going, raked in her profits
without caring keenly about them, and expended
money on ventures because she had done so in bygone
days, which, though not long gone by, seemed infinitely
removed from her present. She looked back upon that
past over a great gulf, as if she were now a dead person,
having the faculty of meditation still left in her, by
means of which, like the mouldering gentlefolk of the
poet's story, she could sit and ponder what a gift life
used to be.
However, one excellent result of her general apathy
was the long-delayed installation of Oak as bailiff; but
he having virtually exercised that function for a long
time already, the change, beyond the substantial in+
crease of wages it brought, was little more than a
nominal one addressed to the outside world.
Boldwood lived secluded and inactive. Much of
his wheat and all his barley of that season had been
spoilt by the rain. It sprouted, grew into intricate
mats, and was ultimately thrown to the pigs in armfuls.
The strange neglect which had produced this ruin
and waste became the subject of whispered talk among
all the people round; and it was elicited from one of
Boldwood's men that forgetfulness had nothing to do
with it, for he had been reminded of the danger to
his corn as many times and as persistently as inferiors
dared to do. The sight of the
pigs turning in disgust
from the rotten ears seemed to arouse Boldwood, and
he one evening sent for Oak. Whether it was sug+
gested by Bathsheba's recent act of promotion or not,
the farmer proposed at the interview that Gabriel
should undertake the superintendence of the Lower
Farm as well as of Bathsheba's, because of the necessity
Boldwood felt for such aid, and the impossibility of
discovering a more trustworthy man. Gabriel's malig+
nant star was assuredly setting fast.
Bathsheba, when she learnt of this proposai-for
Oak was obliged to consult her -- at first languidly
objected. She considered that the two farms together
were too extensive for the observation of one man.
Boldwood, who was apparently determined by personal
rather than commercial reasons, suggested that Oak
should be furnished with a horse for his sole use,
when the plan would present no difficulty, the two
farms lying side by side. Boldwood did not directly
communicate with her during these negotiations, only
speaking to Oak, who was the go-between throughout.
All was harmoniously arranged at last, and we now
see Oak mounted on a strong cob, and daily trotting
the length breadth of about two thousand acres
in a cheerful spirit of surveillance, as if the crops
belonged to him -- the actual mistress of the one-half
and the master of the other, sitting in their respective
homes in gloomy and sad seclusion.
Out of this there arose, during the spring succeeding,
a talk in the parish that Gabriel Oak was feathering his
nest fast.
' Whatever d'ye think,' said Susan Tall, ' Gable Oak
is coming it quite the dand. He now wears shining
boots with hardly a hob in 'em, two or three times
a-week, and a tall hat a-Sundays, and 'a hardly knows
the name of smockfrock. When I see people strut
enough to he cut up into bantam cocks, I stand
dormant with wonder, and says no more .! '
It was eventually known that Gabriel, though paid
a fixed wage by Bathslieba independent of the fluctua+
tions of agricultural profits, had made an engagement
with Boldwood by which Oak was to receive a share
of the receipts -- a small share certainly, yet it was
money of a higher quality than mere wages, and
capable of expansion in a way that wages were not.
Some were beginning to consider Oak a 'near' man,
for though his condition had thus far improved, he
lived in no better style than hefore, occupying the
same cottage, paring his own potatoes, mending his
stockings, and sometimes even making his bed with
his own hands. But as Oak was not only provokingly
indifferent to public opinion, but a man who clung
persistently to old habits and usages, simply because
they were old, there was room for doubt as to his
motives.
A great hope had latterly germinated in Boldwood,
whose unreasoning devotion to Bathsheba could only
be characterized as a fond madness which neither
time nor circumstance, evil nor good report, could
weaken or destroy. This fevered hope had grown up
again like a grain of mustard-seed during the quiet
which followed the hasty conjecture that Troy was
drowned. He nourished it fearfully, and almost
shunned the contemplation of it in earnest, lest facts
should reveal the wildness of the dream. Bathsheba
having at last been persuaded to wear mourning, her
appearance as she entered the church in that guise
was in itself a weekly addition to his faith that a
time was coming -- very far off perhaps, yet surely
nearing -- when his waiting on events should have
its reward. How long he might have to wait he had
not yet closely considered. what he would try to
recognize was that the severe schooling she had been
subjected to had made Bathsheba much more con+
siderate than she had formerly been of the feelings of
others, and he trusted that, should she be willing at
any time in the future to marry any man at all, that
man would be himself. There was a substratum of
good feeling in her: her self-reproach for the injury
she had thoughtlessly done him might be depended
upon now to a much greater extent than before her
infatuation and disappointment. It would be possible
to approach her by the channel of her good nature,
and to suggest a friendly businessiike compact between
them for fulfilment at some future day, keeping the
passionate side of his desire entirely out of her sight.
Such was Boldwood's hope.
To the eyes of the middle-aged, Bathsheba was
perhaps additionally charming just now. Her exuber+
ance cf spirit was pruned down ; the original phantom
of delight had shown
herself to be not too bright for
human nature's daily food, and she had been able to
enter this second poetical phase without losing much
of the first in the process.
Bathsheba's return from a two months' visit to her
old aunt at Norcombe afforded the impassioned and
yearning farmer a pretext for inquiring directly after
her -- now possibly in the ninth month of her
widowhood -- and endeavouring to get a notion of her
middle of the haymaking, and Boldwood contrived to
'I am glad to see you out of doors, Lydia,' he said
She simpered, and wondered in her heart why he
'I hope Mrs. Troy is quite well after her long
the coldest-hearted neighbour could scarcely say less
'She is quite well, sir.
'Yes, cheerful.
'Fearful, did you say?'
'O no. I merely said she was cheerful.'
'Tells you all her affairs?'
'No, sir.
'Some of them?'
'Yes, sir.
'Mrs Troy puts much confidence in you, Lydia;
and very wisely, perhaps.'
'She do, sir. I've been with her all through her
troubles, and was with her at the time of Mr.Troy's
going and all. And if she were to marry again I
expect I should bide with her.'
'She promises that you shali -- quite natural,' said
the strategic lover, throbbing throughout him at the
presumption which Liddy's words appeared to warrant
-- that his darling had thought of re-marriage.
'No -- -she doesn't promise it exactly. I merely
judge on my own account.
'Yes yes, I understand. When she alludes to the
possibility of marrying again, you conclude -- -- '
'She never do allude to it, sir,' said Liddy, thinking
how very stupid Mr. Boldwood was getting.
'Of course not,' he returned hastily, his hope falling
again. ' You needn't take quite such long reaches with
your rake, Lydia -- short and quick ones are best. Well,
perhaps, as she is absolute mistress again now, it is wise
of her to resolve never to give up her freedom.'
' My mistress did certainly once say, though not
seriously, that she supposed she might marry again at
the end of seven years from last year, if she cared to
risk Mr. Troy's coming back and claiming her.'
' Ah, six years from the present time. Said that she
might. She might marry at once in every reasonable
person's opinion, whatever the lawyers may say to the
contrary.'
'Have you been to ask them?' said Liddy, innocently.
' Not I,' said Boldwood, growing red. ' Liddy, you
needn't stay here a minute later than you wish, so Mr,
Oak says. I am now going on a little farther. Good'
afternoon.'
He went away vexed with himself, and ashamed of
having for this one time in his life done anything which
could be called underhand. Poor Boldwood had no
more skill in finesse than a battering-ram, and he was
uneasy with a sense of having made himself to appear
stupid and, what was worse, mean. But he had, after
all, lighted upon one fact by way of repayment. It was
a singularly fresh and fascinating fact, and though not
without its sadness it was pertinent and real. In little
more than six years from this time Bathsheba might
certainly marry him. There was something definite in
that hope, for admitting that there might have been no
deep thought in her words to Liddy about marriage,
they showed at least her creed on the matter.
This pleasant notion was now continually in his mind.
Six years were a long time, but how much shorter than
never, the idea he had for so long been obliged to
endure .! Jacob had served twice seven years for
Rachel: what were six for such a woman as this ? He
tried to like the notion of waiting for her better than
that of winning her at once. Boldwood felt his love
to be so deep and strong and eternal, that it was pos+
sible she
had never yet known its full volume, and this
patience in delay would afford him an opportunity of
giving sweet proof on the point. He would annihilate
the six years of his life as if they were minutes -- so little
did he value his time on earth beside her love. He
would let her see, all those six years of intangible ether+
eal courtship, how little care he had for anything but as
it bore upon the consummation.
Meanwhile the early and the late summer brought
round the week in which Greenhill Fair was held.
This fair was frequently attended by the folk of Weather+
bury.
THE SHEEP FAIR -- TROY TOUCHES HIS WIFE'S HAND
GREENHILL was the Nijni Novgorod of South
Wessex; and the busiest, merriest, noisiest day of the
whole statute number was the day of the sheep fair.
This yearly gathering was upon the summit of a hill
which retained in good preservation the remains of an
ancient earthwork, consisting of a huge rampart and
entrenchnaent of an oval form encircling the top of
the hill, though somewhat broken down here and there.
To each of the two chief openings on opposite sides a
winding road ascended, and the level green space of
ten or fifteen acres enclosed by the bank was the
site of the fair. A few permanent erections dotted the
spot, but the majority of visitors patronized canvas alone
for resting and feeding under during the time of their
sojourn here.
Shepherds who attended with their flocks from long
distances started from home two or three days, or even
a week, before the fair, driving their charges a few miles
each day -- not more than ten or twelve -- and resting
them at night in hired fields by the wayside at pre+
viously chosen points, where they fed, having fasted since
morning. The shepherd of each flock marched behind,
a bundle containing his kit for the week strapped upon
his shoulders, and in his hand his crook, which he used
as the staff of his pilgrimage. Several of the sheep
would get worn and lame, and occasionally a lambing
occurred on the road. To meet these contingencies,
there was frequently provided, to accompany the flocks
from the remoter points, a pony and waggon into which
the weakly ones were taken for the remainder of the
journey.
The Weatherbury Farms, however, were no such
long distance from the hill, and those arrangements
were not necessary in their case. But the large united
flocks of Bathsheba and Farmer Boldwood formed a
valuable and imposing multitude which
demanded much
attention, and on this account Gabriel, in addition to
Boldwood's shepherd and Cain Ball, accompanied them
along the way, through the decayed old town of Kings'
bere, and upward to the plateau, -- old George the dog
of course behind them.
When the autumn sun slanted over Greenhill this
morning and lighted the dewy flat upon its crest, nebu+
lous clouds of dust were to be seen floating between
the pairs of hedges which streaked the wide prospect
around in all directions. These gradually converged
upon the base of the hill, and the flocks became
individually visible, climbing the serpentine ways which
led to the top. Thus, in a slow procession, they entered
the opening to which the roads tended, multitude after
multitude, horned and hornless -- blue flocks and red
flocks, buff flocks and brown flocks, even green and
salmon-tinted flocks, according to the fancy of the
colourist and custom of the farm. Men were shouting,
dogs were barking, with greatest animation, but the
thronging travellers in so long a journey had grown
nearly indifferent to such terrors, though they still
bleated piteously at the unwontedness of their experi+
ences, a tall shepherd rising here and there in the midst
of them, like a gigantic idol amid a crowd of prostrate
devotees.
The great mass of sheep in the fair consisted of
South Downs and the old Wessex horned breeds, to
the latter class Bathsheba's and Farmer Boldwood's
mainly belonged. These filed in about nine o'clock,
their vermiculated horns lopping gracefully on each side
of their cheeks in geometrically perfect spirals, a small
pink and white ear nestling under each horn. Before
and behind came other varieties, perfect leopards as to
the full rich substance of their coats, and only lacking the
spots. There were also a few of the Oxfordshire breeed,
whose wool was beginning to curl like a child's flaxen
hair, though surpassed in this respect by the effeminate
Leicesters, which were in turn less curly than the Cots+
wolds. But the most picturesque by far was a small
flock of Exmoors, which chanced to be there this year.
Their pied faces and legs, dark and heavy horns, tresses
of wool hanging round their swarthy
foreheads, quite
relieved the monotony of the flocks in that quarter.
All these bleating, panting, and weary thousands had
entered and were penned before the morning had far
advanced, the dog belonging to each flock being tied to
the corner of the pen containing it. Alleys for pedes+
trians intersected the pens, which soon became crowded
with buyers and sellers from far and near.
In another part of the hill an altogether different
scene began to force itself upon the eye towards mid+
day. A circular tent, of exceptional newness and size,
was in course of erection here. As the day drew on,
the flocks began to change hands, lightening the shep+
herd's responsibilities ; and they turned their attention
to this tent and inquired of a man at work there, whose
soul seemed concentrated on tying a bothering knot in
no time, what was going on.
' The Royal Hippodrome Performance of Turpin's
Ride to York and the Death of Black Bess,' replied the
man promptly, without turning his eyes or leaving off
tying.
As soon as the tent was completed the band struck
up highly stimulating harmonies, and the announce+
ment was publicly made, Black Bess standing in a con+
spicuous position on the outside, as a living proof, If
proof were wanted, of the truth of the oracular utterances
from the stage over which the people were to enter.
These were so convinced by such genuine appeals to
heart and understanding both that they soon began to
crowd in abundantly, among the foremost being visible
Jan Coggan and Joseph Poorgrass, who were holiday
keeping here to-day,
''That's the great ruffen pushing me .! ' screamed a
woman in front of Jan over her shoulder at him when
the rush was at its fiercest.
'How can I help pushing ye when the folk behind
push me ?' said Coggan, in a deprecating tone, turning
without turning his body, which was jammed as in a vice.
Tjere was a silence ; then the drums and trumpets
again sent forth their echoing notes. The crowd was
again ectasied,
and gave another lurch in which Coggan
and Poorgrass were again thrust by those behind upon
the women in front.
'O that helpless feymels should be at the mercy of
she swayed like a reed shaken by the wind.
Now,' said Coggan, appealing in an earnest voice
to the public at large as it stood clustered about his
shoulder-blades,'ded ye ever hear such onreasonable
woman as that ? Upon my carcase, neighbours, if I
could onlyu get out of this cheesewring, the damn women
might eat the show for me.! '
'Don't ye lose yer temper, Jan!' implored Joseph
Poorgrass, in a whisper. ' They might get their men to
murder us, for I think by the shine of their eyes that
they be a sinful form of womankind.'
Jan held his tongue, as if he had no objection to be
pacified to please a friend, and they gradually reached
the foot of the ladder, Poorgrass being flattened like a
jumping-jack, and the sixpence, for admission, which he
had got ready half-an-hour earlier, having become so
reeking hot in the tight squeeze of his excited hand that
the woman in spangles, brazen rings set with glass
diamonds, and with chalked face and shoulders, who
took the money of him, hastily dropped it again from
a fear that some trick had been played to burn her
fingers. So they all entered, and the cloth of the
tent, to the eyes of an observer on the outside, became
bulged into innumerable pimples such as we observe on
a sack of potatoes, caused by the various human heads,
backs, and elbows at high pressure within.
At the rear of the large tent there were two small
dressing-tents. One of these, alloted to the male per+
formers, was partitioned into halves by a cloth ; and in
one of the divisions there was sitting on the grass, puli
ing on a pair of jack-boots, a young man whom we
instantly recognise as Sergeant Troy.
Troy's appearance in this position may be briefly
accounted for. The brig aboard which he was taken in
Budmouth Roads was about to start on a voyage, though
somewhat short of hands. Troy read the articles and
joined, but before they sailed a boat was despatched
across the bay to Lulwind cove; as he
had half expected,
his clothes were gone. He ultimately worked his passage
to the United States, where he made a precarious living
in various towns as Professor of Gymnastics, Sword
Exercise, Fencing, and Pugilism. A few months were
sufficient to give him a distaste for this kind of life.
There was a certain animal form of refinement in his
nature; and however pleasant a strange condition might
be whilst privations were easily warded off, it was dis+
advantageously coarse when money was short. There
was ever present, too, the idea that he could claim a
home and its comforts did he but chose to return to
England and Weatherbury Farm. Whether Bathsheba
thought him dead was a frequent subject of curious
conjecture. To England he did return at last ; but the
but the fact of drawing nearer to Weatherbury abstracted its
fascinations, and his intention to enter his old groove at
the place became modified. It was with gloom he con+
sidered on landing at Liverpool that if he were to go home
his reception would be of a kind very unpleasant to con+
template ; for what Troy had in the way of emotion was
an occasional fitful sentiment which sometimes caused
him as much inconvenience as emotion of a strong and
healthy kind. Bathsheba was not a women to be made
a fool of, or a woman to suffer in silence; and how
could he endure existence with a spirited wife to whom
at first entering he would be beholden for food and
lodging ? Moreover, it was not at all unlikely that his
wife would fail at her farming, if she had not already
done so; and he would then become liable for her
maintenance : and what a life such a future of poverty
with her would be, the spectre of Fanny constantly be+
tween them, harrowing his temper and embittering her
words! Thus, for reasons touching on distaste, regret,
and shame commingled, he put off his return from day
to day, and would have decided to put it off altogether
if he could have found anywhere else the ready-made
establishment which existed for him there.
At this time -- the July preceding the September in
which we find at Greenhill Fair -- he fell in with a
travelling circus which was performing in the outskirts of
a northern town. Troy introduced himself to the
manager by taming a restive horse of the troupe, hitting
a suspended apple with pistol-+
bullet fired from the
animal's back when in full gallop, and other feats. For
his merits in these -- all more or less based upon his ex+
periences as a dragoon-guardsman -- Troy was taken into
the company, and the play of Turpin was prepared with
a view to his personation of the chief character. Troy
was not greatly elated by the appreciative spirit in which
he was undoubtedly treated, but he thought the engage+
ment might afford him a few weeks for consideration.
It was thus carelessly, and without having formed any
definite plan for the future, that Troy found himself
at Greenhill Fair with the rest of the company on this
day.
And now the mild autumn sun got lower, and in
front of the pavilion the following incident had taken
place. Bathsheba -- who was driven to the fair that day
by her odd man Poorgrass -- had, like every one else,
read or heard the announcement that Mr. Francis, the
Great Cosmopolitan Equestrian and Roughrider, would
enact the part of Turpin, and she was not yet too old
and careworn to be without a little curiosity to see him.
This particular show was by far the largest and grandest
in the fair, a horde of little shows grouping themselves
under its shade like chickens around a hen. The crowd
had passed in, and Boldwood, who had been watching
all the day for an opportunity of speaking to her, seeing
her comparatively isolated, came up to her side.
"I hope the sheep have done well to-day, Mrs. Troy?'
he said, nervously.
"O yes, thank you,' said Bathsheba, colour springing
up in the centre of her cheeks. "I was fortunate
enough to sell them all just as we got upon the hill, so
we hadn't to pen at all.'
"And now you are entirely at leisure ?'
"Yes, except that I have to see one more dealer in
two hours' time : otherwise I should be going home.
was looking at this large tent and the announcement.
Have you ever seen the play of "Turpin's Ride to
York?" Turpin was a real man, was he not ?'
"O yes, perfectly true -- all of it. Indeed, I think
I've heard Jan Coggan say that a relation of his knew
Tom King, Turpin's friend, quite well.'
"Coggan is rather given to strange stories connected
with his relations, we must remember. I hope they
can all be believed.'
"Yes, yes; we know Coggan. But Turpin is true
enough. You have never seen it played, I suppose?'
"Never. I was not allowed to go into these places
when I was young. Hark.! What's that prancing?
How they shout!'
"Black Bess just started off, I suppose. Am I right
in supposing you would like to see the performance,
Mrs. Troy ? Please excuse my mistake, if it is one;
but if you would like to, I'll get a seat for you with
pleasure.' Perceiving that she hesitated, he added, 'I
myself shall not stay to see it: I've seen it before.'
Now Bathsheba did care a little to see the show, and
had only withheld her feet from the ladder because she
feared to go in alone. She had been hoping that Oak
might appear, whose assistance in such cases was always
accepted as an inalienable right, but Oak was nowhere
to be seen; and hence it was that she said, "Then if
you will just look in first, to see if there's room, I think
I will go in for a minute or two.'
And so a short time after this Bathsheba appeared
in the tent with Boldwood at her elbow, who, taking
her to a " reserved ' seat, again withdrew.
This feature consisted of one raised bench in very
conspicuous part of the circle, covered with red cloth,
and floored with a piece of carpet, and Bathsheba
immediately found, to her confusion, that she was the
single reserved individual in the tent, the rest of the
crowded spectators, one and all, standing on their legs
on the borders of the arena, where they got twice as
good a view of the performance for half the money.
Hence as many eyes were turned upon her, enthroned
alone in this place of honour, against a scarlet back+
ground, as upon the ponies and clown who were
engaged in preliminary exploits in the centre, Turpin
not having yet appeared. Once there, Bathsheba was
forced to make the best of it and remain: she sat
down, spreading her skirts with some dignity over the
unoccupied space on each side of her, and giving a
new and feminine aspect to the pavilion. In a few
minutes she noticed the fat red nape of Coggan's neck
among those standing just
below her, and Joseph Poor+
grass's saintly profile a little further on.
The interior was shadowy with a peculiar shade.
The strange luminous semi-opacities of fine autumn
afternoons and eves intensified into Rembrandt effects
the few yellow sunbeams which came through holes
and divisions in the canvas, and spirted like jets of
gold-dust across the dusky blue atmosphere of haze
pervading the tent, until they alighted on inner surfaces
of cloth opposite, and shone like little lamps suspended
there.
Troy, on peeping from his dressing-tent through a
slit for a reconnoitre before entering, saw his unconscious
wife on high before him as described, sitting as queen
of the tournament. He started back in utter confusion,
for although his disguise efectually concealed his person+
ality, he instantly felt that she would be sure to recognize
his voice. He had several times during the day thought
of the possibility of some Weatherbury person or other
appearing and recognizing him; but he had taken the
risk carelessly. If they see me, let them, he had said.
But here was Bathsheba in her own person; and the
reality of the scene was so much intenser than any of
his prefigurings that he felt he had not half enough
considered the point.
She looked so charming and fair that his cool mood
about Weatherbury people was changed. He had not
expected her to exercise this power over him in the
twinkling of an eye. Should he go on, and care nothing ?
He could not bring himself to do that. Beyond a politic
wish to remain unknown, there suddenly arose in him
now a sense of shame at the possibility that his
attractive young wife, who already despised him, should
despise him more by discovering him in so mean a
condition after so long a time. He actually blushed
at the thought, and was vexed beyond measure that
his sentiments of dislike towards Weatherbury should
have led him to dally about the country in this way.
But Troy was never more clever than when absolutely
at his wit's end. He hastily thrust aside the curtain
dividing his own little dressing space from that of the
manager and proprietor, who now appeared as the
individual called Tom King as far
down as his waist, and
as the aforesaid respectable manager thence to his toes.
"Here's the devil to pay!' said Troy.
"How's that ?'
"Why, there's a blackguard creditor in the tent I don't
want to see, who'll discover me and nab me as sure as
Satan if I open my mouth. What's to be done?'
You must appear now, I think.'
"I can't.'
But the play must proceed.'
"Do you give out that Turpin has got a bad cold,
and can't speak his part, but that he'll perform it just
the same without speaking.'
The proprietor shook his head.
"Anyhow, play or no play, I won't open my mouth,
said Troy, firmly.
"Very well, then let me see. I tell you how we'll
manage,' said the other, who perhaps felt it would be
extremely awkward to offend his leading man just at
this time. "I won't tell 'em anything about your
keeping silence; go on with the piece and say nothing,
doing what you can by a judicious wink now and then,
and a few indomitable nods in the heroic places, you
know. They'll never find out that the speeches are
omitted.'
This seemed feasible enough, for Turpin's speeches
were not many or long, the fascination of the piece
lying entirely in the action ; and accordingly the play
began, and at the appointed time Black Bess leapt
into the grassy circle amid the plaudits of the spectators.
At the turnpike scene, where Bess and Turpin are hotly
pursued at midnight by the officers, and half-awake
gatekeeper in his tasselled nightcap denies that any
horseman has passed, Coggan uttered a broad-chested
"Well done!' which could be heard all over the fair
above the bleating, and Poorgrass smiled delightedly
with a nice sense of dramatic contrast between our
hero, who coolly leaps the gate, and halting justice in
the form of his enemies, who must needs pull up
cumbersomely and wait to be let through. At the
death of Tom King, he could not refrain from seizing
Coggan by the hand, and whispering, with tears in his
eyes, "Of
course he's not really shot, Jan -- only
seemingly!' And when the last sad scene came on,
and the body of the gallant and faithful Bess had to
be carried out on a shutter by twelve volunteers from
among the spectators, nothing could restrain Poorgrass
from lending a hand, exclaiming, as he asked Jan to
join him, "Twill be something to tell of at Warren's in
future years, Jan, and hand down to our children.' For
many a year in Weatherbury, Joseph told, with the air
of a man who had had experiences in his time, that he
touched with his own hand the hoof of Bess as she lay
upon the board upon his shoulder. If, as some thinkers
hold, immortality consists in being enshrined in others'
memories, then did Black Bess become immortal that
day if she never had done so before.
Meanwhile Troy had added a few touches to his
ordinary make-up for the character, the more effectually
to disguise himself, and though he had felt faint qualms
on first entering, the metamorphosis effected by judici+
ously "lining' his face with a wire rendered him safe from
the eyes of Bathsheba and her men. Nevertheless, he
was relieved when it was got through.
There a second performance in the evening, and
the tent was lighted up. Troy had taken his part very
quietly this time, venturing to indroduce a few speeches
on occasion ; and was just concluding it when, whilst
standing at the edge of the circle contiguous to the first
row of spectators, he observed within a yard of him the
eye of a man darted keenly into his side features. Troy
hastily shifted his position, after having recognized in
sworn enemy, who still hung about the outskirts of
At first Troy resolved to take no notice and abide
by circumstances. That he had been recongnized by
this man was highly probable; yet there was room for
a doubt. Then the great objection he had felt to
allowing news of his proximity to precede him to
Weatherbury in the event of his return, based on a
feeling that knowledge of his present occupation would
discredit him still further in his wife's eyes, returned
in full force. Moreover, should he resolve not to
return at all, a tale of his being alive and being in
the neighbourhood would be
awkward ; and he was
anxious to acquire a knowledge of his wife's temporal
affairs before deciding which to do.
In this dilemma Troy at once went out to recon+
noitre. It occurred to him that to find Pennyways, and
make a friend of him if possible, would be a very wise
act. He had put on a thick beard borrowed from the
establishment, and this he wandered about the fair+
field. It was now almost dark, and respectable people
were getting their carts and gigs ready to go home
The largest refreshment booth in the fair was provided
by an innkeeper from a neighbouring town. This was
considered an unexceptionable place for obtaining the
necessary food and rest: Host Trencher (as he was
jauntily called by the local newspaper) being a sub+
stantial man of high repute for catering through all the
county round. The tent was divided into first and
second-class compartments, and at the end of the first+
class division was a yet further enclosure for the most
exclusive, fenced of from the body of the tent by a
luncheon-bar, behind which the host himself stood
bustling about in white apron and shirt-sleeves, and look+
ing as if he had never lived anywhere but under canvas
all his life. In these penetralia were chairs and a table,
which, on candles being lighted, made quite a cozy and
luxurious show, with an urn, plated tea and coffee pots,
china teacups, and plum cakes.
Troy stood at the entrance to the booth, where a
gipsy-woman was frying pancakes over a little fire of
sticks and selling them at a penny a-piece, and looked
over the heads of the people within. He could see
nothing of Pennyways, but he soon discerned Bathsheba
through an opening into the reserved space at the
further end. Troy thereupon retreated, went round the
tent into the darkness, and listened. He could hear
Bathsheba's voice immediately inside the canvas ; she
was conversing with a man. A warmth overspread his
face: surely she was not so unprincipled as to flirt in
a fair! He wondered if, then, she reckoned upon his
death as an absolute certainty. To get at the root of
the matter, Troy took a penknife from his pocket and
softly made two little cuts crosswise in the cloth, which,
by folding back the corners left a hole the size of a
wafer. Close to this he placed his face, withdrawing
it again in a movement of surprise; for his eye had
been within twelve inches of the top of Bathsheba's
head. lt was too near to be convenient. He made
another hole a little to one side and lower down, in a
shaded place beside her chair, from which it was easy
and safe to survey her by looking horizontally'.
Troy took in the scene completely now. She was
leaning back, sipping a cup of tea that she held in her
hand, and the owner of the male voice was Boldwood,
who had apparently just brought the cup to her,
Bathsheba, being in a negligent mood, leant so idly
against the canvas that it was pressed to the shape of
her shoulder, and she was, in fact, as good as in 'rioy's
arms; and he was obliged to keep his breast carefully
backward that she might not feel its warmth through the
cloth as he gazed in.
Troy found unexpected chords of feeling to be stirred
again within him as they had been stirred earlier in the
day. She was handsome as ever, and she was his. It
was some minutes before he could counteract his sudden
wish to go in, and claim her. Then he thought how
the proud girl who had always looked down upon him
even whilst it was to love him, would hate him on dis+
covering him to be a strolling player. Were he to make
himself known, that chapter of his life must at all risks
be kept for ever from her and from the Weatherbury
people, or his name would be a byword throughout the
parish. He would be nicknamed 'Turpin' as long as
he lived. Assuredly before he could claim her these few
past months of his existence must be entirely blotted out.
"Shall I get you another cup before you start,
ma'am?' said Farmer Boldwood.
I thank you," said Bathsheba. " But I must be going
at once. It was great neglect in that man to keep me
waiting here till so late. I should have gone two hours
ago, if it had not been for him. I had no idea of
coming in here; but there's nothing so refreshing as a
cup of tea, though I should never have got one if you
hadn't helped me.'
Troy scrutinized her cheek as lit by the candles,
and watched each varying shade thereon, and the
white shell-like sinuosities
of her little ear. She took
out her purse and was insisting to Boldwood on paying
for her tea for herself, when at this moment Pennyways
entered the tent. Troy trembled : here was his scheme
for respectability endangered at once. He was about
to leave his hole of espial, attempt to follow Pennyways,
and find out if the ex-bailiff had recognized him, when
he was arrested by the conversation, and found he was
too late.
"Excuse me, ma'am,' said Pennyways ; "I've some
private information for your ear alone.'
"I cannot hear it now,' she said, coldly. That
Bathsheba could not endure this man was evident; in
fact, he was continually coming to her with some tale
or other, by which he might creep into favour at the
expense of persons maligned.
"I'll write it down,' said Pennyways, confidently. He
stooped over the table, pulled a leaf from a warped
pocket-book, and wrote upon the paper, in a round
hand --
" <1Your husband is here. I've seen him. Who's the fool
now?'
This he folded small, and handed towards her.
Bathsheba would not read it ; she would not even put
out her hand to take it. Pennyways, then, with a laugh
of derision, tossed it into her lap, and, turning away,
left her.
From the words and action of Pennyways, Troy,
though he had not been able to see what the ex-bailiff
wrote, had not a moment's doubt that the note referred
to him. Nothing that he could think of could be done
to check the exposure. " Curse my luck.!' he whispered,
and added imprecations which rustled in the gloom like
a pestilent wind. Meanwhile Boldwood said, taking up
the note from her lap --
"Don't you wish to read it, Mrs. Troy? If not,
I'll destroy it."
" Oh, well,' said Bathsheba, carelessly, "perhaps it is
unjust not to read it; but I can guess what it is about.
He wants me to recommend him, or it is to tell me of
some little scandal or another connected with my work+
people. He's always doing that.'
Bathsheba held the note in her right hand. Bold+
wood handed towards her a plate of cut bread-and+
butter; when, in order to take a slice, she put the note
into her left hand, where she was still holding the purse,
and then allowed her hand to drop
beside her close to
the canvas. The moment had come for saving his game,
and Troy impulsively felt that he would play the card,
For yet another time he looked at the fair hand, and
saw the pink finger-tips, and the blue veins of the
wrrist, encircled by a bracelet of coral chippings which
she wore: how familiar it all was to him.! Then, with
the lightning action in which he was such an adept, he
noiselessly slipped his hand under the bottom of the
tent-cloth, which was far from being pinned tightly down,
lifted it a little way, keeping his eye to the hole,
snatched the note from her fingers, dropped the canvas,
and ran away in the gloom towards the bank and ditch,
smiling at the scream of astonishment which burst from
her. Troy then slid down on the outside of the rampart,
hastened round in the bottom of the entrenchment to
a distance of a hundred yards, ascended again, and
crossed boldly in a slow walk towards the front entrance
of the tent. His object was now to get to Pennyways,
and prevent a repetition of the announcement until
such time as he should choose.
Troy reached the tent door, and standing among the
groups there gathered, looked anxiously for Pennyways,
evidently not wishing to make himself prominent by
inquiring for him. One or two men were speaking of
a daring attempt that had just been made to rob a
young lady by lifting the canvas of the tent beside her.
It was supposed that the rogue had imagined a slip of
paper which she held in her hand to he a bank note,
for he had seized it, and made off with it, leaving her
purse behind. His chagrin and disappointment at dis+
covering its worthlessness would be a good joke, it was
said. However, the occurrence seemed to have become
known to few, for it had not interrupted a fiddler, who
had lately begun playing by the door of the tent, nor
the four bowed old men with grim countenances and
walking-sticks in hand, who were dancing "Major
Malley's Reel' to the tune. Behind these stood
Pennyways. Troy glided up to him, beckoned, and
whispered a few words ; and with a mutual glance of
concurrence the two men went into the night together.
BATHSHEBA TALKS WITH HER OUTRIDER
THE arrangement for getting back again to Weather+
bury had been that Oak should take the place of Poor+
grass in Bathsheba's conveyance and drive her home,
it being discovered late in the afternoon that Joseph
was suffering from his old complaint, a multiplying eye,
and was, therefore, hardly trustworthy as coachman and
protector to a woman. But Oak had found himself so
occupied, and was full of so many cares relative to
those portions of Boldwood's flocks that were not
disposed of, that Bathsheba, without telling Oak or
anybody, resolved to drive home herself, as she had
many times done from Casterbridge Market, and trust
to her good angel for performing the journey un+
molested. But having fallen in with Farmer Boldwood
accidentally (on her part at least) at the refreshment+
tent, she found it impossible to refuse his offer to ride
on horseback beside her as escort. It had grown
twilight before she was aware, but Boldwood assured
her that there was no cause for uneasiness, as the
moon would be up in half-an-hour.
Immediately after the incident in the tent, she had
risen to go -- now absolutely alarmed and really grateful
for her old lover's protection -- though regretting Gabriel's
absence, whose company she would have much preferred,
as being more proper as well as more pleasant, since he
was her own managing-man and servant. This, how+
ever, could not be helped; she would not, on any
consideration, treat Boldwood harshly, having once
already iliused him, and the moon having risen, and
the gig being ready, she drove across the hilitop in
the wending way's which led downwards -- to oblivious
obscurity, as it seemed, for the moon and the hill it
flooded with light were in appearance on a level, the
rest of the world lying as a vast shady concave between
them. Boldwood mounted his horse, and
followed in
close attendance behind. Thus they descended into
the lowlands, and the sounds of those left on the
hill came like voices from the sky, and the lights were
as those of a camp in heaven. They soon passed the
merry stragglers in the immediate vicinity of the hill,
traversed Kingsbere, and got upon the high road.
The keen instincts of Bathsheba had perceived that
the farmer's staunch devotion to herself was still un+
diminished, and she sympathized deeply. The sight
had quite depressed her this evening; had reminded
her of her folly; she wished anew, as she had wished
many months ago, for some means of making repara+
tion for her fault. Hence her pity for the man who
so persistently loved on to his own injury and per+
manent gloom had betrayed Bathsheba into an injudi+
cious considerateness of manner, which appeared
almost like tenderness, and gave new vigour to the
exquisite dream of a Jacob's seven years service in
poor Boldwood's mind.
He soon found an excuse for advancing from his
position in the rear, and rode close by her side. They
had gone two or three miles in the moonlight, speaking
desultorily across the wheel of her gig concerning the
fair, farming, Oak's usefulness to them both, and other
indifferent subjects, when Boldwood said suddenly
and simply --
"Mrs. Troy, you will marry again some day?'
This point-blank query unmistakably confused her,
it was not till a minute or more had elapsed that
she said, "I have not seriously thought of any such
subject.'
"I quite understand that. Yet your late husband
has been dead nearly one year, and -- '
" You forget that his death was never absolutely
proved, and may not have taken place; so that I may
not be really a widow,' she said, catching at the straw of
escape that the fact afforded
"Not absolutely proved, perhaps, but it was proved
circumstantially. A man saw him drowning, too. No
reasonable person has any doubt of his death; nor
have you, ma'am, I should imagine.
"O yes I have, or I should have acted differently,'
she said, gently. "From the first, I have had a strange
uaccountable
feeling that he could not have perished,
but I have been able to explain that in several ways
since. Even were I half persuaded that I shall see
him no more, I am far from thinking of marriage with
another. I should be very contemptible to indulge in
such a thought.'
They were silent now awhile, and having struck into
an unfrequented track across a common, the creaks of
Boldwood's saddle and gig springs were all the
sounds to be heard. Boldwood ended the pause.
"Do you remember when I carried you fainting in
my arms into the King's Arms, in Casterbridge? Every
dog has his day: that was mine.'
"I know-i know it all,' she said, hurriedly.
"I, for one, shall never cease regretting that events
so fell out as to deny you to me.'
"I, too, am very sorry,' she said, and then checked
herself. "I mean, you know, I am sorry you thought
i -- '
"I have always this dreary pleasure in thinking over
those past times with you -- that I was something to
you before <1he>1 was anything, and that you belonged
<1almost>1 to me. But, of course, that's nothing. You
never liked me.'
" I did ; and respected you, too.'
"Do you now?'
"Yes.'
"Which?'
"How do you mean which?'
"Do you like me, or do you respect me?'
"I don't know -- at least, I cannot tell you. It is
difficult for a woman to define her feelings in language
which is chiefly made by men to express theirs. My
treatment of you was thoughtless, inexcusable, wicked.!
I shall eternally regret it. If there had been anything
I could have done to make amends I would most
gladly have done it -- there was nothing on earth I so
longed to do as to repair the error. But that was not
possible.'
"Don't blame yourself -- you were not so far in the
wrong as you suppose. Bathsheba, suppose you had
real complete proof
that you are what, in fact, you are
-- a widow -- would you repair the old wrong to me by
marrying me?'
"I cannot say. I shouldn't yet, at any rate.'
"But you might at some future time of your life?'
"O yes, I might at some time.'
"Well, then, do you know that without further proof
of any kind you may marry again in about six years
from the present -- subject to nobody's objection or
blame?'
"O yes,' she said, quickly. " I know all that. But
don't talk of it -- seven or six years -- where may we all
be by that time?'
"They will soon glide by, and it will seem an
astonishingly short time to look back upon when they
are past -- much less than to look forward to now.'
"Yes, yes; I have found that in my own experience.'
" Now listen once more,' Boldwood pleaded. "If I
wait that time, will you marry me? You own that you
owe me amends-iet that be your way of making them.'
"But, Mr. Boldwood -- six years -- '
"Do you want to be the wife of any other man?'
"No indeed! I mean, that I don't like to talk
about this matter now. Perhaps it is not proper, and
I ought not to allow it. Let us drop it. My husband
may be living, as I said.'
"Of course, I'll drop the subject if you wish. But
propriety has nothing to do with reasons. I am a
middle-aged man, willing to protect you for the
remainder of our lives. On your side, at least, there
is no passion or blamable haste -- on mine, perhaps,
there is. But I can't help seeing that if you choose
from a feeling of pity, and, as you say, a wish to make
amends, to make a bargain with me for a far-ahead
time -- an agreement which will set all things right
and make me happy, late though it may be -- there is
no fault to be found with you as a woman. Had'nt
I the first place beside you? Haven't you been
almost mine once already? Surely you can say to
me as much as this, you will have me back again
should circumstances permit ? Now, pray speak ! O
Bathsheba, promise -- it is only a little promise -- that
if you marry again, you will marry me.!'
His tone was so excited that she almost feared him
at this
moment, even whilst she sympathized. It was
a simple physical fear -- the weak of the strong; there
no emotional aversion or inner repugnance. She
said, with some distress in her voice, for she remembered
vividly his outburst on the Yalbury Road, and shrank
from a repetition of his anger: --
"I will never marry another man whilst you wish me
to be your wife, whatever comes -- but to say more -- you
have taken me so by surprise -- -'
"But let it stand in these simple words -- that in six
years' time you will be my wife ? Unexpected accidents
we'll not mention, because those, of course, must be
given way to. Now, this time I know you will keep
your word.'
"That's why I hesitate to give it.'
"But do give it ! Remember the past, and be kind.'
She breathed; and then said mournfully : "O what
shall I do ? I don't love you, and I much fear that I
never shall love you as much as a woman ought to love
a husband. If you, sir, know that, and I can yet give
you happiness by a mere promise to marry at the end of
six years, if my husband should not come back, it is a
great honour to me. And if you value such an act of
friendship from a woman who doesn't esteem her+
self as she did, and has little love left, why it
wili -- '
"Promise!.'
" -- Consider, if I cannot promise soon.'
"But soon is perhaps never?'
"O no, it is not.! I mean soon. Christmas, we'll
say.'
"Christmas.!' He said nothing further till he
added : "Well, I'll say no more to you about it till that
time.'
Bathsheba was in a very peculiar state of mind,
which showed how entirely the soul is the slave of the
body, the ethereal spirit dependent for its quality upon
the tangible flesh and blood. It is hardly too much to
say that she felt coerced by a force stronger than her
own will, not only into the act of promising upon this
singularly remote and vague matter, but into the emo+
tion of fancying that she ought to promise. When the
weeks intervening between the night of this conversa+
tion and Christmas day began perceptibly to diminish,
her anxiety and perplexity increased.
One day she was led by an accident into an oddly
confidential dialogue with Gabriel about her difficulty
It afforded her a little relief -- of a dull and cheerless
kind. They were auditing accounts, and something
occurred in the course of their labours which led Oak
to say, speaking of Boldwood, " He'll never forget you,
ma'am, never.'
Then out came her trouble before she was aware ;
and she told him how she had again got into the toils;
what Boldwood had asked her, and how he was ex+
pecting her assent. "The most mournful reason of all
for my agreeing to it,' she said sadly, 'and the true
reason why I think to do so for good or for evil, is this
-- it is a thing I have not breathed to a living soul as
yet-i believe that if I don't give my word, he'll go out
of his mind.'
"Really, do ye?' said Gabriel, gravely.
'I believe this,' she continued, with reckless frank+
ness; "and Heaven knows I say it in a spirit the very
reverse of vain, for I am grieved and troubled to my
soul about it-i believe I hold that man's future in my
hand. His career depends entirely upon my treatment
of him. O Gabriel, I tremble at my responsibility, for
it is terrible.!'
"Well, I think this much, ma'am, as I told you years
ago,' said Oak, 'that his life is a total blank whenever
he isn't hoping for 'ee; but I can't suppose-i hope
that nothing so dreadful hangs on to it as you fancy.
His natural manner has always been dark and strange,
you know. But since the case is so sad and oddiike,
why don't ye give the conditional promise? I think I
would.'
"But is it right? Some rash acts of my past life
have taught me that a watched woman must have very
much circumspection to retain only a very little credit,
and I do want and long to be discreet in this! And
six years -- why we may all be in our graves by that
BATHSHEBA TALKS WITH OAK
time, even if Mr. Troy does not come back again, which
he may not impossibly do.! Such thoughts give a sort
of absurdity to the scheme. Now, isn't it preposterous,
Gabriel? However he came to dream of it, I cannot think.
But is it wrong? You know -- you are older than I.'
"Eight years older, ma'am.'
"Yes, eight years -- and is it wrong?'
"Perhaps it would be an uncommon agreement for a
man and woman to make : I don't see anything really
wrong about it,' said Oak, slowly. "In fact the very
thing that makes it doubtful if you ought to marry en
under any condition, that is, your not caring about him
-- for I may suppose -- -- '
"Yes, you may suppose that love is wanting,' she
said shortly. "Love is an utterly bygone, sorry, worn+
out, miserable thing with me -- for him or any one else.'
"Well, your want of love seems to me the one thing
that takes away harm from such an agreement with him.
If wild heat had to do wi' it, making ye long to over+
come the awkwardness about your husband's vanishing,
it mid be wrong ; but a cold-hearted agreement to oblige
a man seems different, somehow. The real sin, ma'am
in my mind, lies in thinking of ever wedding wi' a man
you don't love honest and true.'
"That I'm willing to pay the penalty of,' said Bath+
sheba, firmly. " You know, Gabriel, this is what I can+
not get off my conscience -- that I once seriously injured
him in sheer idleness. If I had never played a trick
upon him, he would never have wanted to marry me.
O if I could only pay some heavy damages in money
to him for the harm I did, and so get the sin off my
soul that way!... Well, there's the debt, which can
only be discharged in one way, and I believe I am
bound to do it if it honestly lies in my power, without
any consideration of my own future at all. When a
rake gambles away his expectations, the fact that it is
an inconvenient debt doesn't make him the less liable.
I've been a rake, and the single point I ask you is, con+
sidering that my own scruples, and the fact that in the
eye of the law my husband is only missing, will keep
any man from marrying me until seven years have
passed -- am I free to entertain such an idea, even
though 'tis a sort of penance -- for it will be that? I
hate the act of marriage under such circumstances, and
the class of women I should seem to belong to by doing
it!'
"It seems to me that all depends upon whe'r you
think, as everybody else do, that your husband is
dead.'
"I shall get to, I suppose, because I cannot help
feeling what would have brought him back long before
this time if he had lived.'
"Well, then, in religious sense you will be as free
to <1think>1 o' marrying again as any real widow of one
year's standing. But why don't ye ask Mr. Thirdly's
advice on how to treat Mr. Boldwood?'
"No. When I want a broad-minded opinion for
general enlightenment, distinct from special advice, I
never go to a man who deals in the subject pro+
fessionally. So I like the parson's opinion on law, the
lawyer's on doctoring, the doctor's on business, and my
business-man's -- that is, yours -- on morals.'
'And on love -- -- '
"My own.'
"I'm afraid there's a hitch in that argument,' said
Oak, with a grave smile.
She did not reply at once, and then saying, 'Good
evening Mr. Oak,' went away.
She had spoken frankly, and neither asked nor ex+
pected any reply from Gabriel more satisfactory than
that she had obtained. Yet in the centremost parts of
her complicated heart there existed at this minute a
little pang of disappointment, for a reason she would
not allow herself to recognize. Oak had not once
wished her free that he might marry her himself -- had
not once said, "I could wait for you as well as he.'
That was the insect sting. Not that she would have
listened to any such hypothesis. O no -- for wasn't
she saying all the time that such thoughts of the future
were improper, and wasn't Gabriel far too poor a man
to speak sentiment to her? Yet he might have just
hinted about that old love of his, and asked, in a playful
off-hand way, if he might speak of it. It would have
seemed pretty and sweet, if no more; and then she
would have shown how kind and inoffensive a woman's
"No' can sometimes be. But to give such cool advice
-- the very advice she had asked for -- it ruffled our
heroine all the afternoon.
CONVERGING COURSES
I
CHRISTMAS-EVE came, and a party that Boldwood
was to give in the evening was the great subject of talk
in Weatherbury. It was not that the rarity of Christmas
parties in the parish made this one a wonder, but that
Boldwood should be the giver. The announcement
had had an abnormal and incongruous sound, as if one
should hear of croquet-playing in a cathedral aisle, or
that some much-respected judge was going upon the
stage. That the party was intended to be a truly jovial
one there was no room for doubt. A large bough of
mistletoe had been brought from the woods that day, and
suspended in the hall of the bachelor's home. Holly
and ivy had followed in armfuls. From six that morning
till past noon the huge wood fire in the kitchen roared
and sparkled at its highest, the kettle, the saucepan, and
the threeiegged pot appearing in the midst of the flames
like Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego ; moreover,
roasting and basting operations were continually
carried on in front of the genial blaze.
As it grew later the fire was made up in the large
long hall into which the staircase descended, and all
encumbrances were cleared out for dancing. The log
which was to form the back-brand of the evening fire
was the uncleft trunk of a tree, so unwieldy that it could
be neither brought nor rolled to its place ; and accord+
ingly two men were to be observed dragging and heaving
it in by chains and levers as the hour of assembly drew
near.
In spite of all this, the spirit of revelry was wanting
In the atmosphere of the house. Such a thing had
never been attempted before by its owner, and it was
now done as by a wrench. Intended gaieties would
insist upon appearing like solemn grandeurs, the organ+
ization of the whole effort was
carried out coldly,by
hirelings, and a shadow seemed to move about the
rooms, saying that the proceedings were unnatural to
the place and the lone man who lived therein, and hence
not good.
Bathsheba was at this time in her room, dressing for
the event. She had called for candles, and Liddy
entered and placed one on each side of her mistress's
glass.
"Don't go away, Liddy,' said Bathsheba, almost
timidly.' I am foolishly agitated-i cannot tell why.
I wish I had not been obliged to go to this dance; but
there's no escaping now. I have not spoken to Mr.
Boldwood since the autumn, when I promised to see
him at Christmas on business, but I had no idea there
was to be anything of this kind.'
"But I would go now,' said Liddy, who was going
with her; for Boldwood had been indiscriminate in his
invitations.
"Yes, I shall make my appearance, of course,' said
Bathsheba. ' But I am <1the cause>1 of the party, and that
upsets me! -- Don't tell, Liddy.'
"O no, ma'am, You the cause of it, ma'am ?'
"Yes. I am the reason of the party-i. If it had
not been for me, there would never have been one. I
can't explain any more -- there's no more to be explained.
I wish I had never seen Weatherbury.'
"That's wicked of you -- to wish to be worse off than
you are.'
"No, Liddy. I have never been free from trouble
since I have lived here, and this party is likely to bring
me more. Now, fetch my black silk dress, and see how
it sits upon me.'
"But you will leave off that, surely, ma'am? You
have been a widowiady fourteen months, and ought to
brighten up a little on such a night as this.'
"Is it necessary? No; I will appear as usual, for if
I were to wear any light dress people would say things
about me, and I should seem to he rejoicing when I am
solemn all the time. The party doesn't suit me a bit;
but never mind, stay and help to finish me off.'
III
Boldwood was dressing also at this hour. A tailor
from Casterbridge was with him, assisting him in the
operation of trying on a new coat that had just beem
brought home.
Never had Boldwood been so fastidious, unreasonable
about the fit, and generally difficult to please. The
tailor walked round and round him, tugged at the waist,
pulled the sleeve, pressed out the collar, and for the
first time in his experience Boldwood was not bored+
Times had been when the farmer had exclaimed against
all such niceties as childish, but now no philosophic or
hasty rebuke whatever was provoked by this man for
attaching as much importance to a crease in the coat
as to an earthquake in South America. Boldwood at
last expressed himself nearly satisfied, and paid the bill,
the tailor passing out of the door just as Oak came in
to report progress for the day.
"Oh, Oak,' said Boldwood. "I shall of course see
you here to-night. Make yourself merry. I am deter+
mined that neither expense nor trouble shall be spared.'
"I'll try to be here, sir, though perhaps it may not
be very early,' said Gabriel, quietly. "I am glad indeed
to see such a change in 'ee from what it used to be.'
" Yes-i must own it-i am bright to-night : cheerful
and more than cheerfui-so much so that I am almost
sad again with the sense that all of it is passing away.
And sometimes, when I am excessively hopeful and
blithe, a trouble is looming in the distance : so that I
often get to look upon gloom in me with content, and
to fear a happy mood. Still this may be absurd-i feel
that it is absurd. Perhaps my day is dawning at last.'
"I hope it 'ill be a long and a fair one.'
"Thank you -- thank you. Yet perhaps my cheerfui
mess rests on a slender hope. And yet I trust my hope.
It is faith, not hope. I think this time I reckon with
my host. -- Oak, my hands are a little shaky, or some+
thing; I can't tie this neckerchief properly. Perhaps
you will tie it for me. The fact is, I have not been well
lately, you know.'
"I am sorry to hear that, sir.'
"Oh, it's nothing. I want it done as well as you can,
please. Is there any late knot in fashion, Oak?'
"I don't know, sir,' said Oak. His tone had sunk to
sadness.
Boldwood approached Gabriel, and as Oak tied the
neckerchief the farmer went on feverishly --
"Does a woman keep her promise, Gabriel?'
"If it is not inconvenient to her she may.'
" -- Or rather an implied promise.'
"I won't answer for her implying,' said Oak, with
faint bitterness. "That's a word as full o' holes as a
sieve with them.'
"Oak, don't talk like that. You have got quite
cynical lately -- how is it? We seem to have shifted our
positions: I have become the young and hopeful man,
and you the old and unbelieving one. However, does
a woman keep a promise, not to marry, but to enter on
an engagement to marry at some time? Now you
know women better than i-tell me.'
"I am afeard you honour my understanding too much.
However, she may keep such a promise, if it is made
with an honest meaning to repair a wrong.'
"It has not gone far yet, but I think it will soon --
yes, I know it will,' he said, in an impulsive whisper.
"I have pressed her upon the subject, and she inclines
to be kind to me, and to think of me as a husband at
a long future time, and that's enough for me. How
can I expect more? She has a notion that a woman
should not marry within seven years of her husband's
disappearance -- that her own self shouldn't, I mean --
because his body was not found. It may be merely
this legal reason which influences her, or it may be a
religious one, but she is reluctant to talk on the point+
Yet she has promised -- implied -- that she will ratify an
engagement to-night.'
"Seven years,' murmured Oak.
"No, no -- it's no such thing!' he said, with im+
patience. Five years, nine months, and a few days.
Fifteen months nearly have passed since he vanished,
and is there anything so wonderful in an engagement of
little more than five years?'
"It seems long in a forward view. Don't build too
much upon such promises, sir. Remember, you have
once be'n deceived. Her meaning may be good; but
there -- she's young yet.'
"Deceived? Never! ' said Boldwood, vehemently.
"She never promised me at that first time, and hence
she did not break her promise! If she promises me,
she'll marry me, Bathsheba is a woman to her word.'
IV
Troy was sitting in a corner of The White Hart
tavern at Casterbridge, smoking and drinking a steaming
mixture from a glass. A knock was given at the door,
and Pennyways entered.
"Well, have you seen him?' Troy inquired, pointing
to a chair.
"Boldwood?'
"No -- Lawyer Long.'
"He wadn' at home. I went there first, too.'
"That's a nuisance.'
"'Tis rather, I suppose.'
"Yet I don't see that, because a man appears to be
drowned and was not, he should be liable for anything.
I shan't ask any lawyer -- not I.'
"But that's not it, exactly. If a man changes his
name and so forth, and takes steps to deceive the world
and his own wife, he's a cheat, and that in the eye of
the law is ayless a rogue, and that is ayless a lammocken
vagabond; and that's a punishable situation.'
"Ha-ha! Well done, Pennyways.' Troy had laughed,
but it was with some anxiety that he said, "Now, what
I want to know is this, do you think there's really
anything going on between her and Boldwood? Upon
my soul, I should never have believed it! How she.
must detest me! Have you found out whether she
has encouraged him?'
"I haen't been able to learn. There's a deal of
feeling on his side seemingly, but I don't answer for
her. I didn't know a word about any such thing till
yesterday, and all I heard then was that she was gwine
to the party at his house to-night. This is the first
time she has ever gone there, they say. And they say
that she've not so much as spoke to him since they were
at Greenhill Fair: but what can folk believe o't ? How+
ever, she's not fond of him -- quite offish and quite care
less, I know.'
"I'm not so sure of that.... She's a handsome
woman, Pennyways, is she not? Own that you never
saw a finer or more splendid creature in your life.
Upon my honour, when I set eyes upon her that day
I wondered what I could have been made of to be able
to leave her by herself so long. And then I was
hampered with that bothering show, which I'm free of
at last, thank the stars.' He smoked on awhile, and
then added, "How did she look when you passed by
yesterday?'
"Oh, she took no great heed of me, ye may well
fancy; but she looked well enough, far's I know. Just
flashed her haughty eyes upon my poor scram body, and
then let them go past me to what was yond, much as if
I'd been no more than a leafless tree. She had just got
off her mare to look at the last wring-down of cider for
the year; she had been riding, and so her colours were
up and her breath rather quick, so that her bosom
plimmed and feli-plimmed and feli-every time plain
to my eye. Ay, and there were the fellers round her
wringing down the cheese and bustling about and
saying, Ware o' the pommy, ma'am : 'twill spoil yer
gown. "Never mind me," says she. Then Gabe
brought her some of the new cider, and she must
needs go drinking it through a strawmote, and not in
a nateral way at all. "Liddy," says she, "bring indoors
a few gallons, and I'll make some cider-wine." Sergeant,
I was no more to her than a morsel of scroffin the fuei
house!'
"I must go and find her out at once -- O yes, I see
that-i must go. Oak is head man still, isn't he?'
"Yes, 'a b'lieve. And at Little Weatherbury Farm
too. He manages everything.'
"Twill puzzle him to manage her, or any other man
of his compass!'
"I don't know about that. She can't do without
him, and knowing it well he's pretty independent.
And she've a few soft corners to her mind, though
I've never been able to get into one, the devil's in't!'
"Ah baily she's a notch above you, and you must
own it: a higher class of animai-a finer tissue. How+
ever, stick to me, and neither this haughty goddess,
dashing piece of womanhood, Juno-wife of mine (Juno
was a goddess, you know), nor
anybody else shall hurt
you. But all this wants looking into, I perceive.
What with one thing and another, I see that my work
is well cut out for me.'
v
"How do I look to-night, Liddy?' said Bathsheba,
giving a final adjustment to her dress before leaving the
glass.
"I never saw you look so well before. Yes-i'll tell
you when you looked like it -- that night, a year and a
half ago, when you came in so wildiike, and scolded us
for making remarks about you and Mr. Troy.'
"Everybody will think that I am setting myself to
captivate Mr. Boldwood, I suppose,' she murmured.
"At least they'll say so. Can't my hair be brushed
down a little flatter? I dread going -- yet I dread the
risk of wounding him by staying away.'
"Anyhow, ma'am, you can't well be dressed plainer
than you are, unless you go in sackcloth at once. 'Tis
your excitement is what makes you look so noticeable
to-night.'
"I don't know what's the matter, I feel wretched at
one time, and buoyant at another. I wish I could have
continued quite alone as I have been for the last year
or so, with no hopes and no fears, and no pleasure and
no grief.
"Now just suppose Mr. Boldwood should ask you
-- only just suppose it -- to run away with him, what
would you do, ma'am?'
"Liddy -- none of that,' said Bathsheba, gravely.
"Mind, I won't hear joking on any such matter. Do
you hear?'
"I beg pardon, ma'am. But knowing what rum
things we women be, I just said -- however, I won't
speak of it again.'
"No marrying for me yet for many a year; if ever,
'twill be for reasons very, very different from those you
think, or others will believe! Now get my cloak, for it
is time to go.'
VI
"Oak, said Boldwood, "before you go I want to
mention what has been passing in my mind lately --
that little arrangement we made about your share in the
farm I mean. That share is small, too small, consider+
ing how little I attend to business now, and how much
time and thought you give to it. Well,
since the world
is brightening for me, I want to show my sense of it
by increasing yopur proportion in the partnership. I'll
make a memorandum of the arrangement which struck
me as likely to be convenient, for I haven't time to talk
about it now; and then we'll discuss it at our leisure.
My intention is ultimately to retire from the manage+
ment altogether, and until you can take all the expendi+
ture upon your shoulders, I'll be a sleeping partner in
the stock. Then, if I marry her -- and I hope-i feel I
shall, why -- -- '
"Pray don't speak of it, sir,' said Oak, hastily. "We
don't know what may happen. So many upsets may
befall 'ee. There's many a slip, as they say -- and I
would advise you-i know you'll pardon me this once --
not to be <1too sure>1.'
"I know, I know. But the feeling I have about in+
creasing your share is on account of what I know of you
Oak, I have learnt a little about your secret: your
interest in her is more than that of bailiff for an em+
ployer. But you have behaved like a man, and I, as a
sort of successful rivai-successful partly through your
goodness of heart -- should like definitely to show my
sense of your friendship under what must have been a
great pain to you.'
"O that's not necessary, thank 'ee,' said Oak,
hurriedly. "I must get used to such as that; other
men have, and so shall I.'
Oak then left him. He was uneasy on Boldwood's
account, for he saw anew that this constant passion
of the farmer made him not the man he once had
been.
As Boldwood continued awhile in his room alone --
ready and dressed to receive his company -- the mood of
anxiety about his appearance seemed to pass away, and
to be succeeded by a deep solemnity. He looked out
of the window, and regarded the dim outline of the trees
upon the sky, and the twilight deepening to darkness.
Then he went to a locked closet, and took from
a locked drawer therein a small circular case the size of
a pilibox, and was about to put it into his pocket. But
he lingered to open the cover and take a momentary
glance inside. It contained a woman's finger-ring, set
all the way round with small
diamonds, and from its
appearance had evidently been recently purchased.
Boldwood's eyes dwelt upon its many sparkles a long
time, though that its material aspect concerned him
little was plain from his manner and mien, which were
those of a mind following out the presumed thread of
that jewel's future history.
The noise of wheels at the front of the house became
audible. Boldwood closed the box, stowed it away
carefully in his pocket, and went out upon the landing.
The old man who was his indoor factotum came at the
same moment to the foot of the stairs.
"They be coming, sir-iots of 'em -- a-foot and a+
driving!'
"I was coming down this moment. Those wheels I
heard -- is it Mrs. Troy?'
"No, sir -- 'tis not she yet.'
A reserved and sombre expression had returned to
Boldwood's face again, but it poorly cloaked his feei
ings when he pronounced Bathsheba's name; and his
feverish anxiety continued to show its existence by a
galloping motion of his fingers upon the side of his thigh
as he went down the stairs.
VII
"How does this cover me?' said Troy to Pennyways,
"Nobody would recognize me now, I'm sure.'
He was buttoning on a heavy grey overcoat of
Noachian cut, with cape and high collar, the latter being
erect and rigid, like a girdling wall, and nearly reaching
to the verge of travelling cap which was pulled down
over his ears.
Pennyways snuffed the candle, and then looked up
and deliberately inspected Troy
"You've made up your mind to go then?' he
said.
"Made up my mind? Yes; of course I have.'
"Why not write to her? 'Tis a very queer corner
that you have got into, sergeant. You see all these things
will come to light if you go back, and they won't sound
well at all. Faith, if I was you I'd even bide as you be
-- a single man of the name of Francis. A good wife is
good, but the best wife is not so good
as no wife at all.
Now that's my outspoke mind, and I've been called a
long-headed feller here and there.'
"All nonsense!' said Troy, angrily. "There she is
with plenty of money, and a house and farm, and
horses, and comfort, and here am I living from hand to
mouth -- a needy adventurer. Besides, it is no use
talking now; it is too late, and I am glad of it ; I've been
seen and recognized here this very afternoon. I should
have gone back to her the day after the fair, if it hadn't
been for you talking about the law, and rubbish about
getting a separation; and I don't put it off any longer.
What the deuce put it into my head to run away at all,
I can't think! Humbugging sentiment -- that's what it
was. But what man on earth was to know that his wife
would be in such a hurry to get rid of his name!'
"I should have known it. She's bad enough for
anything.'
"Pennyways, mind who you are talking to.'
"Well, sergeant, all I say is this, that if I were you I'd
go abroad again where I came from -- 'tisn't too late to do
it now. I wouldn't stir up the business and get a bad
name for the sake of living with her -- for all that about
your play-acting is sure to come out, you know, although
you think otherwise. My eyes and limbs, there'll be a
racket if you go back just now -- in the middle of Bold+
wood's Christmasing!'
"H'm, yes. I expect I shall not be a very welcome
guest if he has her there,' said the sergeant, with a slight
laugh. "A sort of Alonzo the Brave; and when I go in
the guests will sit in silence and fear, and all laughter
and pleasure will be hushed, and the lights in the
chamber burn blue, and the worms -- Ugh, horrible! --
Ring for some more brandy, Pennyways, I felt an
awful shudder just then! Well, what is there besides?
A stick-i must have a walking-stick.'
Pennyways now felt himself to be in something of a
difficulty, for should Bathsheba and Troy become recon+
ciled it would be necessary to regain her good opinion
if he would secure the patronage of her husband. I
sometimes think she likes you yet, and is a good woman
at bottom,' he said, as a saving sentence. "But there's
no telling to a certainty from a body's outside. Well,
you'll do as you like about going, of course, sergeant,
and as for me, I'll do as you tell me.'
"Now, let me see what the time is,' said Troy, after
emptying his glass in one draught as he stood. 'Half+
past six o'clock. I shall not hurry along the road, and
shall be there then before nine.'
CONCURRITUR
CONCURRITUR -- HORAE MOMENTO
OUTSIDE the front of Boldwood's house a group of
men stood in the dark, with their faces towards the door,
which occasionally opened and closed for the passage of
some guest or servant, when a golden rod of light would
stripe the ground for the moment and vanish again,
leaving nothing outside but the glowworm shine of the
pale lamp amid the evergreens over the door.
"He was seen in Casterbridge this afternoon -- so the
boy said,' one of them remarked in a whisper. "And l
for one believe it. His body was never found, you know.'
"'Tis a strange story,' said the next. "You may
depend upon't that she knows nothing about it.'
"Not a word.'
"Perhaps he don't mean that she shall,' said another
man.
"If he's alive and here in the neighbourhood, he
means mischief,' said the first. "Poor young thing:
I do pity her, if 'tis true. He'll drag her to the dogs.'
"O no; he'll settle down quiet enough,' said one
disposed to take a more hopeful view of the case.
"What a fool she must have been ever to have had
anything to do with the man! She is so self-willed and
independent too, that one is more minded to say it
serves her right than pity her.'
"No, no. I don't hold with 'ee there. She was no
otherwise than a girl mind, and how couid she tell what
the man was made of? If 'tis really true, 'tis too hard
a punishment, and more than she ought to hae. -- Hullo,
who's that?' This was to some footsteps that were
heard approaching.
"William Smallbury,' said a dim figure in the shades,
coming up and joining them. 'Dark as a hedge, to+
night, isn't it? I all but missed the plank over the river
ath'art there in the bottom --
never did such a thing
before in my life. Be ye any of Boldwood's workfolk?'
He peered into their faces.
"Yes -- all o' us. We met here a few minutes ago.'
"Oh, I hear now -- that's Sam Samway : thought I
knowed the voice, too. Going in?'
"Presently. But I say, William,' Samway whispered,
"have ye heard this strange tale?'
"What -- that about Sergeant Troy being seen, d'ye
mean, souls?' said Smallbury, also lowering his voice.
"Ay: in Casterbridge.'
"Yes, I have. Laban Tall named a hint of it to me
but now -- but I don't think it. Hark, here Laban
comes himself, 'a b'lieve.' A footstep drew near.
"Laban?'
"Yes, 'tis I,' said Tall.
"Have ye heard any more about that?'
"No,' said Tall, joining the group. "And I'm in+
clined to think we'd better keep quiet. If so be 'tis not
true, 'twill flurry her, and do her much harm to repeat
it; and if so be 'tis true, 'twill do no good to forestall
her time o' trouble. God send that it mid be a lie, for
though Henery Fray and some of 'em do speak against
her, she's never been anything but fair to me. She's
hot and hasty, but she's a brave girl who'll never tell a
lie however much the truth may harm her, and I've no
cause to wish her evil.'
"She never do tell women's little lies, that's true ; and
'tis a thing that can be said of very few. Ay, all the
harm she thinks she says to yer face: there's nothing
underhand wi' her.'
They stood silent then, every man busied with his
own thoughts, during which interval sounds of merri+
ment could be heard within. Then the front door again
opened, the rays streamed out, the weliknown form of
Boldwood was seen in the rectangular area of light, the
door closed, and Boldwood walked slowly down the path.
"'Tis master,' one of the men whispered, as he neared
them. "We'd better stand quiet -- he'll go in again
directly. He would think it unseemly o' us to be
loitering here.
Boldwood came on, and passed by the men without
seeing them, they being under the bushes on the grass.
He paused, leant over the gate, and breathed a long
breath. They heard low words come from him.
"I hope to God she'll come, or this night will be
nothing but misery to me! O my darling, my darling,
why do you keep me in suspense like this?'
He said this to himself, and they all distinctly heard
it. Boldwood remained silent after that, and the noise
from indoors was again just audible, until, a few minutes
later, light wheels could be distinguished coming down
the hill. They drew nearer, and ceased at the gate.
Boldwood hastened back to the door, and opened it;
and the light shone upon Bathsheba coming up the
path.
Boldwood compressed his emotion to mere welcome:
the men marked her light laugh and apology as she met
him: he took her into the house; and the door closed
again.
"Gracious heaven, I didn't know it was like that with
him!' said one of the men. "I thought that fancy of
his was over long ago.
"You don't know much of master, if you thought
that,' said Samway.
"I wouldn't he should know we heard what 'a said
for the world,' remarked a third.
"I wish we had told of the report at once,' the first
uneasily continued. "More harm may come of this than
we know of. Poor Mr. Boldwood, it will, be hard upon
en. I wish Troy was in -- -- Well, God forgive me
for such a wish! A scoundrel to play a poor wife such
tricks. Nothing has prospered in Weatherbury since he
came here. And now I've no heart to go in. Let's
look into Warren's for a few minutes first, shall us,
neighbours?'
Samway, Tall, and Smallbury agreed to go to Warren's,
and went out at the gate, the remaining ones entering
the house. The three soon drew near the malt-house,
approaching it from the adjoining orchard, and not by
way of the street. The pane of glass was illuminated
as usual. Smallbury was a little in advance of the rest
when, pausing, he turned suddenly to his companions
and said, "Hist! See there.'
The light from the pane was now perceived to be
shining not upon the ivied wall as usual, but upon some
object close to the glass. It was a human face.
"Let's come closer,' whispered Samway; and they
approached on tiptoe. There was no disbelieving the
report any longer. Troy's face was almost close to the
pane, and he was looking in. Not only was he looking in,
but he appeared to have been arrested by a conversation
which was in progress in the malt-house, the voices of
the interlocutors being those of Oak and the maltster.
"The spree is all in her honour, isn't it -- hey?' said
the old man. "Although he made believe 'tis only
keeping up o' Christmas?'
"I cannot say,' replied Oak.
"O 'tis true enough, faith. I cannot understand
Farmer Boldwood being such a fool at his time of life
as to ho and hanker after thik woman in the way 'a do,
and she not care a bit about en.'
The men, after recognizing Troy's features, withdrew
across the orchard as quietly as they had come. The
air was big with Bathsheba's fortunes to-night : every
word everywhere concerned her. When they were quite
out of earshot all by one instinct paused.
"It gave me quite a turn -- his face,' said Tall,
breathing.
"And so it did me,' said Samway. "What's to be
done?'
"I don't see that 'tis any busincss of ours,' Smallbury
murmured dubiously.
"But it is! 'Tis a thing which is everybody's business,
said Samway. "We know very well that master's on a
wrong tack, and that she's quite in the dark, and we
should let 'em know at once. Laban, you know her
best -- you'd better go and ask to speak to her.'
"I bain't fit for any such thing,' said Laban, nervously.
"I should think William ought to do it if anybody. He's
oldest.'
"I shall have nothing to do with it,' said Smallbury.
"'Tis a ticklish business altogether. Why, he'll go on
to her himself in a few minutes, ye'll see.'
"We don't know that he will. Come, Laban.'
"Very well, if I must I must, I suppose,' Tall reluct+
antly answered. "What must I say?'
"Just ask to see master.'
"O no; I shan't speak to Mr. Boldwood. If I tell
anybody, 'twill be mistress.'
"Very well,' said Samway.
Laban then went to the door. When he opened it
the hum of bustle rolled out as a wave upon a still
strand -- the assemblage being immediately inside the
hali-and was deadened to a murmur as he closed it
again. Each man waited intently, and looked around at
the dark tree tops gently rocking against the sky and
occasionally shivering in a slight wind, as if he took
interest in the scene, which neither did. One of them
began walking up and down, and then came to where
he started from and stopped again, with a sense that
walking was thing not worth doing now.
"I should think Laban must have seen mistress by
this time,' said Smallbury, breaking the silence. "Per+
haps she won't come and speak to him.'
The door opened. Tall appeared, and joined them
"Well?' said both.
"I didn't like to ask for her after all,' Laban faltered
out. "They were all in such a stir, trying to put a little
spirit into the party. Somehow the fun seems to hang
fire, though everything's there that a heart can desire,
and I couldn't for my soul interfere and throw damp
upon it -- if 'twas to save my life, I couldn't!'
"I suppose we had better all go in together,' said
Samway, gloomily. "Perhaps I may have a chance of
saying a word to master.'
So the men entered the hall, which was the room
sellected and arranged for the gathering because of its
size. The younger men and maids were at last just
beginning to dance. Bathshesba had been perplexed
how to act, for she was not much more than a slim
young maid herself, and the weight of stateliness sat
heavy upon her. Sometimes she thought she ought
not to have come under any circumstances; then she
considered what cold unkindness that would have been,
and finally resolved
upon the middle course of staying
for about an hour only, and gliding off unobserved,
having from the first made up her mind that she could
on no account dance, sing, or take any active part in
the proceedings.
Her allotted hour having been passed in chatting
and looking on, Bathsheba told Liddy not to hurry her+
self, and went to the small parlour to prepare for
departure, which, like the hall, was decorated with holly
and ivy, and well lighted up.
Nobody was in the room, but she had hardly
HORAE MOMENTO
been there a moment when the master of the house
entered.
"Mrs. Troy -- you are not going?' he said. "We've
hardly begun!'
"If you'll excuse me, I should like to go now.' Her
manner was restive, for she remembered her promise,
and imagined what he was about to say. "But as it is
not late,' she added, "I can walk home, and leave my
man and Liddy to come when they choose.'
"I've been trying to get an opportunity of speaking
to you,' said Boldwood. "You know perhaps what I
long to say?'
Bathsheba silently looked on the floor.
"You do give it?' he said, eagerly.
"What?' she whispered.
"Now, that's evasion! Why, the promise. I don't
want to intrude upon you at all, or to let it become
known to anybody. But do give your word! A
mere business compact, you know, between two people
who are beyond the influence of passicn.' Boldwood
knew how false this picture was as regarded himself;
but he had proved that it was the only tone in which
she would allow him to approach her. "A promise to
marry me at the end of five years and three-quarters.
You owe it to me!'
"I feel that I do,' said Bathsheba ; "that is, if you
demand it. But I am a changed woman -- an unhappy
woman -- and not -- not -- -- "
" You are still a very beautiful woman, said Boldwood.
Honesty and pure conviction suggested the remark,
unaccompanied by any perception that it might have
been adopted by blunt flattery to soothe and win her.
However, it had not much effect now, for for she said,
in a
passionless murmur which was in itself a proof of
her words: "I have no feeling in the matter at all.
And I don't at all know what is right to do in my
diddicult Position, and I have nobody to advise me. But
I give my promise, if I must. I give it as the rendering of
a debt, conditionally, of course, on my being a widow.'
"You'll marry me between five and six years hence ? '
"Don't press me too hard. I'll marry nobody
else.'
" But surely you will name the time, or there's nothing
in the promise at all?'
"O, I don't know, pray let me go!' she said, her
bosom beginning to rise. "I am afraid what to do.!
want to be just to you, and to be that seems to be wrong+
ing myself, and perhaps it is breaking the commandments.
There is considerable doubt of his death, and then it
is dreadful; let me ask a solicitor, Mr. Boldwood, if I
ought or no!'
"Say the words, dear one, and the subject shall be
dismissed ; a blissrul loving intimacy of six years, and
then marriage -- O Bathsheba, say them!' he begged in
a husky voice, unable to sustain the forms of mere
friendship any longer. "Promise yourself to me; I
deserve it, indeed I do, for I have loved you more than
anybody in the world! And if I said hasty words and
showed uncalled-for heat of manner towards you, believe
me, dear, I did not mean to distress you ; I was in
agony, Bathsheba, and I did not know what I said.
You wouldn't let a dog suffer what I have suffered,
could you but know it! Sometimes I shrink from your
knowing what I have felt for you, and sometimes I am
distressed that all of it you never will know. Be
gracious, and give up a little to me, when I would give
up mylife for you!'
The trimmings of her dress, as they quivered against
the light, showed how agitated she was, and at last she
burst out crying. 'And you'll not -- press me -- about
anything more -- if I say in five or six years?' she
sobbed, when she had power to frame the words.
"Yes, then I'll leave it to time.'
"Very well. If he does not return, I'll marry you
in six years from this day, if we both live,' she said
solemnly.
"And you'll take this as a token from me.'
Boldwood had come close to her side, and now he
clasped one of her hands in both his own, and lifted it
to his breast.
"What is it? Oh I cannot wear a ring!' she ex+
claimed, on seeing what he held; "besides, I wouldn't
have a soul know that it's an engagement! Perhaps it
is improper? Besides, we are not engaged in the usual
sense, are we ? Don't insist, Mr. Boldwood -- don't!'
In her trouble at not being able to get her hand away
from him at once, she stamped passionately on the floor
with one foot, and tears crowded to her eyes again.
"It means simply a pledge -- no sentiment -- the seal
of a practical compact,' he said more quictly, but still
retaining her hand in his firm grasp. "Come, now!'
And Boldwood slipped the ring on her finger.
"I cannot wear it,' she said, weeping as if her heart
would break. " You frighten me, almost. So wild a
scheme! Please let me go home!'
" Only to-night : wear it just to-night, to please me!.'
Bathsheba sat down in a chair, and buried her face
in her handkerchief, though Boldwood kept her hand
yet. At length she said, in a sort of hopeless whisper --
"Very well, then, I will to-night, if you wish it so
earnestly. Now loosen my hand; I will, indeed I will
wear it to-night.'
"And it shall be the beginning of a pleasant secret
courtship of six years, with a wedding at the end?'
"It must be, I suppose, since you will have it so!'
she said, fairly beaten into non-resistance.
Boldwood pressed her hand, and allowed it to drop
in her lap. "I am happy now,' he said. "God bless
you!'
He left the room, and when he thought she might
be sufficiently composed sent one of the maids to her
Bathsheba cloaked the effects of the late scene as she
best could, followed the girl, and in a few moments
came downstairs with her hat and cloak on, ready to go.
To get to the door it was necessary to pass through the
hall, and before doing so she paused on the bottom of
the staircase which descended into one corner, to take
a last look at the gathering.
There was no music or dancing in progress just now.
At the
lower end, which had been arranged for the work+
folk specially, a group conversed in whispers, and with
clouded looks. Boldwood was standing by the fireplace,
and he, too, though so absorbed in visions arising from
her promise that he scarcely saw anything, seemed at
that moment to have observed their peculiar manner,
and their looks askance.
"What is it you are in doubt about, men?' he said.
One of them turned and replied uneasily: 'It was
something Laban heard of, that's all, sir.'
"News? Anybody married or engaged, born or
dead?' inquired the farmer, gaily. "Tell it to us, Tall.
One would think from your looks and mysterious ways
that it was something very dreadful indeed.'
"O no, sir, nobody is dead,' said Tall.
"I wish somebody was,' said Samway, in a whisper.
"What do you say, Samway?' asked Boldwood, some+
what sharply. "If you have anything to say, speak out;
if not, get up another dance.'
"Mrs. Troy has come downstairs,' said Samway to
Tall. "If you want to tell her, you had better do it now.'
"Do you know what they mean?' the farmer asked
Bathsheba, across the room.
"I don't in the least," said Bathsheba.
There was a smart rapping at the door. One of
the men opened it instantly, and went outside.
"Mrs. Troy is wanted,' he said, on returning.
"Quite ready,' said Bathsheba. "Though I didn't
tell them to send.'
"It is a stranger, ma'am,' said the man by the door.
"A stranger?' she said.
"Ask him to come in,' said Boldwood.
The message was given, and Troy, wrapped up to
his eyes as we have seen him, stood in the doorway.
There was an unearthly silence, all looking towards
the newcomer. Those who had just learnt that he
was in the neighbourhood recognized him instantly;
those who did not were perplexed. Nobody noted
Bathsheba. She was leaning on the stairs. Her brow
had heavily contracted; her whole face was
pallid, her
lips apart, her eyes rigidly staring at their visitor.
Boldwood was among those who did not notice that
he was Troy. "Come in, come in!' he repeated,
cheerfully, "and drain a Christmas beaker with us,
stranger!'
Troy next advanced into the middle of the room,
took off his cap, turned down his coat-collar, and looked
Boldwood in the face. Even then Boldwood did not
recognize that the impersonator of Heaven's persistent
irony towards him, who had once before broken in
upon his bliss, scourged him, and snatched his delight
away, had come to do these things a second time.
Troy began to laugh a mechanical laugh: Boldwood
recognized him now.
Troy turned to Bathsheba. The poor girl's wretched+
ness at this time was beyond all fancy or narration.
She had sunk down on the lowest stair; and there
she sat, her mouth blue and dry, and her dark eyes
fixed vacantly upon him, as if she wondered whether it
were not all a terrible illusion.
Then Troy spoke. "Bathsheba, I come here for
you!'
She made no reply.
" Come home with me: come!
Bathsheba moved her feet a little, but did not rise.
Troy went across to her.
"come, madam, do you hear what I say?' he said,
peremptorily.
A strange voice came from the fireplace -- a voice
sounding far off and confined, as if from a dungeon.
Hardly a soul in the assembly recognized the thin tones
to be those of Boldwood. Sudden dispaire had trans+
formed him.
"Bathsheba, go with your husband!'
Nevertheless, she did not move. The truth was
that Bathsheba was beyond the pale of activity -- and
yet not in a swoon. She was in a state of mental <1gutta>1
<1serena>1; her mind was for the minute totally deprived of
light at the same time no obscuration was apparent
from without.
Troy stretched out his hand to pull her her towards him,
when she quickly shrank back. This visible dread of
him seemed to irritate Troy, and he seized her arm and
pulled it sharply.
Whether his grasp pinched her, or
whether his mere touch was the ccause, was never known,
but at the moment of his seizure she writhed, and gave
a quick, low scream.
The scream had been heard but a few seconds When
it was followed by sudden deafening report that
echoed through the room and stupefied them all. The
oak partition shook with the concussion, and the place
was filled with grey smoke.
In bewilderment they turned their eyes to Boldwood.
at his back, as stood before the fireplace, was a gun+
rack, as is usual in farmhouses, constructed to hold two
guns. When Bathsheba had cried out in her husband's
grasp, Boldwood's face of gnashing despair had changed.
The veins had swollen, and a frenzied look had gleamed
in his eye. He had turned quickly, taken one of the
guns, cocked it, and at once discharged it at Troy.
Troy fell. The distance apart of the two men was
so small that the charge of shot did not spread in the
least, but passed like a bullet into his body. He uttered
a long guttural sigh -- there was a contraction -- an exten+
sion -- then his muscles relaxed, and he lay still.
Boldwood was seen through the smoke to be now
again engaged with the gun. It was double-barrelled,
and he had, meanwhile, in some way fastened his hand+
kerchief to the trigger, and with his foot on the other
end was in the act of turning the second barrel upon
himself. Samway his man was the first to see this, and
in the midst of the general horror darted up to him.
Boldwood had already twitched the handkerchief, and
the gun exploded a second time, sending its contents,
by a timely blow from Samway, into the beam which
crossed the ceiling.
"Well, it makes no difference!' Boldwood gasped.
"There is another way for me to die.'
Then he broke from Samway, crossed the room to
Bathsheba, and kissed her hand. He put on his hat,
opened the door, and went into the darkness, nobody
thinking of preventing him.
AFTER THE SHOCK
BOLDWOOD passed into the high road and turned
in the direction of Casterbridge. Here he walked at
an even, steady pace over Yalbury Hill, along the dead
level beyond, mounted Mellstock Hill, and between
eleven and twelve o'clock crossed the Moor into the town.
The streets were nearly deserted now, and the waving
lamp-flames only lighted up rows of grey shop-shutters,
and strips of white paving upon which his step echoed
as his passed along. He turned to the right, and halted
before an archway of heavy stonework, which was closed
by an iron studded pair of doors. This was the entrance
to the gaol, and over it a lamp was fixed, the light en+
abling the wretched traveller to find a belipull.
The small wicket at last opened, and a porter
appeared. Boldwood stepped forward, and said some+
thing in a low tone, when, after a delay, another man
came. Boldwood entered, and the door was closed
behind him, and he walked the world no more.
Long before this time Weatherbury had been
thoroughly aroused, and the wild deed which had ter+
minated Boldwood's merrymaking became known to
all. Of those out of the house Oak was one of the
first to hear of the catastophe, and when he entered
the room, which was about five minutes after Boldwood's
exit, the scene was terrible. All the female guests were
huddled aghast against the walls like sheep in a storm,
and the men were bewildered as to what to do. As for
Bathsheba, she had changed. She was sitting on the
floor beside the body of Troy, his head pillowed in her
lap, where she had herself lifted it. With one hand she
held her handkerchief to his breast and covered the
wound, though scarcely a single drop of blood had
flowed, and with the other she tightly clasped one of
his. The household convulsion had made her herself
again. The
temporary coma had ceased, and activity
had come with the necessity for it. Deeds of endur+
ance, which seem ordinary in philosophy, are rare in
conduct, and Bathsheba was astonishing all around her
now, for her philosophy was her conduct, and she
seldom thought practicable what she did not practise.
She was of the stuff of which great men's mothers
are made. She was indispensable to high generation,
hated at tea parties, feared in shops, and loved at crises.
Troy recumbent in his wife's lap formed now the sole
spectacle in the middle of the spacious room.
"Gabriel,' she said, automatically, when he entered,
turning up a face of which only the weliknown lines
remained to tell him it was hers, all else in the picture
having faded quite. "Ride to Casterbridge instantly
for a surgeon. It is, I believe, useless, but go. Mr.
Boldwood has shot my husband.'
Her statement of the fact in such quiet and simple
words came with more force than a tragic declamation,
and had somewhat the effect of setting the distorted
images in each mind present into proper focus. Oak,
almost before he had comprehended anything beyond
the briefest abstract of the event, hurried out of the
room, saddled a horse and rode away. Not till he had
ridden more than a mile did it occur to him that he
would have done better by sending some other man
on this errand, remaining himself in the house. What
had become of Boldwood? He should have been
looked after. Was he mad -- had there been a quarrel?
Then how had Troy got there? Where had he come
from? How did this remarkable reappearance effect
itself when he was supposed by many to be at the
bottom of the sea? Oak had in some slight measure
been prepared for the presence of Troy by hearing a
rumour of his return just before entering Boldwood's
house ; but before he had weighed that information, this
fatal event had been superimposed. However, it was too
late now to think of sending another messenger, and
he rode on, in the excitement of these self-inquiries
not discerning, when about three miles from Caster+
bridge, a square-figured pedestrian passing along
under the dark hedge in the same direction as his
own.
The miles necessary to be traversed, and other
hindrances
incidental to the lateness of the hour and
the darkness of the night, delayed the arrival of Mr,
Aldritch, the surgeon ; and more than three hours
passed between the time at which the shot was fired
and that of his entering the house. Oak was addition+
ally detained in Casterbridge through having to give
notice to the authorities of what had happened; and
he then found that Boldwood had also entered the
town, and delivercd himself up.
In the meantime the surgeon, having hastened into
the hall at Boldwood's, found it in darkness and quite
deserted. He went on to the back of the house,
where he discovered in the kitchen an old man, of
whom he made inquiries.
"She's had him took away to her own house, sir,'
said his informant.
"Who has?' said the doctor.
"Mrs. Troy. 'A was quite dead, sir.'
This was astonishing information. "She had no
right to do that,' said the doctor. "There will have
to be an inquest, and she should have waited to know
what to do.'
"Yes, sir; it was hinted to her that she had better
wait till the law was known. But she said law was
nothing to her, and she wouldn't let her dear husband's
corpse bide neglected for folks to stare at for all the
crowners in England.'
Mr. Aldritch drove at once back again up the
hill to Bathsheba's. The first person he met was
poor Liddy, who seemed literally to have dwindled
smaller in these few latter hours. "What has been
done?' he said.
"I don't know, sir,' said Liddy, with suspended
breath. "My mistress has done it all.'
"Where is she?'
" Upstairs with him, sir. When he was brought
home and taken upstairs, she said she wanted no
further help from the men. And then she called me,
and made me fill the bath, and after that told me I
had better go and lie down because I looked so ill.
Then she locked herself into the room alone with him,
and would not let a nurse come in, or anybody at all.
But I thought l'd wait in the next room in case she
should want me. I heard her moving about inside
for more than an
hour, but she only came out once,
and that was for more candles, because hers had burnt
down into the socket. She said we were to let her
know when you or Mr. Thirdly came, sir.'
Oak entered with the parson at this moment, and
they all went upstairs together, preceded by Liddy
Smallbury. Everything was silent as the grave when
they paused on the landing. Liddy knocked, and
Bathsheba's dress was heard rustling across the room:
the key turned in the lock, and she opened the door.
Her looks were calm and nearly rigid, like a slightly
animated bust of Melpomene.
"Oh, Mr. Aldritch, you have come at last,' she
murmured from her lips merely, and threw back the
door. "Ah, and Mr. Thirdly. Well, all is done, and
anybody in the world may see him now.' She then
passed by him, crossed the landing, and entered
another room.
Looking into the chamber of death she had vacated
they saw by the light of the candles which were on the
drawers a tall straight shape lying at the further end
of the bedroom, wrapped in white. Everything around
was quite orderly. The doctor went in, and after a
few minutes returned to the landing again, where
Oak and the parson still waited.
"It is all done, indeed, as she says,' remarked Mr.
Aldritch, in a subdued voice. "The body has been
undressed and properly laid out in grave clothes.
Gracious Heaven -- this mere girl! She must have the
nerve of a stoic!'
"The heart of a wife merely,' floated in a whisper
about the ears of the three, and turning they saw
Bathsheba in the midst of them. Then, as if at that
instant to prove that her fortitude had been more of
will than of spontaneity, she silently sank down between
them and was a shapeless heap of drapery on the floor.
The simple consciousness that superhuman strain was
no longer required had at once put a period to her
power to continue it.
They took her away into a further room, and the
medical attendance which had been useless in Troy's
case was invaluable in Bathsheba's, who fell into a
series of fainting-fits that had a serious aspect for a
time. The sufferer was got to bed,
and Oak, finding
from the bulletins that nothing really dreadful was to
be apprehended on her score, left the house. Liddy
kept watch in Bathsheba's chamber, where she heard
her mistress, moaning in whispers through the dull
slow hours of that wretched night: "O it is my fault
-- how can I live! O Heaven, how can I live!'
THE MARCH FOLLOWING -- "BATHSHEBA BOLDWOOD'
WE pass rapidly on into the month of March, to a
breezy day without sunshine, frost, or dew. On Yai
bury Hill, about midway between Weatherbury and
Casterbridge, where the turnpike road passes over
the crest, a numerous concourse of people had
gathered, the eyes of the greater number being fre+
quently stretched afar in a northerly direction. The
groups consisted of a throng of idlers, a party of
javelin-men, and two trumpeters, and in the midst
were carriages, one of which contained the high
sheriff. With the idlers, many of whom had mounted
to the top of a cutting formed for the road, were several
Weatherbury men and boys -- among others Poorgrass,
Coggan, and Cain Ball.
At the end of half-an-hour a faint dust was seen in
the expected quarter, and shortly after a travelling+
carriage, bringing one of the two judges on the Western
Circuit, came up the hill and halted on the top. The
judge changed carriages whilst a flourish was blown
by the big-cheeked trumpeters, and a procession being
formed of the vehicles and javelin-men, they all pro+
ceeded towards the town, excepting the Weatherbury
men, who as soon as they had seen the judge move
off returned home again to their work.
" Joseph, I zeed you squeezing close to the carriage,"
said Coggan, as they walked. "Did ye notice my lord
judge's face ?'
"I did,' said Poorgrass. "I looked hard at en, as
if I would read his very soul; and there was mercy
in his eyes -- or to speak with the exact truth required
of us at this solemn time, in the eye that was towards
me.'
"Well, I hope for the best,' said Coggan, though
bad that must be. However, I shan't go to the trial,
and I'd advise the rest of ye that bain't wanted to bide
away. 'Twill disturb his
mind more than anything to
see us there staring at him as if he were a show.'
" The very thing I said this morning,' observed Joseph,
"Justice is come to weigh him in the balances," I said
in my reflectious way, "and if he's found wanting, so
be it unto him," and a bystander said "Hear, hear,
A man who can talk like that ought to be heard.'
But I don't like dwelling upon it, for my few words
are my few words, and not much; though the speech
of some men is rumoured abroad as though by nature
formed for such.'
"So 'tis, Joseph. And now, neighbours, as I said,
every man bide at home.'
The resolution was adhered to ; and all waited
anxiously for the news next day. Their suspense
was diverted, however, by a discovery which was made
in the afternoon, throwing more light on Boldwood's
conduct and condition than any details which had
preceded it.
That he had been from the time of Greenhill Fair
until the fatal Christmas Eve in excited and unusual
moods was known to those who had been intimate
with him; but nobody imagined that there had shown
in him unequivocal symptoms of the mental derange+
ment which Bathsheha and Oak, alone of all others
and at different times, had momentarily suspected.
In a locked closet was now discovered an extraordinary
collection of articles. There were several sets of ladies'
dresses in the piece, of sundry expensive materials;
silks and satins, poplins and velvets, all of colours
which from Bathsheba's style of dress might have been
judged to be her favourites. There were two muffs,
sable and ermine. Above all there was a case of
jewellery, containing four heavy gold bracelets and
several lockets and rings, all of fine quality and manu+
facture. These things had been bought in Bath and
other towns from time to time, and brought home by
stealth. They were all carefully packed in paper, and
each package was labelled " Bathsheba Boldwood,' a
date being subjoined six years in advance in every
instance.
These somewhat pathetic evidences of a mind crazed
with care and love were the subject of discourse in
Warren's malt-house when Oak entered from Caster+
bridge with tidings of the kiln glow shone upon
it, told the tale sufficiently well. Boldwood, as every
one supposed he would do, had pleaded guilty, and
had been sentenced to death.
The conviction that Boldwood had not been morally
responsible for his later acts now becam general. Facts
elicited previous to the trial had pointed strongly in the
same direction, but they had not been of sufficient weight
to lead to an order for an examination into the state
of Boldwood's mind. It was astonishing, now that a
presumption of insanity was raised, how many collateral
circumstances were remembered to which a condition
of mental disease seemed to afford the only explanation
-- among others, the unprecedented neglect of his corn
stacks in the previous summer.
A petition was addressed to the Home Secretary,
advancing the circumstances which appeared to justify
a request for a reconsideration of the sentence. It was
not "numerously signed ' by the inhabitants of Caster+
bridge, as is usual in such cases, for Boldwood had
never made many friends over the counter. The shops
thought it very natural that a man who, by importing
direct from the producer, had daringly set aside the
first great principle of provincial existence, namely
that God made country villages to supply customers
to county towns, should have confused ideas about
the Decalogue. The prompters were a few merciful
men who had perhaps too feelingly considered the
facts latterly unearthed, and the result was that evidence
was taken which it was hoped might remove the crime
in a moral point of view, out of the category of wilful
murder, and lead it to be regarded as a sheer outcome
of madness.
The upshot of the petition was waited for in Weather+
bury with solicitous interest. The execution had been
fixed for eight o'clock on a Saturday morning about a
fortnight after the sentence was passed, and up to
Friday afternoon no answer had been recieved. At
that time Gabriel came from Casterbridge Gaol, whither
he had been to wish Boldwood good-bye, and turned
down a by-street to avoid the town. When past the last
house he heard a hammering, and lifting his bowed
head he looked back for a moment. Over the chimneys
he could see the upper part of the gaol entrance, rich
and glowing in the afternoon sun, and some moving
figures were there. They were carpenters lifting a post
into a vertical position within the parapet. He with+
drew his eyes quickly, and hastened on.
It was dark when he reached home, and half the
village was out to meet him.
"No tidings,' Gabriel said, wearily. "And I'm afraid
there's no hope. I've been with him more than two
hours.'
"Do ye think he <1really>1 was out of his mind when he
did it?' said Smallbury.
" I can't honestly say that I do,' Oak replied. " How+
ever, that we can talk of another time. Has there been
any change in mistress this afternoon?'
"None at all.'
"Is she downstairs?'
"No. And getting on so nicely as she was too.
She's but very little better now again than she was at
Christmas. She keeps on asking if you be come, and
if there's news, till one's wearied out wi' answering her.
Shall I go and say you've come?'
"No,' said Oak. "There's a chance yet; but I
couldn't stay in town any longer -- after seeing him too,
So Laban -- Laban is here, isn't he ? '
" Yes,' said Tall.
"What I've arranged is, that you shall ride to town
the last thing to-night ; leave here about nine, and wait
a while there, getting home about twelve. If nothing
has been received by eleven to-night, they say there's
no chance at all.'
"I do so hope his life will be spared,' said Liddy.
"If it is not, she'll go out of her mind too. Poor thing;
her sufferings have been dreadful; she deserves any+
body's pity.'
"Is she altered much ? ' said Coggan.
"If you haven't seen poor mistress since Christmas,
you wouldn't know her,' said Liddy. " Her eyes are so
miserable that she's not the same woman. Only two
years ago she was a romping girl, and now she's this!'
Laban departed as directed, and at eleven o'clock
that night
several of the villagers strolled along the
road to Casterbridge and awaited his arrivai-among
them Oak, and nearly all the rest of Bathsheba's men.
Gabriel's anxiety was great that Boldwood might be
saved, even though in his conscience he felt that he
ought to die; for there had been qualities in the farmer
which Oak loved. At last, when they all were weary
the tramp of a horse was heard in the distance --
First dead, as if on turf it trode,
Then, clattering on the village road
In other pace than forth he yode.
'We shall soon know now, one way or other,' said
Coggan, and they all stepped down from the bank on
which they had been standing into the road, and the
rider pranced into the midst of them.
"Is that you, Laban ? ' said Gabriel.
"Yes -- 'tis come. He's not to die. 'Tis confine+
ment during her Majesty's pleasure.'
"Hurrah!' said Coggan, with a swelling heart. "God's
above the devil yet!'
BEAUTY IN LONELINESS -- AFTER ALL
BATHSHEBA revived with the spring. The utter
prostration that had followed the low fever from which
she had sufered diminished perceptibly when all un+
certainty upon every subject had come to an end.
But she remained alone now for the greater part of
her time, and stayed in the house, or at furthest went
into the garden. She shunned every one, even Liddy,
and could be brought to make no confidences, and to
ask for no sympathy.
As the summer drew on she passed more of her time
in the open air, and began to examine into farming
matters from sheer necessity, though she never rode
out or personally superintended as at former times.
One Friday evening in August she walked a little way
along the road and entered the village for the first time
since the sombre event of the preceding Christmas.
None of the old colour had as yet come to her cheek,
and its absolute paleness was heightened by the jet black
of her gown, till it appeared preternatural. When she
reached a little shop at the other end of the place,
which stood nearly opposite to the churchyard, Bath+
sheba heard singing inside the church, and she knew
that the singers were practising. She crossed the road,
opened the gate, and entered the graveyard, the high
sills of the church windows effectually screening her
from the eyes of those gathered within. Her stealthy
walk was to the nook wherein Troy had worked at
planting flowers upon Fanny Robin's grave, and she
came to the marble tombstone.
A motion of satisfaction enlivened her face as she
read the complete inscription. First came the words of
Troy himself: --
ERECTED BY FRANCIS TROY
IN BELOVEO MEMORY OF
FANNY ROBIN,
WHO DIED OCTOBER 9, 18 -- ,
AGED 20 YEARS.
Unerneath this was now inscribed in new letters: --
IN THE SAME GRAVE LIE
THE REMAINS OF THE AFORESAID
FRANCIS TROY,
WHO DIED DECEMBER 24TH, 18 -- ,
Whilst she stood and read and meditated the tones of
the organ began again in the church, and she went
with the same light step round to the porch and listened.
The door was closed, and the coir was learning a new
hymn. Bathsheba was stirred by emotions which
latterly she had assumed to be altogether dead within
her. The little attenuated voices of the children
brought to her ear in destinct utterance the words they
sang without thought or comprehension --
Lead, kindly Light, amid the encircling gloom,
Lead Thou me on.
Bathsheba's feeling was always to some extent de+
pendent upon her whim, as is the case with many other
women. Something big came into her throat and an
uprising to her eyes -- and she thought that she would
allow the imminent tears to flow if they wished. They
did flow and plenteously, and one fell upon the stone
bench beside her. Once that she had begun to cry for
she hardly knew what, she could not leave off for crowd+
ing thoughts she knew too well. She would have given
anything in the world to be, as those children were, un+
concerned at the meaning of their words, because too
innocent to feel the necessity for any such expression.
All the impassioned scenes of her brief expenence
seemed to revive with added emotion at that moment,
and those scenes which had been without emotion
during enactment had emotion then. Yet grief came
to her rather as a luxury than as the scourge of former
times.
Owing to Bathsheba's face being buried in her hands
she did not notice a form which came quietly into the
porch, and on seeing her, first moved as if to retreat,
then paused and regarded her. Bathsheba did not raise
her head for some time, and when she looked round
her face was wet, and her eyes drowned and dim. "Mr.
Oak,' exclaimed she, disconcerted, " how long have you
been here ?'
"A few minutes, ma'am,' said Oak, respectfully.
"Are you going in?' said Bathsheba; and there came
from within the church as from a prompter --
l loved the garish day, and, spite of fears,
pride ruled my will: remember not past years.
"I was,' said Gabriel. " I am one of the bass singers,
you know. I have sung bass for several months.
"Indeed: I wasn't aware of that. I'll leave you, then.'
Which I have loved long since, and lost awhile,
sang the children.
"Don't let me drive you away, mistress. I think I
won't go in to-night.'
"O no -- you don't drive me away.
Then they stood in a state of some embarrassment
Bathsheba trying to wipe her dreadfully drenched and
inflamed face without his noticing her. At length Oak
said, I've not seen you-i mean spoken to you -- since
ever so long, have I?' But he feared to bring distress+
ing memories back, and interrupted himself with: "Were
you going into church ?'
"No,' she said. I came to see the tombstone
privately -- to see if they had cut the inscription as I
wished Mr. Oak, you needn't mind speaking to me, if
you wish to, on the matter which is in both our minds
at this moment.'
"And have they done it as you wished ?' said Oak.
"Yes. Come and see it, if you have not already.'
So together they went and read the tomb. "Eight
months
ago!' Gabriel murmured when he saw the date.
'It seems like yesterday to me.'
And to me as if it were years ago-iong years, and
I had been dead between. And now I am going home,
Mr. Oak.'
Oak walked after her. 'I wanted to name a small
matter to you as soon as I could,' he said, with hesitation.
"Merrly about business, and I think I may just mention it
now, if you'll allow me.'
" O yes, certainly.'
It is that I may soon have to give up the manage+
ment of your farm, Mrs. Troy. The fact is, I am think+
ing of leaving England -- not yet, you know -- next
spring. '
"Leaving England!' she said, in surprise and
genuine disappointment.' Why, Gabriel, what are you
going to do that for?'
"Well, I've thought it best,' Oak stammered out.
"California is the spot I've had in my mind to try.'
"But it is understood everywhere that you are going
to take poor Mr. Boldwood's farm on your own account.'
"I've had the refusal o' it 'tis true; but nothing is
settled yet, and I have reasons for gieing up. I shall
finish out my year there as manager for the trustees,
but no more.'
"And what shall I do without you? Oh, Gabriel, I
don't think you ought to go away. You've been with
me so long -- through bright times and dark times -- such
old friends that as we are -- that it seems unkind almost. I
had fancied that if you leased the other farm as master,
you might still give a helping look across at mine. And
now going away!'
"I would have willingly.'
" Yet now that I am more helpless than ever you go
away!'
"Yes, that's the ill fortune o' it,' said Gabriel, in a
distressed tone. "And it is because of that very help+
lessness that I feel bound to go. Good afternoon,
ma'am ' he concluded, in evident anxiety to get
away, and at once went out of the churchyard by a
path she could follow on no pretence whatever.
Bathsheba went home, her mind occupied with a
new trouble, which being rather harassing than deadly
was calculated to do good by diverting her from the
chronic gloom of
her life. She was set thinking a great
deal about Oak and of his wich to shun her; and there
occurred to Bathsheba several incidents of latter in+
tercourse with him, which, trivial when singly viewed
amounted together to a perceptible disinclination for
her society. It broke upon her at length as a great
pain that her last old disciple was about to forsake her
and flee. He who had believed in her and argued on
her side when all the rest of the world was against her,
had at last like the others become weary and neglectful
of the old cause, and was leaving her to fight her battles
alone.
Three weeks went on, and more evidence of his
want of interest in her was forthcoming. She noticed
that instead of entering the small parlour or office
where the farm accounts were kept, and waiting, or
leaving a memorandum as he had hitherto done during
her seclusion, Oak never came at all when she was likely
to be there, only entering at unseasonable hours when
her presence in that part of the house was least to be
expected. Whenever he wanted directions he sent a
message, or note with neither heading nor signature, to
which she was obliged to reply in the same off-hand
style. Poor Bathsheba began to suffer now from the
most torturing sting of ali-a sensation that she was
despised.
The autumn wore away gloomily enough amid these
melancholy conjectures, and Christmas-day came, com+
pleting a year of her legal widowhood, and two years
and a quarter of her life alone. On examining her
heart it appeared beyond measure strange that the sub+
ject of which the season might have been supposed
suggestive -- the event in the hall at Boldwood's -- was
not agitating her at all; but instead, an agonizing con+
viction that everybody abjured her -- for what she could
not teli-and that Oak was the ringleader of the
recusants. Coming out of church that day she looked
round in hope that Oak, whose bass voice she had
heard rolling out from the gallery overhead in a most
unconcerned manner, might chance to linger in her path
in the old way. There he was, as usual, coming down
the path behind her. But on seeing Bathsheba turn, he
looked aside, and as soon as he got beyond the gate,
and there was the barest excuse for a divergence, he
made one, and vanished.
The next morning brought the culminating stroke;
she had been expecting it long. It was a formal notice
by letter from him that he should not renew his engage+
ment with her for the following Lady-day.
Bathsheba actually sat and cried over this letter most
bitterly. She was aggrieved and wounded that the
possession of hopeless love from Gabriel, which she had
AFTER ALL
grown to regard as her inalienable right for life, should
have been withdrawn just at his own pleasure in this
way. She was bewildered too by the prospect of having
to rely on her own resources again: it seemed to herself
that she never could again acquire energy sufficient to
go to market, barter, and sell. Since Troy's death Oak
had attended all sales and fairs for her, transacting her
business at the same time with his own. What should
she do now? Her life was becoming a desolation.
So desolate was Bathsheba this evening, that in an
absolute hunger for pity and sympathy, and miserable in
that she appeared to have outlived the only true friend+
ship she had ever owned, she put on her bonnet and
cloak and went down to Oak's house just after sunset,
guided on her way by the pale primrose rays of a
crescent moon a few days old.
A lively firelight shone from the window, but nobody
was visible in the room. She tapped nervously, and
then thought it doubtful if it were right for a single
woman to call upon a bachelor who lived alone, although
he was her manager, and she might be supposed to call
on business without any real impropriety. Gabriel
opened the door, and the moon shone upon his fore+
haad.
"Mr. Oak,' said Bathsheba, faintly.
"Yes; I am Mr. Oak,' said Gabriel. "Who have I
the honour -- O how stupid of me, not to know you,
mistress!'
"I shall not be your mistress much longer, shall I
Gabriel?' she said, in pathetic tones.
"Well, no. I suppose -- But come in, ma'am. Oh --
and I'll get a light,' Oak replied, with some awkwardness.
"No; not on my account.'
"It is so seldom that I get a lady visitor that I'm
afraid I haven't proper accommodation. Will you sit
down, please ? Here's a chair, and there's one, too.
I am sorry that my chairs all have wood scats, and are
rather hard, but i-was thinging of getting some new
ones.' Oak placed two or three for her.
"They are quite easy enough for me.'
So down she sat, and down sat he, the fire dancing
in their faces, and upon the old furniture
all a-sheenen
Wi' long years o' handlen,
that formed Oak's array of household possessions, which
sent back a dancing reflection in reply. It was very
odd to these two persons, who knew each other passing
well, that the mere circumstance of their meeting in a
new place and in a new way should make them so
awkward and constrained. In the fields, or at her house,
there had never been any embarrassment; but now that
Oak had become the entertainer their lives seemed to be
moved back again to the days when they were strangers.
"You'll think it strange that I have come, but -- -'
"O no; not at all.'
"But I thought -- Gabriel, I have been uneasy in the
belief that I have offended you, and that you are going
away on that account. It grieved me very much and
I couldn't help coming.'
"Offended me! As if you could do that, Bathsheba!'
"Haven't I?' she asked, gladly. " But, what are you
going away for else?'
"I am not going to emigrate, you know; I wasn't
aware that you would wish me not to when I told 'ee or I
shouldn't ha' thought of doing it,' he said, simply. "I
have arranged for Little Weatherbury Farm and shall
have it in my own hands at Lady-day. You know I've
had a share in it for some time. Still, that wouldn't
prevent my attending to your business as before, hadn't
it been that things have been said about us.'
"What?' said Bathsheba, in surprise. "Things said
about you and me! What are they?'
"I cannot tell you.'
"It would be wiser if you were to, I think. You have
played the part of mentor to me many times, and I don't
see why you should fear to do it now.'
"It is nothing that you have done, this time. The
top and tail o't is this -- that I am sniffing about here,
and waiting for poor Boldwood's farm, with a thought
of getting you some day.'
"Getting me! What does that mean?'
"Marrying o' 'ee, in plain British. You asked me to
tell, so you mustn't blame me.'
Bathsheba did not look quite so alarmed as if a
cannon had been discharged by her ear, which was what
Oak had expected. "Marrying me! I didn't know it
was that you meant,' she said, quietly. "Such a thing
as that is too absurd -- too soon -- to think of, by far!'
"Yes; of course, it is too absurd. I don't desire any
such thing; I should think that was plain enough by
this time. Surely, surely you be the last person in the
world I think of marrying. It is too absurd, as you say
""Too -- s-s-soon" were the words I used.'
"I must beg your pardon for correcting you, but you
said, ""too absurd,"' and so do I.'
"I beg your pardon too! she returned, with tears
in her eyes. """Too soon"' was what I said. But it
doesn't matter a bit -- not at ali-but I only meant,
""too soon"' Indeed, I didn't, Mr. Oak, and you must
believe me!'
Gabriel looked her long in the face, but the firelight
being faint there was not much to be seen. " Bathsheba,'
he said, tenderly and in surprise, and coming closer:
"if I only knew one thing -- whether you would allow me
to love you and win you, and marry you after ali-if I
only knew that!'
"But you never will know,' she murmured.
"Why?'
"Because you never ask.
"Oh -- Oh!' said Gabriel, with a low laugh of joyous+
ness. "My own dear -- -'
"You ought not to have sent me that harsh letter
this morning,' she interrupted. "It shows you didn't
care a bit about me, and were ready to desert me like
all the rest of them! It was very cruel of you, consider+
ing I was the first sweetheart that you ever had, and
you were the first I ever had; and I shall not forget it!'
"Now, Bathsheba, was ever anybody so provoking
he said, laughing. " You know it was purely that I, as
an unmarried man, carrying on a business for you as a
very taking young woman, had a proper hard part to
play -- more particular that people knew I had a sort
of feeling for'ee; and I fancied, from the way we were
mentioned together, that it might injure your good name.
Nobody knows the heat and fret I have been caused
by it.'
"And was that all?'
"All.'
"Oh, how glad I am I came!' she exclaimed, thank+
fully, as she rose from her seat. "I have thought so
much more of you since I fancied you did not want
even to see me again. But I must be going now, or I
shall be missed. Why Gabriel,' she said, with a slight
laugh, as they went to the door, "it seems exactly as if
I had come courting you -- how dreadful!'
"And quite right too,' said Oak. "I've danced at
your skittish heels, my beautiful Bathsheba, for many a
long mile, and many a long day; and it is hard to be+
grudge me this one visit.'
He accompanied her up the hill, explaining to her
the details of his forthcoming tenure of the other farm.
They spoke very little of their mutual feeling; pretty
phrases and warm expressions being probably un+
necessary between such tried friends. Theirs was that
substantial affection which arises (if any arises at all)
when the two who are thrown together begin first by
knowing the rougher sides of each other's character,
and not the best till further on, the romance growing
up in the interstices of a mass of hard prosaic reality.
This good-fellowship -- <1camaraderie>1 -- usually occurring
through similarity of pursuits, is unfortunately seldom
superadded to love between the sexes, because men and
women associate, not in their lahours, but in their
pleasures merely. Where, however, happy circumstance
permits its development, the compounded feeling proves
itself to be the only love which is strong as death -- that
love which many waters cannot quench, nor the floods
drown, beside which the passion usually called by the
name is evanescent as steam.
A FOGGY NIGHT AND MORNING -- CONCLUSION
"THE most private, secret, plaines wedding that it is
possible to have.'
Those had been Bathsheba's words to Oak one
evening, some time after the event of the preceding
chapter, and he meditated a full hour by the clock upon
how to carry out her wishes to the letter.
"A licence -- O yes, it must be a licence,' he said
to himself at last. "Very well, then; first, a license.'
On a dark night, a few days later, Oak came with
mysterious steps from the surrogate's door, in Caster+
bridge. On the way home he heard a heavy tread in
front of him, and, overtaking the man, found him to be
Coggan. They walked together into the village until
they came to a little lane behind the church, leading
down to the cottage of Laban Tall, who had lately been
installed as clerk of the parish, and was yet in mortal
terror at church on Sundays when he heard his lone
voice among certain hard words of the Psalms, whither
no man ventured to follow him.
"Well, good-night, Coggan,' said Oak, "I'm going
down this way.'
"Oh!' said Coggan, surprised; "what's going on to+
night then, make so bold Mr. Oak?'
It seemed rather ungenerous not to tell Coggan,
under the circumstances, for Coggan had been true as
steel all through the time of Gabriel's unhappiness about
Bathsheba, and Gabriel said, " You can keep a secret,
Coggan?'
"You've proved me, and you know.'
"Yes, I have, and I do know. Well, then, mistress
and I mean to get married to-morrow morning.'
"Heaven's high tower! And yet I've thought of
such a thing
from time to time; true, I have. But
keeping it so close! Well, there, 'tis no consarn of
amine, and I wish 'ee joy o' her.'
"Thank you, Coggan. But I assure 'ee that this
great hush is not what I wished for at all, or what
either of us would have wished if it hadn't been for
certain things that would make a gay wedding seem
hardly the thing. Bathsheba has a great wish that all
the parish shall not be in church, looking at her -- she's
shyiike and nervous about it, in fact -- so I be doing
this to humour her.'
"Ay, I see: quite right, too, I suppose I must say.
And you be now going down to the clerk.'
"Yes; you may as well come with me.'
"I am afeard your labour in keeping it close will be
throwed away,' said Coggan, as they walked along.
"Labe Tall's old woman will horn it all over parish in
half-an-hour. '
"So she will, upon my life; I never thought of
that,' said Oak, pausing. "Yet I must tell him to+
night, I suppose, for he's working so far off, and leaves
early.'
"I'll tell 'ee how we could tackle her,' said Coggan.
"I'll knock and ask to speak to Laban outside the door,
you standing in the background. Then he'll come out,
and you can tell yer tale. She'll never guess what I
want en for; and I'll make up a few words about the
farm-work, as a blind.'
This scheme was considered feasible; and Coggan
advanced boldly, and rapped at Mrs. Tall's door. Mrs.
Tall herself opened it.
"I wanted to have a word with Laban.'
"He's not at home, and won't be this side of eleven
o'clock. He've been forced to go over to Yalbury since
shutting out work. I shall do quite as well.'
"I hardly think you will. Stop a moment;' and
Coggan stepped round the corner of the porch to consult
Oak.
"Who's t'other man, then?' said Mrs. Tall.
"Only a friend,' said Coggan.
"Say he's wanted to meet mistress near church-hatch
to-morrow morning at ten,' said Oak, in a whisper.
"That he must come without fail, and wear his best
clothes.'
"The clothes will floor us as safe as houses!' said
Coggan.
"It can't be helped said Oak. "Tell her.'
So Coggan delivered the message. "Mind, het or
wet, blow or snow, he must come, added Jan. "'Tis
very particular, indeed. The fact is, 'tis to witness her
sign some law-work about taking shares wi' another
farmer for a long span o' years. There, that's what 'tis,
and now I've told 'ee, Mother Tall, in a way I shouldn't
ha' done if I hadn't loved 'ee so hopeless well.'
Coggan retired before she could ask any further;
and next they called at the vicar's in a manner which
excited no curiosity at all. Then Gabriel went home,
and prepared for the morrow.
"Liddy,' said Bathsheba, on going to bed that night,
"I want you to call me at seven o'clock to-morrow, In
case I shouldn't wake.'
"But you always do wake afore then, ma'am.'
"Yes, but I have something important to do, which
I'll tell you of when the time comes, and it's best to
make sure.'
CONCLUSION
Bathsheba, however, awoke voluntarily at four, nor
could she by any contrivance get to sleep again. About
six, being quite positive that her watch had stopped
during the night, she could wait no longer. She went
and tapped at Liddy's door, and after some labour awoke
her.
"But I thought it was I who had to call you?' said
the bewildered Liddy. "And it isn't six yet.'
"Indeed it is; how can you tell such a story, Liddy?
I know it must be ever so much past seven. Come to
my room as soon as you can; I want you to give my
hair a good brushing.'
When Liddy came to Bathsheba's room her mistress
was already waiting. Liddy could not understand
this extraordinary promptness. " Whatever <1is>1 going on,
ma'am?' she said.
"Well, I'll tell you,' said Bathsheba, with a mischiev+
ous smile in her bright eyes. "Farmer Oak is coming
here to dine with me to-day!'
"Farmer Oak -- and nobody else ? -- you two alone?'
"Yes.'
"But is it safe, ma'am, after what's been said?' asked
her companion, dubiously. "A woman's good name is
such a perishable article that -- -- '
Bathsheba laughed with a flushed cheek, and
whispered in Liddy's ear, although there was nobody
present. Then Liddy stared and exclaimcd, " Souls
alive, what news! It makes my heart go quite
bumpity-bump"
"It makes mine rather furious, too,' said Bathsheba.
"However, there's no getting out of it now!'
It was a damp disagreeable morning. Nevertheless,
at twenty minutes to ten o'clock, Oak came out of his
house, and
Went up the hill side
With that sort of stride
A man puts out when walking in search of a bride,
and knocked Bathsheba's door. Ten minutes later
a large and a smaller umbrella might have been seen
moving from the same door, and through the mist along
the road to the church. The distance was not more
than a quarter of a mile, and these two sensible persons
deemed it unnecessary to drive. An observer must have
been very close indeed to discover that the forms under
the umbrellas were those of Oak and Bathsheba, arm-in+
arm for the first time in their lives, Oak in a greatcoat
extending to his knees, and Bathsheba in a cloak that
reached her clogs. Yet, though so plainly dressed
there was a certain rejuvenated appearance about her : --
As though a rose should shut and be a bud again.
Repose had again incarnadined her cheeks; and having,
at Gabriel's request, arranged her hair this morning as
she had worn it years ago on Norcombe Hill, she seemed
in his eyes remarkably like a girl of that fascinating
dream, which, considering that she was now only three
or four-and-twenty, was perhaps not very wonderful. In
the church were Tall, Liddy, and the parson, and in a
remarkably short space of time the deed was done.
The two sat down very quietly to tea in Bathsheba's
parlour in the evening of the same day, for it had been
arranged that
Farmer Oak should go there to live, since
he had as yet neither money, house, nor furniture worthy
of the name, though he was on a sure way towards them,
whilst Bathsheba was, comparatively, in a plethora of all
three.
Just as Bathsheba was pouring out a cup of tea,
their ears were greeted by the firing of a cannon,
followed by what seemed like a tremendous blowing of
trumpets, in the front of the house.
"There!' said Oak, laughing, "I knew those fellows
were up to something, by the look on their face; '
Oak took up the light and went into the porch,
followed by Bathsheba with a shawl over her head. The
rays fell upon a group of male figures gathered upon the
gravel in front, who, when they saw the newly-married
couple in the porch, set up a loud "Hurrah!' and at
the same moment bang again went the cannon in the
background, followed by a hideous clang of music from
a drum, tambourine, clarionet, serpent, hautboy, tenor+
viol, and double-bass -- the only remaining relics of the
true and original Weatherbury band -- venerable worm+
eaten instruments, which had celebrated in their own
persons the victories of Marlhorough, under the fingers
of the forefathers of those who played them now. The
performers came forward, and marched up to the
front.
"Those bright boys, Mark Clark and Jan, are at the
bottom of all this,' said Oak. " Come in, souls, and
have something to eat and drink wi' me and my wife.'
"Not to-night,' said Mr. Clark, with evident self+
denial. "Thank ye all the same; but we'll call at a
more seemly time. However, we couldn't think of
letting the day pass without a note of admiration of
some sort. If ye could send a drop of som'at down to
Warren's, why so it is. Here's long life and happiness
to neighbour Oak and his comely bride!'
"Thank ye; thank ye all,' said Gabriel. "A bit and
a drop shall be sent to Warren's for ye at once. I had
a thought that we might very likely get a salute of some
sort from our old friends, and I was saying so to my
wife but now.'
"Faith,' said Coggan, in a critical tone, turning to his
companions, "the man hev learnt to say ""my wife"'
in a wonderful
naterel way, considering how very youth+
ful he is in wedlock as yet -- hey, neighbours all?'
"I never heerd a skilful old married feller of twenty
years' standing pipe ""my wife"' in a more used note
than 'a did,' said Jacob Smallbury. "It might have been
a little more true to nater if't had been spoke a little
chillier, but that wasn't to be expected just now.
"That improvement will come wi' time,' said Jan,
twirling his eye.
Then Oak laughed, and Bathsheba smiled (for she
never laughed readily now), and their friends turned to
go.
"Yes; I suppose that's the size o't,' said Joseph
Poorgrass with a cheerful sigh as they moved away;
"and I wish him joy o' her; though I were once or
twice upon saying to-day with holy Hosea, in my
scripture manner, which is my second nature. ""Ephraim
is joined to idols: let him alone."' But since 'tis as 'tis
why, it might have been worse, and I feel my thanks
accordingly.'
THE END
================================================
FILE: testdata/calgary/book2
================================================
.EQ
delim $$
.EN
.CH "1 WHY SPEECH OUTPUT?"
.ds RT "Why speech output?
.ds CX "Principles of computer speech
.pp
Speech is our everyday, informal, communication medium. But although we use
it a lot, we probably don't assimilate as much information through our
ears as we do through our eyes, by reading or looking at pictures and diagrams.
You go to a technical lecture to get the feel of a subject \(em the overall
arrangement of ideas and the motivation behind them \(em and fill in the details,
if you still want to know them, from a book. You probably find out more about
the news from ten minutes with a newspaper than from a ten-minute news broadcast.
So it should be emphasized from the start that speech output from computers is
not a panacea. It doesn't solve the problems of communicating with computers;
it simply enriches the possibilities for communication.
.pp
What, then, are the advantages of speech output? One good reason for listening
to a radio news broadcast instead of spending the time with a newspaper
is that you can listen while shaving, doing the housework, or driving the car.
Speech leaves hands and eyes free for other tasks.
Moreover, it is omnidirectional, and does not require a free line of sight.
Related to this is the
use of speech as a secondary medium for status reports and warning messages.
Occasional interruptions by voice do not interfere with other activities,
unless they demand unusual concentration, and people can assimilate spoken messages
and queue them for later action quite easily and naturally.
.pp
The second key feature of speech communication stems from the telephone.
It is the universality of the telephone receiver itself that is important
here, rather than the existence of a world-wide distribution network;
for with special equipment (a modem and a VDU) one does not need speech to take advantage of
the telephone network for information transfer.
But speech needs no tools other than the telephone, and this gives
it a substantial advantage. You can go into a phone booth anywhere in the world,
carrying no special equipment, and have access to your computer within seconds.
The problem of data input is still there: perhaps your computer
system has a limited word recognizer, or you use the touchtone telephone
keypad (or a portable calculator-sized tone generator). Easy remote access
without special equipment is a great, and unique, asset to speech communication.
.pp
The third big advantage of speech output is that it is potentially very cheap.
Being all-electronic, except for the loudspeaker, speech systems are well
suited to high-volume, low-cost, LSI manufacture. Other computer output
devices are at present tied either to mechanical moving parts or to the CRT.
This was realized quickly by the computer hobbies market, where speech output
peripherals have been selling like hot cakes since the mid 1970's.
.pp
A further point in favour of speech is that it is natural-seeming and
somehow cuddly when compared with printers or VDU's. It would have been much
more difficult to make this point before the advent of talking toys like
Texas Instruments' "Speak 'n Spell" in 1978, but now it is an accepted fact that friendly
computer-based gadgets can speak \(em there are talking pocket-watches
that really do "tell" the time, talking microwave ovens, talking pinball machines, and,
of course, talking calculators.
It is, however, difficult to assess whether the appeal stems from
mechanical speech's novelty \(em it
is still a gimmick \(em and also to what extent it is tied up with
economic factors.
After all, most of the population don't use high-quality VDU's, and their major
experience of real-time interactive computing is through the very limited displays
and keypads provided on video games and teletext systems.
.pp
Articles on speech communication with computers often list many more advantages of voice output
(see Hill 1971, Turn 1974, Lea 1980).
.[
Hill 1971 Man-machine interaction using speech
.]
.[
Lea 1980
.]
.[
Turn 1974 Speech as a man-computer communication channel
.]
For example, speech
.LB
.NP
can be used in the dark
.NP
can be varied from a (confidential) whisper to a (loud) shout
.NP
requires very little energy
.NP
is not appreciably affected by weightlessness or vibration.
.LE
However, these either derive from the three advantages we have discussed above,
or relate
mainly to exotic applications in space modules and divers' helmets.
.pp
Useful as it is at present, speech output would be even more attractive if it could
be coupled with speech input. In many ways, speech input is its "big brother".
Many of the benefits of speech output are even more striking for speech input.
Although people can assimilate information faster through the eyes than the
ears, the majority of us can generate information faster with the mouth than
with the hands. Rapid typing is a relatively uncommon skill, and even high
typing rates are much slower than speaking rates (although whether we can
originate ideas quickly enough to keep up with fast speech is another matter!) To
take full advantage of the telephone for interaction with machines, machine
recognition of speech is obviously necessary. A microwave oven, calculator,
pinball machine, or alarm clock that responds to spoken commands is certainly
more attractive than one that just generates spoken status messages. A book
that told you how to recognize speech by machine would undoubtedly be more
useful than one like this that just discusses how to synthesize it! But the
technology of speech recognition is nowhere near as advanced as that of
synthesis \(em it's a much more difficult problem. However, because speech input
is obviously complementary to speech output, and even very limited input
capabilities will greatly enhance many speech output systems, it is worth
summarizing the present state of the art of speech recognition.
.pp
Commercial speech recognizers do exist. Almost invariably, they accept
words spoken in isolation, with gaps of silence between them, rather than
connected utterances.
It is not difficult to discriminate with high accuracy up to a hundred
different words spoken by the same speaker, especially if the vocabulary
is carefully selected to avoid words which sound similar. If several
different speakers are to be comprehended, performance can be greatly improved
if the machine is given an opportunity to calibrate their voices in a training
session, and is informed at recognition time which one is to speak.
With a large population of unknown speakers, accurate recognition is difficult
for vocabularies of more than a few carefully-chosen words.
.pp
A half-way house between isolated word discrimination and recognition of connected
speech is the problem of spotting known words in continuous speech. This
allows much more natural input, if the dialogue is structured as keywords
which may be
interspersed by unimportant "noise words". To speak in truly isolated
words requires a great deal of self-discipline and concentration \(em it is
surprising how much of ordinary speech is accounted for by vague sounds
like um's and aah's, and false starts. Word spotting disregards these and so
permits a more relaxed style of speech. Some progress has been made on it in
research laboratories, but the vocabularies that can be accomodated are still
very small.
.pp
The difficulty of recognizing connected speech depends crucially on what is
known in advance about the dialogue: its pragmatic, semantic, and syntactic
constraints. Highly structured dialogues constrain very heavily the choice of
the next word. Recognizers which can deal with vocabularies of over 1000 words
have been built in research laboratories, but the structure of the input has
been such that the average "branching factor" \(em the size of the set out of
which the next word must be selected \(em is only around 10 (Lea, 1980).
.[
Lea 1980
.]
Whether such
highly constrained languages would be acceptable in many practical applications
is a moot point. One commercial recognizer, developed in 1978, can cope with
up to five words spoken continuously from a basic 120-word vocabulary.
.pp
There has been much debate about whether it will ever be possible for a speech
recognizer to step outside rigid constraints imposed on the utterances it can
understand, and act, say, as an automatic dictation machine. Certainly the most
advanced recognizers to date depend very strongly on a tight context being
available. Informed opinion seems to accept that in ten years' time,
voice data entry in the office will be an important and economically feasible
prospect, but that it would be rash to predict the appearance of unconstrained
automatic dictation by then.
.pp
Let's return now to speech output and take a look at some systems which use it,
to illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of speech in practical
applications.
.sh "1.1 Talking calculator"
.pp
Figure 1.1 shows a calculator that speaks.
.FC "Figure 1.1"
Whenever a key is pressed,
the device confirms the action by saying the key's name.
The result of any computation is also spoken aloud.
For most people, the addition of speech output to a calculator is simply a
gimmick.
(Note incidentally that speech
.ul
input
is a different matter altogether. The ability to dictate lists of numbers and
commands to a calculator, without lifting one's eyes from the page, would have
very great advantages over keypad input.) Used-car
salesmen find that speech output sometimes helps to clinch a deal: they key in
the basic car price and their bargain-basement deductions, and the customer is so
bemused by the resulting price being spoken aloud to him by a machine that he
signs the cheque without thinking! More seriously, there may be some small
advantage to be gained when keying a list of figures by touch from having their
values read back for confirmation. For blind people, however, such devices
are a boon \(em and there are many other applications, like talking elevators
and talking clocks, which benefit from even very restricted voice output.
Much more sophisticated is a typewriter with audio feedback, designed by
IBM for the blind. Although blind typists can remember where the keys on a
typewriter are without difficulty, they rely on sighted proof-readers to help
check
their work. This device could make them more useful as office typists and
secretaries. As well as verbalizing the material (including punctuation)
that has been typed, either by attempting to pronounce the words or by spelling
them out as individual letters, it prompts the user through the more complex action sequences
that are possible on the typewriter.
.pp
The vocabulary of the talking calculator comprises the 24 words of Table 1.1.
.RF
.nr x1 2.0i+\w'percent'u
.nr x1 (\n(.l-\n(x1)/2
.in \n(x1u
.ta 2.0i
zero percent
one low
two over
three root
four em (m)
five times
six point
seven overflow
eight minus
nine plus
times-minus clear
equals swap
.ta 0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i
.in 0
.FG "Table 1.1 Vocabulary of a talking calculator"
This represents a total of about 13 seconds of speech. It is stored
electronically in read-only memory (ROM), and Figure 1.2 shows the circuitry
of the speech module inside the calculator.
.FC "Figure 1.2"
There are three large integrated circuits.
Two of them are ROMs, and the other is a special synthesis chip which decodes the
highly compressed stored data into an audio waveform.
Although the mechanisms used for storing speech by commercial devices are
not widely advertised by the manufacturers, the talking calculator almost
certainly uses linear predictive coding \(em a technique that we will examine
in Chapter 6.
The speech quality is very poor because of the highly compressed storage, and
words are spoken in a grating monotone.
However, because of the very small vocabulary, the quality is certainly good
enough for reliable identification.
.sh "1.2 Computer-generated wiring instructions"
.pp
I mentioned earlier that one big advantage of speech over visual output is that
it leaves the eyes free for other tasks.
When wiring telephone equipment during manufacture, the operator needs to use
his hands as well as eyes to keep his place in the task.
For some time tape-recorded instructions have been used for this in certain
manufacturing plants. For example, the instruction
.LB
.NI
Red 2.5 11A terminal strip 7A tube socket
.LE
directs the operator to cut 2.5" of red wire, attach one end to a specified point
on the terminal strip, and attach the other to a pin of the tube socket. The
tape recorder is fitted with a pedal switch to allow a sequence of such instructions
to be executed by the operator at his own pace.
.pp
The usual way of recording the instruction tape is to have a human reader
dictate them from a printed list.
The tape is then checked against the list by another listener to ensure that
the instructions are correct. Since wiring lists are usually stored and
maintained in machine-readable form, it is natural to consider whether speech
synthesis techniques could be used to generate the acoustic tape directly by
a computer (Flanagan
.ul
et al,
1972).
.[
Flanagan Rabiner Schafer Denman 1972
.]
.pp
Table 1.2 shows the vocabulary needed for this application.
.RF
.nr x1 2.0i+2.0i+\w'tube socket'u
.nr x1 (\n(.l-\n(x1)/2
.in \n(x1u
.ta 2.0i +2.0i
A green seventeen
black left six
bottom lower sixteen
break make strip
C nine ten
capacitor nineteen terminal
eight one thirteen
eighteen P thirty
eleven point three
fifteen R top
fifty red tube socket
five repeat coil twelve
forty resistor twenty
four right two
fourteen seven upper
.ta 0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i
.in 0
.FG "Table 1.2 Vocabulary needed for computer-generated wiring instructions"
It is rather larger
than that of the talking calculator \(em about 25 seconds of speech \(em but well
within the limits of single-chip storage in ROM, compressed by the linear
predictive technique. However, at the time that the scheme was investigated
(1970\-71) the method of linear predictive coding had not been fully developed,
and the technology for low-cost microcircuit implementation was not available.
But this is not important for this particular application, for there is
no need to perform the synthesis on a miniature low-cost computer system,
nor need it
be accomplished in real time. In fact a technique of concatenating
spectrally-encoded words was used (described in Chapter 7), and it was
implemented on a minicomputer. Operating much slower than real-time, the system
calculated the speech waveform and wrote it to disk storage. A subsequent phase
read the pre-computed messages and recorded them on a computer-controlled analogue
tape recorder.
.pp
Informal evaluation showed the scheme to be quite successful. Indeed, the
synthetic speech, whose quality was not high, was actually preferred to
natural speech in the noisy environment of the production line, for each
instruction was spoken in the same format, with the same programmed pause
between the items.
A list of 58 instructions of the form shown above was recorded and used
to wire several pieces of apparatus without errors.
.sh "1.3 Telephone enquiry service"
.pp
The computer-generated wiring scheme illustrates how speech can be used to give
instructions without diverting visual attention from the task at hand.
The next system we examine shows how speech output can make the telephone
receiver into a remote computer terminal for a variety of purposes
(Witten and Madams, 1977).
.[
Witten Madams 1977 Telephone Enquiry Service
.]
The caller employs the touch-tone keypad shown in Figure 1.3 for input, and the
computer generates
a synthetic voice response.
.FC "Figure 1.3"
Table 1.3 shows the process of making
contact with the system.
.RF
.fi
.nh
.na
.in 0.3i
.nr x0 \w'COMPUTER: '
.nr x1 \w'CALLER: '
.in+\n(x0u
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' Dials the service.
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: Answers telephone.
"Hello, Telephone Enquiry Service. Please
enter your user number".
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' Enters user number.
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: "Please enter your password".
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' Enters password.
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: Checks validity of password.
If invalid, the user is asked to re-enter
his user number.
Otherwise,
"Which service do you require?"
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' Enters service number.
.in 0
.nf
.FG "Table 1.3 Making contact with the telephone enquiry system"
.pp
Advantage is taken of the disparate speeds of input (keyboard) and
output (speech) to hasten the dialogue by imposing a question-answer structure
on it, with the computer taking the initiative. The machine can
afford to be slightly verbose if by so doing it makes the caller's
response easier, and therefore more rapid. Moreover, operators who
are experienced enough with the system to anticipate questions can
easily forestall them just by typing ahead, for the computer is programmed
to examine its input buffer before issuing prompts and to suppress them if
input has already been provided.
.pp
An important aim of the system is to allow application programmers with no
special knowledge of speech to write independent services for it.
Table 1.4 shows an example of the use of one such application program,
.RF
.fi
.nh
.na
.in 0.3i
.nr x0 \w'COMPUTER: '
.nr x1 \w'CALLER: '
.in+\n(x0u
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: "Stores Information Service. Please enter
component name".
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' Enters "SN7406#".
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: "The component name is SN7406. Is this correct?"
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' Enters "*1#" (system convention for "yes").
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: "This component is in stores".
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' Enters "*7#" (command for "price").
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: "The component price is 35 pence".
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' Enters "*8#" (command for "minimum number").
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: "The minimum number of this component kept
in stores is 10".
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' Enters "SN7417#".
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: "The component name is SN7417. Is this correct?"
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' Enters "*1#".
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: "This component is not in stores".
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' Enters "*9#" (command for "delivery time").
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: "The expected delivery time is 14 days".
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' Enters "*0#".
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: "Which service do you require?"
.in 0
.nf
.FG "Table 1.4 The Stores Information Service"
the
Stores Information Service, which permits enquiries to be made of a database
holding information on electronic components kept in stock.
This subsystem is driven by
.ul
alphanumeric
data entered on the touch-tone keypad. Two or three letters are associated
with each digit, in a manner which is fairly standard in touch-tone telephone
applications. These are printed on a card overlay
that fits the keypad (see Figure 1.3). Although true alphanumeric data entry
would require a multiple key press for each character,
the ambiguity inherent in
a single-key-per-character convention can usually be resolved by the computer,
if it has a list of permissible entries. For example, the component names
SN7406 and ZTX300 are read by the machine as "767406" and "189300", respectively.
Confusion rarely occurs if the machine is expecting a valid component code.
The same holds true of people's names, and file names \(em although with these
one must take care not to identify a series of files by similar names, like
TX38A, TX38B, TX38C. It is easy for the machine to detect the rare cases
where ambiguity occurs, and respond by requesting further information: "The
component name is SN7406. Is this correct?" (In fact, the Stores Information
Service illustrated in Table 1.4 is defective in that it
.ul
always
requests confirmation of an entry, even when no ambiguity exists.) The
use of a telephone keypad for data entry will be taken up again in Chapter 10.
.pp
A distinction is drawn throughout the system between data entries and
commands, the latter being prefixed by a "*". In this example, the
programmer chose to define a command for each possible question about a
component, so that a new component name can be entered at any time
without ambiguity. The price paid for the resulting brevity of dialogue
is the burden of memorizing the meaning of the commands. This is an
inherent disadvantage of a one-dimensional auditory display over the
more conventional graphical output: presenting menus by speech is tedious and
long-winded. In practice, however, for a simple task such as the
Stores Information Service it is quite convenient for the caller to
search for the appropriate command by trying out all possibilities \(em there
are only a few.
.pp
The problem of memorizing commands is alleviated by establishing some
system-wide conventions. Each input is terminated by a "#", and
the meaning of standard commands is given in Table 1.5.
.RF
.fi
.nh
.na
.in 0.3i
.nr x0 \w'# alone '
.nr x1 \w'\(em '
.ta \n(x0u +\n(x1u
.nr x2 \n(x0+\n(x1
.in+\n(x2u
.ti-\n(x2u
*# \(em Erase this input line, regardless of what has
been typed before the "*".
.ti-\n(x2u
*0# \(em Stop. Used to exit from any service.
.ti-\n(x2u
*1# \(em Yes.
.ti-\n(x2u
*2# \(em No.
.ti-\n(x2u
*3# \(em Repeat question or summarize state of current
transaction.
.ti-\n(x2u
# alone \(em Short form of repeat. Repeats or summarizes
in an abbreviated fashion.
.ta 0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i
.in 0
.nf
.FG "Table 1.5 System-wide conventions for the service"
.pp
A summary of services available on the system is given in
Table 1.6.
.RF
.fi
.na
.in 0.3i
.nr x0 \w'000 '
.nr x1 \w'\(em '
.nr x2 \n(x0+\n(x1
.in+\n(x2u
.ta \n(x0u +\n(x1u
.ti-\n(x2u
\0\01 \(em tells the time
.ti-\n(x2u
\0\02 \(em Biffo (a game of NIM)
.ti-\n(x2u
\0\03 \(em MOO (a game similar to that marketed under the name "Mastermind")
.ti-\n(x2u
\0\04 \(em error demonstration
.ti-\n(x2u
\0\05 \(em speak a file in phonetic format
.ti-\n(x2u
\0\06 \(em listening test
.ti-\n(x2u
\0\07 \(em music (allows you to enter a tune and play it)
.ti-\n(x2u
\0\08 \(em gives the date
.sp
.ti-\n(x2u
100 \(em squash ladder
.ti-\n(x2u
101 \(em stores information service
.ti-\n(x2u
102 \(em computes means and standard deviations
.ti-\n(x2u
103 \(em telephone directory
.sp
.ti-\n(x2u
411 \(em user information
.ti-\n(x2u
412 \(em change password
.ti-\n(x2u
413 \(em gripe (permits feedback on services from caller)
.sp
.ti-\n(x2u
600 \(em first year laboratory marks entering service
.sp
.ti-\n(x2u
910 \(em repeat utterance (allows testing of system)
.ti-\n(x2u
911 \(em speak utterance (allows testing of system)
.ti-\n(x2u
912 \(em enable/disable user 100 (a no-password guest user number)
.ti-\n(x2u
913 \(em mount a magnetic tape on the computer
.ti-\n(x2u
914 \(em set/reset demonstration mode (prohibits access by low-priority users)
.ti-\n(x2u
915 \(em inhibit games
.ti-\n(x2u
916 \(em inhibit the MOO game
.ti-\n(x2u
917 \(em disable password checking when users log in
.ta 0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i
.in 0
.nf
.FG "Table 1.6 Summary of services on a telephone enquiry system"
They range from simple games and demonstrations, through serious database
services, to system maintenance facilities.
A priority structure is imposed upon them, with higher
service numbers being available only to higher priority users.
Services in the lowest range (1\-99) can be obtained by all, while
those in the highest range (900\-999) are maintenance services,
available only to the system designers. Access to the lower-numbered
"games" services can be inhibited by a priority user \(em this was
found necessary to prevent over-use of the system! Another advantage
of telephone access to an information retrieval system is that some
day-to-day maintenance can be done remotely, from the office telephone.
.pp
This telephone enquiry service, which was built in 1974, demonstrated that
speech synthesis had moved from a specialist phonetic discipline into the
province of engineering practicability. The speech was generated "by rule"
from a phonetic input (the method is covered in Chapters 7 and 8), which
has very low data storage requirements of around 75\ bit/s of speech.
Thus an enormous vocabulary and range of services could be accomodated on a
small computer system.
Despite the fairly low quality of the speech, the response from callers was
most encouraging. Admittedly the user population was a self-selected body of
University staff, which one might suppose to have high tolerance to new ideas,
and a system designed for the general public would require more effort to be
spent on developing speech of greater intelligibility. Although it was
observed that some callers failed to understand parts of the responses, even
after repetition, communication was largely unhindered in most cases; users
being driven by a high motivation to help the system help them.
.pp
The use of speech output in conjunction with a simple input device requires
careful thought for interaction to be successful and comfortable. It is
necessary that the computer direct the conversation as much as possible,
without seeming to be taking charge. Provision for eliminating prompts
which are unwanted by sophisticated users is essential to avoid frustration.
We will return to the topic of programming techniques for speech interaction
in Chapter 10.
.pp
Making a computer system available over the telephone results in a sudden
vast increase in the user population. Although people's reaction to a new
computer terminal in every office was overwhelmingly favourable, careful
resource allocation was essential to prevent the service being hogged by a
persistent few. As with all multi-access computer systems, it is particularly
important that error recovery is effected automatically and gracefully.
.sh "1.4 Speech output in the telephone exchange"
.pp
The telephone enquiry service was an experimental vehicle for research on speech
interaction, and was developed in 1974.
Since then, speech has begun to be used in real commercial applications.
One example is System\ X, the British Post Office's computer-controlled
telephone exchange. This incorporates many features
not found in conventional telephone exchanges.
For example, if a number is found to be busy, the call can be attempted
again by a "repeat last call" command, without having to re-dial the full number.
Alternatively, the last number can be stored for future re-dialling, freeing
the phone for other calls.
"Short code
dialling" allows a customer to associate short codes with commonly-dialled
numbers.
Alarm calls can be booked at specified times, and are made automatically
without human intervention.
Incoming calls can be barred, as can outgoing ones. A diversion service
allows all incoming calls to be diverted to another telephone, either
immediately, or if a call to the original number remains unanswered for
a specified period of time, or if the original number is busy.
Three-party calls can be set up automatically, without involving the
operator.
.pp
Making use of these facilities presents the caller with something of a problem.
With conventional telephone exchanges, feedback is provided on what is happening
to a call by the use of four tones \(em the dial tone, the busy tone,
the ringing tone, and the number unavailable tone.
For the more sophisticated interaction which is expected on the advanced
exchange, a much greater variety of status signals is required.
The obvious solution is to use
computer-generated spoken
messages to inform the caller when these services are invoked, and to guide him
through the sequences of actions needed to set up facilities like call
re-direction. For example, the messages used by the exchange when a user
accesses the alarm call
service are
.LB
.NI
Alarm call service.
Dial the time of your alarm call followed by square\u\(dg\d.
.FN 1
\(dg\d"Square" is the term used for the "#" key on the touch-tone telephone.\u
.EF
.NI
You have booked an alarm call for seven thirty hours.
.NI
Alarm call operator. At the third stroke it will be seven thirty.
.LE
.pp
Because of the rather small vocabulary, the number of messages that can be
stored in their entirety rather than being formed by concatenation of
smaller units, and the short time which was available for development,
System\ X stores speech as a time waveform, slightly compressed by a time-domain
encoding operation (such techniques are described in Chapter 3).
Utterances which contain variable parts, like the time of alarm in the messages
above, are formed by inserting separately-recorded digits in a fixed
"carrier" message. No attempt is made to apply uniform intonation
contours to the synthetic utterances. The resulting speech is of excellent
quality (being a slightly compressed recording of a human voice), but sometimes
exhibits somewhat anomalous pitch contours.
For example, the digits comprising numbers often sound rather jerky and
out-of-context \(em which indeed they are.
.pp
Even more advanced facilities can be expected on telephone exchanges in
the future. A message storage capability is one example. Although
automatic call recording machines have been available for years, a centralized
facility could time and date a message, collect the caller's identity
(using the telephone keypad), and allow the recipient to select messages left
for him through an interactive dialogue so that he could control the order
in which he listens to them. He could choose to leave certain messages to be
dealt with later, or re-route them to a colleague. He may even wish to leave
reminders for himself, to be dialled automatically at specified times (like
alarm calls with user-defined information attached). The sender of a message
could be informed automatically by the system when it is delivered. None of
this requires speech recognition, but it does need economical speech
.ul
storage,
and also speech
.ul
synthesis
(for time and date tags).
.sh "1.5 Travel consultant"
.pp
Some current research in speech communication with computers is aimed at
embedding the dialogue in a task environment which provides it with an overall
contextual framework.
This in fact was the motivation for the experimental telephone enquiry service
described above, and it was observed that people are able to tolerate rather
low quality speech if they feel that the interaction is worthwhile. One step
further is the use of speech
.ul
input
as well as output, and here the context of the conversation which is provided
by the task environment can be used to improve recognition accuracy
significantly.
A system set up at Bell Telephone Laboratories indicates what we can expect
to find operating commercially in the future (Levinson and Shipley, 1980).
.[
Levinson Shipley 1980
.]
It provides timetable information about airline flights, and allows the user
to make reservations.
.pp
An example dialogue is given in Table 1.7.
.RF
.fi
.nh
.na
.in 0.3i
.nr x0 \w'COMPUTER: '
.nr x1 \w'CALLER: '
.in+\n(x0u
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: This is the Bell Laboratories flight information system. May I help you?
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' I would like to go to Chicago.
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: Please specify the day of your departure.
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' I want to leave at four p.m..
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: Please specify the day of your departure.
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' I want to depart on the two five May.
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: Flight number nine two leaves New York at four p.m. arrives in Chicago at five twenty five p.m..
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' What plane is on the flight?
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: The aircraft is a Boeing seven twenty seven.
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' How much is the fare?
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: The round trip coach fare is one hundred forty two dollars.
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' I want a first class seat.
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: One seat thank you.
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' What is the fare?
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: The round trip first class fare is one hundred eighty four dollars.
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' Please repeat the arrival time.
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: The arrival time is five twenty five p.m..
.ti-\n(x0u
CALLER:\h'\n(x0u-\n(x1u' I will take the flight.
.ti-\n(x0u
COMPUTER: Your reservation on flight number nine two to Chicago on Friday is confirmed. Thank you.
.in 0
.nf
.MT 2
Table 1.7 A conversation with an airline flight information service
(from Levinson and Shipley, 1980)
.TE
.[
Levinson Shipley 1980
.]
The user dials the system from an
ordinary telephone. The recognition side must be trained by each user, and
accepts isolated words spoken with brief pauses between them.
The voice response unit has a vocabulary of around 200 words, and
synthesizes its answers by slotting words into "templates" evoked by the speech
understanding part in response to a query. For example,
.LB
.NI
This flight makes \(em stops
.NI
Flight number \(em leaves \(em at \(em , arrives in \(em at \(em
.LE
are templates which when called with specific slot fillers could produce the
utterances
.LB
.NI
This flight makes three stops
.NI
Flight number nine two leaves New York at four p.m.,
arrives in Chicago at five twenty-five p.m.
.LE
The chief research interest of the system is in its speech understanding
capabilities, and the method used for speech output is relatively
straightforward. The templates and words are recorded, digitized, compressed
slightly, and stored on disk files (totalling a few hundred thousand bytes of
storage), using techniques similar to those of System\ X.
Again, no independent manipulation of pitch is possible, and so the utterances
sound intelligible but the transition between templates and slot fillers is not
completely fluent. However, the overall context of the interaction means that
the communication is not seriously disrupted even if the machine occasionally
misunderstands the man or vice versa. The user's attention is drawn away from
recognition accuracy and focussed on the exchange of information with the machine.
The authors conclude that progress in speech recognition can best be made by
studying it in the context of communication rather than in a vacuum or as part
of a one-way channel, and the same is undoubtedly true of speech synthesis as
well.
.sh "1.6 Reading machine for the blind"
.pp
Perhaps the most advanced attempt to provide speech output from a computer
is the Kurzweil reading machine for the blind, first marketed in the late
1970's (Figure 1.4).
.FC "Figure 1.4"
This device reads an ordinary book aloud. Users adjust the reading
speed according to the content of the material and their familiarity with
it, and the maximum rate has recently been improved to around 225 words per
minute \(em perhaps half as fast again as normal human speech rates.
.pp
As well as generating speech from text, the machine has to scan the document
being read and identify the characters presented to it. A scanning camera
is used, controlled by a program which searches for and tracks the lines of
text. The output of the camera is digitized, and the image is enhanced
using signal-processing techniques. Next each individual letter must be
isolated, and its geometric features identified and compared with a pre-stored
table of letter shapes. Isolation of letters is not at all trivial, for
many type fonts have "ligatures" which are combinations of characters joined
together (for example, the letters "fi" are often run together.) The
machine must cope with many printed type fonts, as well as typewritten ones.
The text-recognition side of the Kurzweil reading machine is in fact one of
its most advanced features.
.pp
We will discuss the problem of speech generation from text in Chapter 9.
It has many facets. First there is pronunciation, the
translation of letters to sounds. It is important to take into account
the morphological structure of words, dividing them into "root" and "endings".
Many words have concatenated suffixes (like "like-li-ness"). These are
important to detect, because a final "e" which appears on a root word
is not pronounced itself but affects the pronunciation of the previous
vowel. Then there is the difficulty that some words look the same
but are pronounced differently, depending on their meaning or on the syntactic
part that they play in the sentence.
Appropriate intonation is extremely difficult to generate from a plain textual
representation, for it depends on the meaning of the text and the way in which
emphasis is given to it by the reader. Similarly the rhythmic structure is
important, partly for correct pronunciation and partly for purposes of
emphasis.
Finally the sounds that have been deduced from the text need to be synthesized
into acoustic form, taking due account of the many and varied contextual effects
that occur in natural speech. This by itself is a challenging problem.
.pp
The performance of the Kurzweil reading machine is not good. While it seems
to be true that some blind people can make use of it, it is far from
comprehensible to an untrained listener. For example,
it will miss out words and even whole phrases, hesitate in a
stuttering manner, blatantly mis-pronounce many words, fail to detect
"e"s which should be silent, and give completely wrong rhythms
to words, making them impossible to understand.
Its intonation is decidedly unnatural, monotonous, and often downright
misleading. When it reads completely new text to people unfamiliar with its
quirks,
they invariably fail to understand more than an odd word here and there,
and do not improve significantly when the text is repeated more than once.
Naturally performance improves if the material is familiar or expected
in some way.
One useful feature is the machine's ability to spell out difficult words
on command from the user.
.pp
While not wishing to denigrate the Kurzweil machine, which is a remarkable
achievement in that it integrates together many different advanced
technologies, there is no doubt that the state of the art in speech synthesis
directly from unadorned text is extremely primitive, at present.
It is vital not to overemphasize the potential usefulness of abysmal speech,
which takes a great deal of training on the part of the user before
it becomes at all intelligible. To make a rather extreme analogy,
Morse code could be used as
audio output, requiring a great deal of training, but capable of being understood
at quite high rates by an expert.
It could be generated very cheaply.
But clearly the man in the street would find it quite unacceptable as
an audio output medium, because of the excessive effort required to learn to use
it. In many applications, very bad synthetic speech is just as useless.
However, the issue is complicated by the fact that for people who use
synthesizers regularly, synthetic speech becomes quite easily comprehensible.
We will return to the problem of evaluating the quality of artificial speech
later in the book (Chapter 8).
.sh "1.7 System considerations for speech output"
.pp
Fortunately, very many of the applications of speech output from computers
do not need to read unadorned text.
In all the example systems described above (except the reading machine),
it is enough to be able to store utterances in some representation which can
include pre-programmed cues for pronunciation, rhythm, and intonation in
a much more explicit way than ordinary text does.
.pp
Of course, techniques
for storing audio information have been in use for decades.
For example, a domestic cassette tape recorder stores speech at much better
than telephone quality at very low cost. The method of direct
recording of an analogue waveform is currently used for announcements in
the telephone network to provide information such as the time, weather
forecasts, and even bedtime stories.
However, it is difficult to provide rapid access to messages stored in
analogue form, and although some computer peripherals which use analogue
recordings for voice-response applications have been marketed \(em they are
discussed briefly at the beginning of Chapter 3 \(em they have been
superseded by digital storage techniques.
.pp
Although direct storage of a digitized audio waveform is used in some
voice-response systems, the approach has certain limitations. The most
obvious one is the large storage requirement: suitable coding can reduce
the data-rate of speech to as little as one hundredth of that needed by
direct digitization, and textual representations reduce it by another factor
of ten or twenty. (Of course, the speech quality is inevitably compromised
somewhat by data-compression techniques.) However, the cost of storage is
dropping so fast that this is not necessarily an overriding factor.
A more fundamental limitation is that utterances stored directly cannot sensibly
be modified in any way to take account of differing contexts.
.pp
If the results of certain kinds of analyses
of utterances are stored, instead of simply the digitized waveform,
a great deal more flexibility can be gained.
It is possible to separate out the features of intonation and amplitude from
the articulation of the speech, and this raises the attractive possibility
of regenerating utterances with pitch contours different from those with which they were
recorded.
The primary analysis technique used for this purpose is
.ul
linear prediction
of speech, and this is treated in some detail in Chapter 6. It also reduces drastically the
data-rate of speech, by a factor of around 50.
It is likely that many voice-response systems in the short- and medium-term
future will use linear predictive representations for utterance storage.
.pp
For maximum flexibility, however, it is preferable to store a textual
representation of the utterance.
There is an important distinction between speech
.ul
storage,
where an actual human utterance is recorded, perhaps processed to lower
the data-rate, and stored for subsequent regeneration when required,
and speech
.ul
synthesis,
where the machine produces its own individual utterances which are not based
on recordings of a person saying the same thing. The difference is summarized
in Figure 1.5.
.FC "Figure 1.5"
In both cases something is stored: for the first it is
a direct representation of an actual human utterance, while for the second
it is a typed
.ul
description
of the utterance in terms of the sounds, or phonemes, which constitute it.
The accent and tone of voice of the human speaker will be apparent in
the stored speech output, while for synthetic speech the accent is the
machine's and the tone of voice is determined by the synthesis program.
.pp
Probably the most attractive representation of utterances in man-machine
systems is ordinary English text, as used by the Kurzweil reading machine.
But, as noted above, this poses extraordinarily difficult problems for the
synthesis procedure, and these inevitably result in severely degraded speech.
Although in the very long term these problems may indeed be solved,
most speech output systems can adopt as their representation of an utterance
a description of it which explicitly conveys the difficult features of
intonation, rhythm, and even pronunciation.
In the kind of applications described above (barring the reading machine),
input will be prepared by a
programmer as he builds the software system which supports the interactive
dialogue.
Although it is important that the method of specifying utterances be easily
learned, it is not necessary that plain English
is used. It should be simple for the programmer to enter new
utterances and modify them on-line in cut-and-try attempts to render the
man-machine dialogue as natural as possible. A phonetic input
can be quite adequate for this, especially if the system allows the
programmer to hear immediately the synthesized version of the message
he types. Furthermore, markers which indicate rhythm and intonation can
be added to the message so that the system does not have to deduce these features
by attempting to "understand" the plain text.
.pp
This brings us to another disadvantage of speech storage as compared with
speech synthesis. To provide utterances for a voice response system using
stored human speech, one must assemble together special input hardware,
a quiet room, and (probably) a dedicated computer. If the speech is to be
heavily encoded, either expensive special hardware is required or the encoding
process, if performed by software on a general-purpose computer, will take
a considerable length of time (perhaps hundreds of times real-time). In
either case, time-consuming editing of the speech will be necessary, with
follow-up recordings to clarify sections of speech which turn out to be
unsuitable or badly recorded. If at a later date the voice response
system needs modification, it will be necessary to recall the same speaker,
or re-record the entire utterance set. This discourages the application
programmer from adjusting his dialogue in the light of experience.
Synthesizing from a textual representation, on the other hand, allows him
to change a speech prompt as simply as he could a VDU one, and evaluate
its effect immediately.
.pp
We will return to methods of digitizing and compacting speech in Chapters 3
and 4, and carry on to consider speech synthesis in subsequent chapters.
Firstly, however, it is necessary to take a look at what speech is and how
people produce it.
.sh "1.8 References"
.LB "nnnn"
.[
$LIST$
.]
.LE "nnnn"
.sh "1.9 Further reading"
.pp
There are remarkably few general books on speech output, although a
substantial specialist literature exists for the subject.
In addition to the references listed above, I suggest that you look
at the following.
.LB "nn"
.\"Ainsworth-1976-1
.]-
.ds [A Ainsworth, W.A.
.ds [D 1976
.ds [T Mechanisms of speech recognition
.ds [I Pergamon
.nr [T 0
.nr [A 1
.nr [O 0
.][ 2 book
.in+2n
A nice, easy-going introduction to speech recognition, this book covers
the acoustic structure of the speech signal in a way which makes
it useful as background reading for speech synthesis as well.
It complements Lea, 1980, cited above; which presents more recent results
in greater depth.
.in-2n
.\"Flanagan-1973-2
.]-
.ds [A Flanagan, J.L.
.as [A " and Rabiner, L.R. (Editors)
.ds [D 1973
.ds [T Speech synthesis
.ds [I Wiley
.nr [T 0
.nr [A 0
.nr [O 0
.][ 2 book
.in+2n
This is a collection of previously-published research papers on speech
synthesis, rather than a unified book.
It contains many of the classic papers on the subject from 1940\ -\ 1972,
and is a very useful reference work.
.in-2n
.\"LeBoss-1980-3
.]-
.ds [A LeBoss, B.
.ds [D 1980
.ds [K *
.ds [T Speech I/O is making itself heard
.ds [J Electronics
.ds [O May\ 22
.ds [P 95-105
.nr [P 1
.nr [T 0
.nr [A 1
.nr [O 0
.][ 1 journal-article
.in+2n
The magazine
.ul
Electronics
is an excellent source of up-to-the-minute news, product announcements,
titbits, and rumours in the commercial speech technology world.
This particular article discusses the projected size of the voice
output market and gives a brief synopsis of the activities of several
interested companies.
.in-2n
.\"Witten-1980-5
.]-
.ds [A Witten, I.H.
.ds [D 1980
.ds [T Communicating with microcomputers
.ds [I Academic Press
.ds [C London
.nr [T 0
.nr [A 1
.nr [O 0
.][ 2 book
.in+2n
A recent book on microcomputer technology, this is unusual in that
it contains a major section on speech communication
with computers (as well as ones
on computer buses, interfaces, and graphics).
.in-2n
.LE "nn"
.EQ
delim $$
.EN
.CH "2 WHAT IS SPEECH?"
.ds RT "What is speech?
.ds CX "Principles of computer speech
.pp
People speak by using their vocal cords as a sound source, and making rapid
gestures of the articulatory organs (tongue, lips, jaw, and so on).
The resulting changes in shape of the vocal tract allow production
of the different sounds that we know as the vowels and consonants of
ordinary language.
.pp
What is it necessary to learn about this process for the purposes of
speech output from computers?
That depends crucially upon how speech is represented in the system.
If utterances are stored as time waveforms \(em and this is what we will be
discussing in the next chapter \(em the structure of speech is not important.
If frequency-related parameters of particular natural utterances are
stored, then it is advantageous to take into account some of the
acoustic properties of the speech waveform.
.pp
This point can be brought into focus by contrasting the transmission
(or storage) of speech with that of real-life television pictures,
as has been proposed for a videophone service.
Massive data reductions, of the order of 50:1, can be achieved for speech,
using techniques that are described in later chapters. For pictures,
data reduction is still an important issue \(em even more so for the
videophone than for the telephone, because of the vastly higher
information rates involved.
Unfortunately, the potential for data reduction is much
smaller \(em nothing like the 50:1 figure quoted above.
This is because speech sounds have definite characteristics, imparted
by the fact that they are produced by a human vocal tract, which
can be exploited for data reduction.
Television pictures have no equivalent generative structure, for
they show just those things that the camera points at.
.pp
Moving up from frequency-related parameters of
.ul
particular
utterances, it
is possible to store such parameters in a
.ul
general
form which characterizes the sound segments that appear in spoken language.
This immediately raises the issue of
.ul
classification
of sound segments, to form a basis for storing generalized acoustic
information and for retrieval of the information needed to synthesize
any particular utterance.
Speech is by nature continuous, and any synthesis system based upon
discrete classification must come to terms with this by tackling
the problems of transition from one segment to another,
and local modification of sound segments as a function of their context.
.pp
This brings us to another level of representation.
So far we have talked of the
.ul
acoustic
nature of speech, but when we have to cope with transitions between
discrete sound segments it may be fruitful to consider
.ul
articulatory
properties as well.
Any model of the speech production process
is in effect a model of the articulatory process that generates the speech.
Some speech research is concerned with
modelling
the vocal tract directly, rather than modelling the acoustic output from it.
One might specify, for example, position of tongue and posture of jaw and lips
for a vowel, instead of giving frequency-related
characteristics of it. This is a potent
tool in linguistic research, for it brings one closer to human production of
speech \(em in particular to the connection between brain and articulators.
.pp
Articulatory
synthesis holds a promise of high-quality speech, for the transitional
effects caused by tongue and jaw inertia can be modelled directly.
However, this potential has
not yet been realized.
Speech from current articulatory models is of much poorer quality than
that from acoustically-based synthesis methods.
The major problem is in gaining data about articulatory
behaviour during running speech \(em it is much easier to perform acoustic
analysis on the resulting sound than it is to examine the vocal organs in
action. Because of this, the subject is not treated in this book.
We will only look at articulatory properties insofar as they help us
to understand, in a qualitative way, the acoustic nature of speech.
.pp
Speech, however, is much more than mere articulation.
Consider \(em admittedly a rather extreme and chauvinistic example \(em the
number of ways a girl can say "yes".
Breathy voice, slow tempo, low pitch \(em these are all characteristics which
affect the utterance as a whole, rather than being classifiable into
individual sound segments. Linguists call them "prosodic" or
"suprasegmental" features, for they relate to overall aspects of the
utterance, and distinguish them from "segmental" ones which concern
the articulation of individual segments of syllables.
The most important prosodic features are pitch, or fundamental frequency
of the voice, and rhythm.
.pp
This chapter provides a brief introduction to the nature of the speech
signal. Depending upon what speech output techniques we use, it may be
necessary to understand something of the acoustic nature of the speech
signal; the system that generates it (the vocal tract); commonly-used
classifications of sound segments; and the prosodic aspects of speech.
This material is little used in the early chapters of the book, but
becomes increasingly important as the story unfolds.
Hence you may skip the remainder of this chapter if you wish, but
should return to it later to pick up more background whenever it
becomes necessary.
.sh "2.1 The anatomy of speech"
.pp
The so-called "voiced" sounds of speech \(em like the sound you make when
you say "aaah" \(em are produced by passing air up from the lungs through
the larynx or voicebox, which is situated just behind the Adam's apple.
The vocal tract from the larynx to the lips acts as a resonant cavity,
amplifying certain frequencies and attenuating others.
.pp
The waveform generated by the larynx, however, is not simply sinusoidal.
(If it were, the vocal tract resonances would merely
give a sine wave of the same frequency but amplified or
attenuated according to how close it was to the nearest resonance.) The
larynx contains two folds of skin \(em the vocal cords \(em which blow apart and flap
together again in each cycle of the pitch period.
The pitch of a male voice in speech varies from as low as 50\ Hz
(cycles per second) to perhaps
250\ Hz, with a typical median value of 100\ Hz.
For a female voice the range is higher, up to about 500\ Hz in speech.
Singing can go much higher: a top C sung by a soprano has a frequency
of just over 1000\ Hz, and some opera singers can reach
substantially higher than this.
.pp
The flapping action of the vocal cords
gives a waveform which can be approximated by a
triangular pulse (this and other approximations will be discussed in
Chapter 5).
It has a rich spectrum of harmonics,
decaying at around 12\ dB/octave, and each harmonic is affected
by the vocal tract resonances.
.rh "Vocal tract resonances."
A simple model of the vocal tract is an organ-pipe-like cylindrical tube
(Figure 2.1),
with a sound source at one end (the larynx) and open at the other (the lips).
.FC "Figure 2.1"
This has resonances at wavelengths $4L$, $4L/3$, $4L/5$, ..., where $L$
is the length of the tube;
and these correspond to frequencies $c/4L$, $3c/4L$, $5c/4L$, ...\ Hz, $c$
being the speed of
sound in air.
Calculating these frequencies, using a typical figure for the
distance between larynx and lips of 17\ cm,
and $c = 340$\ m/s for the speed of sound, leads to resonances at
approximately 500\ Hz, 1500\ Hz, 2500\ Hz, ... .
.pp
When excited by the harmonic-rich waveform of the larynx,
the vocal tract resonances produce
peaks known as
.ul
formants
in the energy spectrum of the speech wave (Figure 2.2).
.FC "Figure 2.2"
The lowest formant, called formant one, varies from around 200\ Hz
to 1000\ Hz during speech, the exact range depending on the size
of the vocal tract.
Formant two varies from around 500 to 2500\ Hz, and formant three
from around 1500 to 3500\ Hz.
.pp
You can easily hear the lowest formant by whispering the vowels in
the words "heed", "hid", "head", "had", "hod", "hawed", and "who'd".
They appear to have a steadily descending pitch, yet since you are
whispering there is no fundamental frequency.
What you hear is the lowest resonance of the vocal tract \(em formant one.
Some masochistic people can play simple tunes with this formant by putting
their mouth in successive vowel shapes and knocking the top of their head
with their knuckles \(em hard!
.pp
A difficulty occurs when trying to identify the lower formants for speakers
with high-pitched voices.
When a formant frequency falls below the fundamental excitation frequency
of the voice, its effect is diminished \(em although it is still present.
The vibrato used by opera singers provides a very low-frequency excitation
(at the vibrato rate) which helps to illuminate the lower formants even
when the pitch of the voice is very high.
.pp
Of course, speech is not a static phenomenon.
The organ-pipe model describes the speech spectrum during a continuously
held vowel with the mouth in a neutral position such as for "aaah".
But in real speech the tongue and lips are in continuous motion,
altering the shape of the vocal tract and hence the positions of the resonances.
It is as if the organ-pipe were being squeezed and expanded in
different places all the time.
Say
.ul
ee
as in "heed" and feel how close your tongue is to the roof of your mouth,
causing a constriction near the front of the vocal cavity.
.pp
Linguists and speech engineers use a special frequency analyser called a
"sound spectrograph" to make a three-dimensional plot of the variation
of the speech energy spectrum with time.
Figure 2.3 shows a spectrogram of the
utterance "go away".
.FC "Figure 2.3"
Frequency is given on the vertical axis,
and bands are shown at the beginning to indicate the scale.
Time is plotted horizontally,
and energy is given by the darkness of any particular area.
The lower few formants can be seen as dark bands extending horizontally,
and they are in continuous motion.
In the neutral first vowel of "away", the formant frequencies
pass through
approximately the 500\ Hz, 1500\ Hz, and 2500\ Hz that we calculated earlier.
(In fact, formants two and three are somewhat lower than these values.)
.pp
The
fine vertical striations in the spectrogram correspond to single openings of the vocal cords.
Pitch changes continuously throughout an utterance,
and this can be seen on the spectrogram by the differences in spacing
of the striations.
Pitch change, or
.ul
intonation,
is singularly important in
lending naturalness to speech.
.pp
On a spectrogram, a continuously held vowel shows up as a static energy spectrum.
But beware \(em what we call a vowel in everyday language is not the same thing as a
"vowel" in phonetic terms.
Say "I" and feel how the tongue moves continuously while you're speaking.
Technically, this is a
.ul
diphthong
or slide between two vowel positions,
and not a single vowel.
If you say
.ul
ar
as in "hard",
and change slowly to
.ul
ee
as in "heed", you will obtain a diphthong not unlike that in "I".
And there are many more phonetically different vowel sounds
than the a, e, i, o, and u that we normally think of.
The words "hood" and "mood" have different vowels, for example, as do "head" and "mead".
The principal acoustic difference between the various vowel sounds
is in the frequencies of the first two formants.
.pp
A further complication is introduced by the nasal tract. This is
a large cavity which is coupled to the oral tract by a passage at the
back of the mouth.
The passage is guarded by a flap of skin called the "velum".
You know about this because inadvertent opening of the velum while
swallowing causes food or drink to go up your nose.
The nasal cavity is switched in and out of the vocal tract
by the velum during speech.
It is used for consonants
.ul
m,
.ul
n,
and the
.ul
ng
sound in the word
"singing".
Vowels are frequently nasalized too.
A very effective demonstration of the amount of nasalization in ordinary
speech can be obtained by cutting a nose-shaped hole in a large
baffle which divides a room, speaking normally with one's nose in the hole,
and having someone listen on the other side.
The frequency of occurrence of
nasal sounds, and the volume of sound that is emitted
through the nose, are both surprisingly large.
Interestingly enough, when we say in conversation that someone sounds
"nasal", we usually mean "non-nasal". When the nasal passages are
blocked by a cold, nasal sounds are missing \(em
.ul
n\c
\&'s turn into
.ul
d\c
\&'s,
and
.ul
m\c
\&'s to
.ul
b\c
\&'s.
.pp
When the nasal cavity is switched in to the vocal tract, it introduces
formant resonances, just as the oral cavity does.
Although we cannot
alter the shape of the nasal tract significantly, the nasal formant
pattern is not fixed, because the oral tract does play a part in nasal
resonances.
If you say
.ul
m,
.ul
n,
and
.ul
ng
continuously, you can hear the difference and feel how it is produced by
altering the combined nasal/oral tract resonances with your tongue position.
The nasal cavity operates in parallel with
the oral one: this causes the two resonance patterns to be summed
together, with resulting complications which will be discussed in Chapter 5.
.rh "Sound sources."
Speech involves sounds other than those caused by regular vibration of
the larynx.
When you whisper, the folds of the larynx are held slightly
apart so that the air passing between them becomes turbulent, causing a noisy excitation
of the resonant cavity.
The formant peaks are still present, superimposed on the noise. Such
"aspirated" sounds occur in the
.ul
h
of "hello", and for a very short time
after the lips are opened at the beginning of "pit".
.pp
Constrictions made in the mouth produce hissy noises such as
.ul
ss,
.ul
sh,
and
.ul
f.
For example, in
.ul
ss
the tip of the tongue is high up,
very close to the roof of the mouth.
Turbulent air passing through this constriction causes a
random noise excitation, known as "frication".
Actually, the roof of the mouth is quite a complicated object.
You can feel with your tongue a bony hump or ridge just behind the front
teeth, and it is this that forms a constriction with the tongue for
.ul
s.
In
.ul
sh,
the tongue is flattened close to the roof of the mouth slightly farther back,
in a position rather similar to that for
.ul
ee
but with a narrower
constriction,
while
.ul
f
is produced with the upper teeth and lower lip.
Because they are made near the front of the mouth,
the resonances of the vocal tract have little effect on these fricative
sounds.
.pp
To distinguish them from aspiration and frication, the ordinary speech
sounds (like "aaah") which have their source in larynx vibration are
known technically as "voiced". Aspirated and fricative sounds are called
"unvoiced". Thus the three different sound types can be classified as
.LB
.NP
voiced
.NP
unvoiced (fricative)
.NP
unvoiced (aspirated).
.LE
Can any of these three types occur together?
It would seem that voicing and aspiration can not, for the former requires
the larynx to be vibrating regularly, but for the latter it must be
generating turbulent noise.
However, there is a condition known technically as "breathy voice"
which occurs when the vocal cords are slightly apart, still vibrating,
but with a large volume of air passing between to create turbulence.
Voicing can easily occur in conjunction with frication.
Corresponding to
.ul
s,
.ul
sh,
and
.ul
f
we get the
.ul
voiced
fricatives
.ul
z,
the sound in the middle of words like "vision" which I will call
.ul
zh,
and
.ul
v.
A simple illustration of voicing is to say "ffffvvvvffff\ ...".
During the voiced part you can feel the larynx vibrations with a finger
on your Adam's apple, and it can be heard quite clearly if you stop up
your ears.
Technically, there is nothing to prevent frication and aspiration
from occurring together \(em they do, for example, when a voiced fricative
is whispered \(em but the combination is not an important one.
.pp
The complicated acoustic effects of noisy excitations in speech can be
seen in the spectrogram in Figure 2.4 of
"high altitude jets whizz past screaming".
.FC "Figure 2.4"
.rh "The source-filter model of speech production."
We have been talking in terms of a sound source (be it voiced or unvoiced)
exciting the resonances of the oral (and possible the nasal) tract.
This model, which is used extensively in speech analysis and synthesis,
is known as
the source-filter model of speech production. The reason for its success
is that the effect of the resonances can be modelled as a frequency-selective
filter, operating on an input which is the source excitation.
Thus the frequency spectrum of the source is modified by multiplying it
by the frequency characteristic of the filter (or adding it, if amplitudes
are expressed logarithmically).
This can be seen in Figure 2.5, which shows a source
spectrum and filter characteristic which combine to give the overall
spectrum of Figure 2.2.
.FC "Figure 2.5"
.pp
Although, as mentioned above, the various fricatives are not subjected
to the resonances of the vocal tract to the same extent
that voiced and aspirated
sounds are, they can still be modelled as a noise source followed by
a filter to give them their different sound qualities.
.pp
The source-filter model is an oversimplification of the actual speech
production system. There is inevitably some coupling between the vocal
tract and the lungs, through the glottis, during the period when
it is open. This effectively makes the filter characteristics
change during each individual cycle of the excitation.
However, although the effect is of interest to speech researchers,
it is probably not of great significance for practical speech output.
.pp
One very interesting implication of the
source-filter model is that the prosodic features of
pitch and amplitude are largely properties of the source; while
segmental ones are introduced by the filter. This makes it possible to
separate some aspects of
overall prosody from the actual segmental content of an
utterance, so that, for example, a human utterance can be stored initially
and then spoken by a machine with a variety of different intonations.
.sh "2.2 Classification of speech sounds"
.pp
The need to classify sound segments as a basis for storing generalized acoustic
information and retrieving it was mentioned earlier. There is a real
difficulty here because speech is by nature continuous and classifications are
discrete.
It is important to remember this difficulty because it is all too easy
to criticize the complex and often confusing attempts of linguists to
tackle the classification task.
.pp
Linguists call a written representation of the
.ul
sounds
of an utterance a "phonetic
transcription" of it. The same utterance can be transcribed at
different levels of detail: simple transcriptions are called "broad"
and more specific ones are called "narrow".
Perhaps the most logically satisfying kind of transcription employs units
termed "phonemes". This is the broadest transcription,
and is sometimes called a
.ul
phonemic
transcription to emphasize that that it is in terms of phonemes.
Unfortunately, the word "phoneme" is often used somewhat loosely.
In its true sense, a phoneme is a
.ul
logical
unit, rather than a physical, acoustic, one,
and is defined in relation to a particular language by reference
to its use in discriminating different words.
Classifications of sounds which are based on their
semantic
role as word-discriminators are called
.ul
phonological
classifications: we could ensure that there is no ambiguity in the sense
with which we use the term "phoneme" by calling it a phonological unit, and
the phonemic transcription could be called a phonological one.
.rh "Broad phonetic transcription."
A phoneme is an abstract unit representing a set of different sounds.
The issue is confused by the fact that the members of the set actually
sound very similar, if not identical, to the untrained ear \(em precisely because
the difference between them plays no part in distinguishing words from
each other in the particular language concerned.
.pp
Take the words "key" and "caw", for example. Despite the difference in
spelling, both of them begin with a
.ul
k
sound that belongs (in English)
to the same phoneme set, called
.ul
k.
However, say them two or three times each, concentrating on the position of
the tongue during the
.ul
k.
It is quite different in each case. For "key", it
is raised, close to the roof of the mouth, in preparation for the
.ul
ee,
whereas in "caw" it is much lower down.
The sound of the
.ul
k
is actually quite different in the two cases.
Yet they belong to the same phoneme, for there is no pair of words which
relies on this difference to distinguish them \(em "key" and "caw" are
obviously distinguished by their vowels, not by the initial
consonant.
You probably cannot hear clearly the difference between the two
.ul
k\c
\&'s,
precisely because they belong to the same phoneme and so the difference
is not important (for English).
.pp
The point is sharpened by considering another language where we make a
distinction \(em and hence can hear the difference \(em between two sounds
that belong, in the language, to the same phoneme.
Japanese does not distinguish
.ul
r
from
.ul
l.
Japanese people
.ul
do not hear
the difference between "lice" and "rice", in the same way that you do
not hear the difference between the two
.ul
k\c
\&'s above.
Cockneys do not hear, except with a special effort, the difference
between "has" and "as", or "haitch" and "aitch", for the Cockney dialect
does not recognize initial
.ul
h\c
\&'s.
.pp
So what is a phoneme? It is a set of sounds whose members do not
discriminate between any words in the language under consideration.
If you are mathematically minded you could think of it as an equivalence
class of sounds, determined by the relationship
.LB
$sound sub 1$ is related to $sound sub 2$ if $sound sub 1$ and $sound sub 2$
do not discriminate any pair of words in the language.
.LE
The
.ul
p
and
.ul
d
in
"pig" and "dig" belong to different phonemes (in English),
because they discriminate
the two words.
.ul
b,
.ul
f,
and
.ul
j
belong to different phonemes again.
.ul
i
and
.ul
a
in "hid" and "had" belong to different phonemes too.
Proceeding like this, a list of phonemes can be drawn up.
.pp
Such a list is shown in Table 2.1, for British English.
(The layout of the list does have some significance in terms of different
categories of phonemes, which will be explained later.) In fact,
linguists use an
assortment of English letters, foreign letters, and special
symbols to represent phonemes. In this book we use one- or two-letter
codes, partly because they are more mnemonic, and partly because
they are more suitable for communication to computers using standard
peripheral devices.
They are
a direct transliteration of linguists' standard International Phonetic
Association symbols.
.RF
.nr x1 3m+1.0i+0.5i+0.5i+0.5i+\w'y'u
.nr x1 (\n(.l-\n(x1)/2
.in \n(x1u
.ta 3m +1.0i +0.5i +0.5i +0.5i +0.5i +0.5i
\fIuh\fR (the) \fIp\fR \fIt\fR \fIk\fR
\fIa\fR (bud) \fIb\fR \fId\fR \fIg\fR
\fIe\fR (head) \fIm\fR \fIn\fR \fIng\fR
\fIi\fR (hid)
\fIo\fR (hod) \fIr\fR \fIw\fR \fIl\fR \fIy\fR
\fIu\fR (hood)
\fIaa\fR (had) \fIs\fR \fIz\fR
\fIee\fR (heed) \fIsh\fR \fIzh\fR
\fIer\fR (heard) \fIf\fR \fIv\fR
\fIuu\fR (food) \fIth\fR \fIdh\fR
\fIar\fR (hard) \fIch\fR \fIj\fR
\fIaw\fR (hoard) \fIh\fR
.ta 0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i
.in 0
.FG "Table 2.1 The phonemes of British English"
.pp
We will discuss the sounds which make up each of these phoneme classes
shortly. First, however, it is worthwhile pointing out some rather
tricky points in the definition of these phonemes.
.rh "Phonological difficulties."
There are snags with phonological classification, as there are
in any area where attempts are made to make completely logical
statements about human activity.
Consider
.ul
h
and the
.ul
ng
in "singing".
(\c
.ul
ng
is certainly not an
.ul
n
sound followed by a
.ul
g
sound, although
it is true that in some English accents "singing" is rendered with
the
.ul
ng
followed by a
.ul
g
at each of its two occurrences.) No words
end with
.ul
h,
and none begin with
.ul
ng.
(Notice that we are still talking about British English.
In Chinese, the sound
.ul
ng
is a word in its own right, and is a common
family name.
But we must stick with one language for phonological classification.) Hence
it follows that there is no pair of words which is distinguished
by the difference between
.ul
h
and
.ul
ng.
Technically,
they belong to the same phoneme. However, technical considerations
in this case must take second place to common sense!
.pp
The
.ul
j
in "jig" is another interesting case. It can be considered
to belong to a
.ul
j
phoneme, or to be a sequence of two
phonemes,
.ul
d
followed by
.ul
zh
(the sound in "vision"). There is
disagreement on this point in phonetics textbooks, and we do not
have the time (nor, probably, the inclination!) to consider the
pros and cons of this moot point.
I have resolved the matter arbitrarily by writing it as a separate
phoneme. The
.ul
ch
in "choose" is a similar case
(\c
.ul
t
followed by the
.ul
sh
in "shoes").
.pp
Another difficulty, this time where Table 2.1 does not show how to
distinguish between two sounds which
.ul
do
discriminate words in many people's English, is the
.ul
w
in "witch"
and that in "which". The latter is conventionally transcribed
as a sequence of two phonemes,
.ul
h w.
.pp
The last few difficulties are all to do with deciding whether a
sound belongs to a single phoneme class, or comprises a sequence
of sounds each of which belongs to a phoneme.
Are the
.ul
j
in "jug", the
.ul
ch
in "chug", and the
.ul
w
in "which",
single phonemes or not? The definition above of a phoneme
as a "set of sounds whose members do not discriminate any words
in the language" does not help us to answer this question.
As far as this definition is concerned, we could go so far as
to call each and every word of the language an individual phoneme!
It is clear that some acoustic evidence, and quite a lot of judgement,
is being used when phonemes such as those of Table 2.1 are defined.
.pp
So much for the consonants. This same problem occurs in vowel sounds,
particularly in diphthongs, which are sequences of two vowel-like sounds.
Do the vowels of "main" and "man" belong to different phonemes?
Clearly so, if they are both transcribed as single units, for they
distinguish the two words.
Notwithstanding the fact that they are sequences of separate sounds,
a logically consistent system could be constructed which gave separate,
unitary, symbols to each diphthong.
However, it is usual to employ a compound symbol which indicates explicitly
the character of the two vowel-like sounds involved.
We will transcribe the diphthong of "main" as a sequence of two
vowels,
.ul
e
(as in "head") and
.ul
i
(as in "hid", not "I").
This is done primarily for economy of symbols, choosing the constituent
sounds on the basis of the closest match to existing vowel sounds.
(Note that this again violates purely
.ul
logical
criteria for identifying phonemes.)
.rh "Categories of speech sounds."
A phoneme is defined as a set of sounds whose members to not discriminate
between any words in the language under consideration.
The phonemes themselves can be classified into groups which reflect
similarities between them.
This can be done in many different ways, using various criteria
for classification. In fact, one branch of linguistic research
is concerned with defining a set of "distinctive
features" such that a phoneme class is uniquely identified by
the values of the features. Distinctive features are binary,
and include such things as voiced\(emunvoiced, fricative\(emnot\ fricative,
aspirated\(emunaspirated. We will not be concerned here with such
detailed classifications, but it is as well to know that they exist.
.pp
There is an everyday distinction between vowels and consonants.
A vowel forms the nucleus of every syllable, and one or more consonants
may optionally surround the vowel.
But the distinction sometimes becomes a little ambiguous.
Syllables like
.ul
sh
are commonly uttered and certainly do not
contain a vowel. Furthermore, when we say "vowel" in everyday
language we usually refer to the
.ul
written
vowels a, e, i, o, and u; there are many more vowel sounds.
A vowel in orthography is different to a vowel as a phoneme.
Is a diphthong a phonetic vowel? \(em certainly, by the syllable-nucleus
criterion; but it is a little different from ordinary vowels because
it is a changing sound rather than a constant one.
.pp
Table 2.2 shows one classification of the phonemes of Table 2.1, which
will be useful in our later studies of speech synthesis from phonetics.
It shows twelve vowels, including the rather peculiar one
.ul
uh
(which corresponds to the first vowel in the word "above").
This is the sound produced by the vocal tract when it is in a relaxed,
neutral position; and it never occurs in prominent, stressed,
syllables. The vowels later in the list are almost always longer
than the earlier ones. In fact, the first six
(\c
.ul
uh, a, e, i, o, u\c
)
are often called "short" vowels, and the last five
(\c
.ul
ee, er, uu, ar, aw\c
)
"long" ones. The shortness or longness of the one in the middle
(\c
.ul
aa\c
)
is rather ambiguous.
.RF
.nr x0 \w'000unvoiced fricative 'u
.nr x1 \n(x0+\w'[not classified as individual phonemes]'u
.nr x1 (\n(.l-\n(x1)/2
.in \n(x1u
.ta \n(x0u
.fi
vowel \c
.ul
uh a e i o u aa ee er uu ar aw
.br
diphthong [not classified as individual phonemes]
.br
glide (or liquid) \c
.ul
r w l y
.br
stop
.br
\0\0\0unvoiced stop \c
.ul
p t k
.br
\0\0\0voiced stop \c
.ul
b d g
.br
nasal \c
.ul
m n ng
.br
fricative
.br
\0\0\0unvoiced fricative \c
.ul
s sh f th
.br
\0\0\0voiced fricative \c
.ul
z zh v dh
.br
affricate
.br
\0\0\0unvoiced affricate \c
.ul
ch
.br
\0\0\0voiced affricate \c
.ul
j
.br
aspirate \c
.ul
h
.nf
.in 0
.ta 0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i
.FG "Table 2.2 Phoneme categories"
.pp
Diphthongs pose no problem here because we have not classified them
as single phonemes.
.pp
The remaining categories are consonants. The glides are quite
similar to vowels and diphthongs, though; for they are voiced,
continuous sounds. You can say them and prolong them.
(This is also true of the fricatives.)
.ul
r
is interesting
because it can be realized acoustically in very different ways.
Some people curl the tip of the tongue
back \(em a so-called retroflex action of the tongue. Many people
cannot do this, and their
.ul
r\c
\&'s sound like
.ul
w\c
\&'s.
The stage Scotsman's
.ul
r
is a trill where the tip of the tongue vibrates against the roof of the mouth.
.ul
l
is also
slightly unusual, for it is the only English phoneme which is "lateral" \(em
air passes either side of it, in two separate passages. Welsh
has another lateral sound, a fricative, which is written "ll" as
in "Llandudno".
.pp
The next category is the stops. These are formed by stopping up
the mouth, so that air pressure builds up behind the lips, and
releasing this pressure suddenly. The result is a little
explosion (and the stops are often called "plosives"), which
usually creates a very short burst of fricative noise (and, in some cases,
aspiration as well). They are further subdivided into voiced and
unvoiced stops, depending upon whether voicing starts as soon as
the plosion occurs (sometimes even before) or well after it.
If you put your hand in front of your mouth when saying "pit" you
can easily feel the puff of air that signals the plosion on the
.ul
p,
and probably on the
.ul
t
as well.
.pp
In a sense, nasals are really stops as well (and they are often
called stops), for the oral tract is blocked although the nasal
one is not. The peculiar fact that the nasal
.ul
ng
never occurs at the beginning of a word (in English) was mentioned
earlier. Notice that for stops and nasals there is a similarity in the
.ul
vertical
direction of Table 2.2, between
.ul
p,
.ul
b,
and
.ul
m;
.ul
t,
.ul
d,
and
.ul
n;
and
.ul
k,
.ul
g,
and
.ul
ng.
.ul
p
is an unvoiced version of
.ul
b
(try saying them),
and
.ul
m
is a nasalized version (for
.ul
b
is what you get when you
have a cold and try to say
.ul
m\c
).
These three sounds are all made
at the front of the mouth, while
.ul
t,
.ul
d,
and
.ul
n,
which bear the
same resemblance to each other, are made in the middle; and
.ul
k,
.ul
g,
and
.ul
ng
are made at the back. This introduces another
possible classification, according to
.ul
place of articulation.
.pp
The unvoiced fricatives are quite straightforward, except perhaps
for
.ul
th,
which is the sound at the beginning of "thigh".
They are paired with the voiced fricatives on the basis of place
of articulation. The voiced version of
.ul
th
is the
.ul
dh
at
the beginning of "thy".
.ul
zh
is a fairly rare phoneme, which
is heard in the middle of "vision". Affricates are similar to
fricatives but begin with a stopped posture, and we mentioned earlier
the controversy as to whether they should be considered to be
single phonemes, or
sequences of stop phonemes and fricatives.
Finally comes the lonely aspirate,
.ul
h.
Aspiration does occur
elsewhere in speech, during the plosive burst of unvoiced stops.
.rh "Narrow phonetic transcription."
The phonological classification outlined above is based upon a clear
rationale for distinguishing between sounds according to how
they affect meaning \(em although the rationale does become
somewhat muddied in difficult cases.
Narrower transcriptions are not so systematic.
They use units called
.ul
allophones,
which are defined by reference to physical, acoustic, criteria rather
than purely logical ones.
("Phone" is a more old-fashioned term for the same thing,
and the misused word "phoneme" is often employed where allophone is
meant, that is, as a physical rather than a logical
unit.) Each phoneme has several allophones,
more or less depending on how narrow or broad the transcription is,
and the allophones are different acoustic realizations of the same
logical unit.
For example, the
.ul
k\c
\&'s in "key" and "caw" may be considered as different
allophones (in a slightly narrow transcription).
Although we will not use symbols for allophones here,
they are often indicated by diacritical marks in a text
which modify the basic phoneme classes.
For example, a tilde (~) over a vowel means that it is nasalized, while a small
circle underneath a consonant means that it is devoiced.
.pp
Allophonic variation in speech is governed by a mechanism called
.ul
coarticulation,
where a sound is affected by those that come either side of it.
"Key"\-"caw" is a clear example of this, where the tongue
position in the
.ul
k
anticipates that of the following vowel \(em high
in the first case, low in the second.
Most allophonic variation in English is anticipatory, in that the sound
is influenced by the following articulation rather than by
preceding ones.
.pp
Nasalization is a feature which applies to vowels in English through
anticipatory coarticulation.
In many languages (for example, French) it is a
.ul
distinctive
feature for vowels in that it serves to distinguish one vowel phoneme class
from another.
That this is not so in English sometimes tempts us to assume,
incorrectly, that nasalization does not occur in vowels.
It does, typically when the vowel is followed by a nasal consonant, and it is
important for synthesis that nasalized vowel allophones are recognized and
treated accordingly.
.pp
Coarticulation can be predicted by phonological rules, which show
how a phonemic sequence will be realized by allophones.
Such rules have been studied extensively by linguists.
.pp
The reason for coarticulation, and for the existence of allophones,
lies in the physical constraints imposed by the motion
of the articulatory organs \(em particularly their acceleration and deceleration.
An immensely crude model is that the brain decides what phonemes to
say (for it is concerned with semantic things, and the definition
of a phoneme is a semantic one).
It then takes this sequence and translates it into neural commands
which actually move the articulators into target positions.
However, other commands may be issued, and executed, before these targets
are reached, and this accounts for coarticulation effects.
Phonological rules for converting a phonemic sequence to an
allophonic one are a sort of discrete model of the process.
Particularly for work involving computers, it is possible that this
rule-based approach will be overtaken by potentially more accurate
methods which attempt to model the continuous articulatory phenomena
directly.
.sh "2.3 Prosody"
.pp
The phonetic classification introduced above divides speech into
segments and classifies these into phonemes or allophones.
Riding on top of this stream of segments are other, more global,
attributes that dictate the overall prosody of the utterance.
Prosody is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as the
"science of versification, laws of metre,"
which emphasizes the aspects of stress and rhythm that are central
to classical verse.
There are, however, many other features which are more or less
global.
These are collectively called prosodic or, equivalently, suprasegmental,
features, for they lie above the level of phoneme or syllable segments.
.pp
Prosodic features can be split into two basic categories: features
of voice quality and features of voice dynamics.
Variations in voice quality, which are sometimes called
"paralinguistic" phenomena, are accounted for by anatomical
differences and long-term muscular idiosyncrasies (like a sore
throat), and have little part to play in the kind of applications
for speech output that have been sketched in Chapter 1.
Variations in voice dynamics occur in three dimensions: pitch
or fundamental frequency of the voice, time, and amplitude.
Within the first, the pattern of pitch variation, or
.ul
intonation,
can be distinguished from the overall range within which that variation
occurs.
The time dimension encompasses the rhythm of the speech, pauses, and the
overall tempo \(em whether it is uttered quickly or slowly.
The third dimension, amplitude, is of relatively minor importance.
Intonation and rhythm work together to produce an effect commonly called
"stress", and we will elaborate further on the nature of stress and discuss
algorithms for synthesizing intonation and rhythm in Chapter 8.
.pp
These features have a very important role to play in communicating meaning.
They are not fancy, optional components.
It is their neglect which is largely responsible for the layman's
stereotype of computer speech,
a caricature of living speech \(em abrupt, arhythmic, and in a grating
monotone \(em
which was well characterized by Isaac Asimov when he wrote of speaking
"all in capital letters".
.pp
Timing has a syntactic function in that it sometimes helps to
distinguish nouns from
verbs
(\c
.ul
ex\c
tract versus ex\c
.ul
tract\c
).
and adjectives from verbs (app\c
.ul
rox\c
imate versus approxi\c
.ul
mate\c
) \(em although segmental aspects play a part here too, for the vowel
qualities differ in each pair of words.
Nevertheless, if you make a mistake when assigning stress to words
like these in conversation you are very likely to be queried as
to what you actually said.
.pp
Intonation has a big effect on meaning too.
Pitch often \(em but by no means always \(em rises on a question,
the extent and abruptness of the rise depending on features like whether
a genuine information-bearing reply or merely confirmation is expected.
A distinctive pitch pattern accompanies the introduction of a new topic.
In conjunction with rhythm, intonation can be used to bring out contrasts
as in
.LB
.NI
"He didn't have a
.ul
red
car, he had a
.ul
black
one."
.LE
In general, the intonation patterns used by a reader depend not only on
the text itself, but on his interpretation of it, and also on his
expectation of the listener's interpretation of it.
For example:
.LB
.NI
"He had a
.ul
red
car" (I think you thought it was black),
.NI
"He had a red
.ul
bi\c
cycle" (I think you thought it was a car).
.LE
.pp
In natural speech, prosodic features are significantly influenced by
whether the utterance is generated spontaneously or read aloud.
The variations in spontaneous speech are enormous.
There are all sorts of emotions which are plainly audible in
everyday speech: sarcasm, excitement, rudeness, disagreement,
sadness, fright, love.
Variations in voice quality certainly play a part here.
Even with "ordinary" cooperative friendly conversation, the need to find
words and somehow fit them into an overall utterance produces great
diversity of prosodic structures.
Applications for speech output from computers do not, however, call for
spontaneous conversation, but for a controlled delivery which is
like that when reading aloud.
Here, the speaker is articulating utterances which have been set out for
him, reducing his cognitive load to one of understanding and interpreting
the text rather than generating it.
Unfortunately for us, linguists are (quite rightly)
primarily interested in living,
spontaneous speech rather than pre-prepared readings.
.pp
Nevertheless, the richness of prosody in speech even when reading from
a book should not be underestimated.
Read aloud to an audience and listen to the contrasts in voice dynamics
deliberately introduced for variety's sake.
If stories are to be read there is even a case for controlling voice
.ul
quality
to cope with quotations and affective imitations.
.pp
We saw earlier that the source-filter model is particularly
helpful in distinguishing prosodic features, which are largely
properties of the source, from segmental ones, which belong to
the filter.
Pitch and amplitude are primarily source properties.
Rhythm and speed of speaking are not, but neither are they filter
properties, for they belong to the source-filter system as a whole
and not specifically to either part of it.
The difficult notion of stress is, from an acoustic point of view,
a combination of pitch, rhythm, and amplitude.
Even some features of voice quality can be attributed to the source
(like laryngitis), although others \(em cleft palate, badly-fitting
dentures \(em affect segmental features as well.
.sh "2.4 Further reading"
.pp
This chapter has been no more than a cursory introduction to some
of the difficult problems of linguistics and phonetics.
Here are some readable books which discuss these problems further.
.LB "nn"
.\"Abercrombie-1967-1
.ds [F 1
.]-
.ds [A Abercrombie, D.
.ds [D 1967
.ds [T Elements of general phonetics
.ds [I Edinburgh Univ Press
.nr [T 0
.nr [A 1
.nr [O 0
.][ 2 book
.in+2n
This is an excellent book which covers all of the areas of this
chapter, in much more detail than has been possible here.
.in-2n
.\"Brown-1980-2
.ds [F 2
.]-
.ds [A Brown, Gill
.as [A ", Currie, K.L.
.as [A ", and Kenworthy, J.
.ds [D 1980
.ds [T Questions of intonation
.ds [I Croom Helm
.ds [C London
.nr [T 0
.nr [A 1
.nr [O 0
.][ 2 book
.in+2n
An intensive study of the prosodics of colloquial, living speech
is presented, with particular reference to intonation. Although
not particularly relevant to speech output from computers,
this book gives great insight into how conversational speech
differs from reading aloud.
.in-2n
.\"Fry-1979-1
.ds [F 1
.]-
.ds [A Fry, D.B.
.ds [D 1979
.ds [T The physics of speech
.ds [I Cambridge University Press
.ds [C Cambridge, England
.nr [T 0
.nr [A 1
.nr [O 0
.][ 2 book
.in+2n
This is a simple and readable account of speech science, with a good
and completely non-mathematical introduction to frequency analysis.
.in-2n
.\"Ladefoged-1975-4
.ds [F 4
.]-
.ds [A Ladefoged, P.
.ds [D 1975
.ds [T A course in phonetics
.ds [I Harcourt Brace and Johanovich
.ds [C New York
.nr [T 0
.nr [A 1
.nr [O 0
.][ 2 book
.in+2n
Usually books entitled "A course on ..." are dreadfully dull, but
this is a wonderful exception. An exciting, readable, almost racy
introduction to phonetics, full of little experiments you can try
yourself.
.in-2n
.\"Lehiste-1970-5
.ds [F 5
.]-
.ds [A Lehiste, I.
.ds [D 1970
.ds [T Suprasegmentals
.ds [I MIT Press
.ds [C Cambridge, Massachusetts
.nr [T 0
.nr [A 1
.nr [O 0
.][ 2 book
.in+2n
This fairly comprehensive study of the prosodics of speech
complements Ladefoged's book, which is mainly concerned with segmental
phonetics.
.in-2n
.\"O'Connor-1973-1
.ds [F 1
.]-
.ds [A O'Connor, J.D.
.ds [D 1973
.ds [T Phonetics
.ds [I Penguin
.ds [C London
.nr [T 0
.nr [A 1
.nr [O 0
.][ 2 book
.in+2n
This is another introductory book on phonetics.
It is packed with information on all aspects of the subject.
.in-2n
.LE "nn"
.EQ
delim $$
.EN
.CH "3 SPEECH STORAGE"
.ds RT "Speech storage
.ds CX "Principles of computer speech
.pp
The most familiar device that produces speech output is the ordinary tape
recorder, which stores information in analogue form on magnetic tape.
However, this is unsuitable for speech output from computers.
One reason is that it is difficult to access different utterances quickly.
Although random-access tape recorders do exist, they are expensive and
subject to mechanical breakdown because of the stresses associated with
frequent starting and stopping.
.pp
Storing speech on a rotating drum instead of
tape offers the possibility of access to any track within one revolution time.
For example, the IBM 7770 Audio Response Unit employs drums rotating twice
a second which are able to store up to 32 500-msec words. These can be accessed
randomly, within half a second at most.
Although one can
arrange to store longer words by allowing overflow on to an adjacent track at
the end of the rotation period, the discrete time-slots provided by this
system make it virtually impossible for it to generate connected utterances
by assembling appropriate words from the store.
.pp
The Cognitronics Speechmaker has a similar structure, but with
the analogue speech waveform recorded on photographic film.
Storing audio waveforms optically is not an unusual technique, for this is how
soundtracks are recorded on ordinary movie films. The original version of
the "speaking clock" of the British Post Office used optical storage in
concentric tracks on flat glass discs.
It is described by Speight and Gill (1937),
who include a fascinating account of how the utterances are synchronized.
.[
Speight Gill 1937
.]
A 4\ Hz signal from a pendulum clock was used to supply current to an electric
motor, which drove a shaft equipped with cams and gears that rotated
the glass discs containing utterances for seconds, minutes, and hours
at appropriate speeds!
.pp
A second reason for avoiding analogue storage is price. It is difficult to see how a random-access
tape recorder could be incorporated into a talking pocket calculator or
child's toy without considerably inflating the cost.
Solid-state electronics is much cheaper than mechanics.
.pp
But the best reason is that, in many of the applications we have discussed,
it is necessary to form utterances by concatenating separately-recorded
parts. It is totally infeasible, for example, to store each and every
possible telephone number as an individual recording! And
utterances that are formed by concatenating individual words which were
recorded in isolation, or in a different context, do not sound completely
natural. For example, in an early experiment, Stowe and Hampton (1961) recorded
individual words on acoustic tape, spliced the tape with the words in a different
order to make sentences, and played the result to subjects who were scored on
the number of key words which they identified correctly.
.[
Stowe Hampton 1961
.]
The overall conclusion was that while embedding a word in normally-spoken sentences
.ul
increases
the probability of recognition (because the extra context gives clues about the
word), embedding a word in a constructed sentence, where intonation and rhythm
are not properly rendered,
.ul
decreases
the probability of recognition. When the speech was uttered slowly,
however, a considerable improvement was noticed, indicating that if the
listener has more processing time he can overcome the lack of proper intonation
and rhythm.
.pp
Nevertheless, many present-day voice response systems
.ul
do
store what amounts to a direct recording of the acoustic wave.
However, the storage medium is digital rather than analogue.
This means that standard computer storage devices can be used, providing
rapid access to any segment of the speech at relatively low cost \(em for
the economics of mass-production ensures a low price for random-access
digital devices compared with random-access analogue ones.
Furthermore, it reduces the amount of special equipment needed for speech
output. One can buy very cheap speech input/output interfaces for home computers
which connect to standard hobby buses.
Another advantage of digital over analogue recording is that
integrated circuit read-only memories (ROMs)
can be used for hand-held devices which need small quantities of speech.
Hence this chapter begins by showing how waveforms are stored digitally,
and then describes some techniques for reducing the data needed for a given
utterance.
.sh "3.1 Storing waveforms digitally"
.pp
When an analogue signal is converted to digital form, it is made discrete
both in time and in amplitude. Discretization in time is the operation of
.ul
sampling,
whilst in amplitude it is
.ul
quantizing.
It is worth pointing out that the transmission of analogue information by
digital means is called "PCM" (standing for "pulse code modulation") in
telecommunications jargon.
Much of the theory of digital signal processing investigates signals which
are sampled but not quantized (or quantized into sufficiently many levels to
avoid inaccuracies). The operation of quantization, being non-linear,
is not very amenable to theoretical analysis. Quantization introduces issues
such as accumulation of round-off noise in arithmetic operations,
which, although they are very important in practical implementations, can only
be treated theoretically under certain somewhat unrealistic assumptions
(in particular, independence of the quantization error from sample to sample).
.rh "Sampling."
A fundamental theorem of telecommunications states that a signal can only be
reconstructed accurately from a sampled version if it does not contain
components whose frequency is greater than half the frequency at which the
sampling takes place. Figure 3.1(a) shows how a component of slightly greater
than half the sampling frequency can masquerade, as far as an observer with
access only to the sampled data can tell, as a component at slightly less
than half the sampling frequency.
.FC "Figure 3.1"
Call the sampling interval $T$ seconds, so that the
sampling frequency is $1/T$\ Hz.
Then components at $1/2T+f$, $3/2T-f$, $3/2T+f$ and so on all masquerade
as a component at $1/2T-f$. Similarly, components at frequencies just under
the sampling frequency masquerade as very low-frequency components, as shown
in Figure 3.1(b). This phenomenon is often called "aliasing".
.pp
Thus the continuous, infinite, frequency axis for the unsampled signal, where
two components at different frequencies can always be distinguished, maps
into a repetitive frequency axis when the signal is sampled. As depicted
in Figure 3.2, the frequency
interval $[1/T,~ 2/T)$ \u\(dg\d
.FN 3
.sp
\u\(dg\dIntervals are specified in brackets, with a square bracket representing
a closed end of the interval and a round one representing an open one.
Thus the interval $[1/T,~ 2/T)$ specifies the range $1/T ~ <= ~ frequency
~ < ~ 2/T$.
.EF
is mapped back into the band $[0,~ 1/T)$, as are the
intervals $[2/T,~ 3/T)$, $[3/T,~ 4/T)$, and so on.
.FC "Figure 3.2"
Furthermore, the interval $[1/2T,~ 1/T)$ between half the sampling frequency and the sampling
frequency, is mapped back into the interval
below half the sampling frequency; but this time the mapping is backwards,
with frequencies at just under $1/T$ being mapped to frequencies slightly greater
than zero, and frequencies just over $1/2T$ being mapped to ones
just under $1/2T$.
The best way to represent a repeating frequency axis like this is as a circle.
Figure 3.3 shows how the linear frequency axis for continuous systems maps
on to a circular axis for sampled systems.
.FC "Figure 3.3"
For present purposes it is
easiest to imagine the bottom half of the circle as being reflected into
the top half, so that traversing the upper semicircle in the anticlockwise direction
corresponds to frequencies increasing from 0 to $1/2T$ (half the sample frequency),
and returning along the lower semicircle is actually the same as coming
back round the upper one, and corresponds to frequencies from $1/2T$ to $1/T$
being mapped into the range $1/2T$ to 0.
.pp
As far as speech is concerned, then, we must ensure that before sampling a
signal no significant components at greater than half the sample frequency
are present. Furthermore, the sampled signal will only contain information
about frequency components less than this, so the sample frequency must be
chosen as twice the highest frequency of interest.
For example, consider telephone-quality speech.
Telephones provide a familiar standard of speech quality which,
although it can only be an approximate "standard",
will be much used throughout this book.
The telephone network
aims to transmit only frequencies lower than 3.4\ kHz. We saw in the
previous chapter that this region will contain the information-bearing formants,
and some \(em but not all \(em of the fricative and aspiration energy.
Actually, transmitting speech through the telephone system degrades its
quality very significantly, probably more than you realize since everyone is
so accustomed to telephone speech. Try the dial-a-disc service and compare
it with high-fidelity music for a striking example of the kind of degradation
suffered.
.pp
For telephone speech, the sampling frequency must be chosen to be
at least 6.8\ kHz.
Since speech contains significant amounts of energy above 3.4\ kHz, it should be
filtered before sampling to remove this; otherwise the higher components
would be mapped back into the baseband and distort the low-frequency information.
Because it is difficult to make filters that cut off very sharply, the
sampling frequency is chosen rather greater than twice the highest frequency of
interest. For example, the digital telephone network samples at 8\ kHz.
The pre-sampling filter should have a cutoff frequency of 4\ kHz; aim for
negligible distortion below 3.4\ kHz; and transmit negligible components
above 4.6\ kHz \(em for these are reflected back into the band of interest,
namely 0 to 3.4\ kHz. Figure 3.4 shows a block diagram for the input hardware.
.FC "Figure 3.4"
.rh "Quantization."
Before considering specifications for the pre-sampling filter, let us turn
from discretization in time to discretization in amplitude, that is,
quantization.
This is performed by an A/D converter (analogue-to-digital), which takes as input
a constant analogue voltage (produced by the sampler) and generates a
corresponding binary value as output. The simplest correspondence is
.ul
uniform
quantization, where the amplitude range is split into equal regions by points
termed "quantization levels", and the output is a binary representation of
the nearest quantization level to the input voltage.
Typically, 11-bit conversion is used for speech, giving 2048 quantization
levels, and the signal is adjusted to have zero mean so that half the
levels correspond to negative input voltages and the other half to positive
ones.
.pp
It is, at first sight, surprising that as many as 11 bits are needed for
adequate representation of speech signals. Research on the digital telephone
network, for example, has concluded that a signal-to-noise ratio of
some 26\-27\ dB is enough to avoid undue harshness of quality, loss
of intelligibility, and listener fatigue for speech at a comfortable
level in an otherwise reasonably good channel.
Rabiner and Schafer (1978) suggest that about 36\ dB signal-to-noise ratio
would "most likely provide adequate quality in a communications system".
.[
Rabiner Schafer 1978 Digital processing of speech signals
.]
But 11-bit quantization seems to give a very much better signal-to-noise
ratio than these figures. To estimate its magnitude, note that for N-bit quantization
the error for each sample will lie between
.LB
$
- ~ 1 over 2 ~. 2 sup -N$ and $+ ~ 1 over 2 ~. 2 sup -N .
$
.LE
Assuming that it is uniformly distributed in this range \(em an assumption
which is likely to be justified if the number of levels is sufficiently
large \(em leads to a mean-squared error of
.LB
.EQ
integral from {-2 sup -N-1} to {2 sup -N-1} ~e sup 2 p(e) de,
.EN
.LE
where $p(e)$, the probability density function of the error $e$, is a constant
which satisfies the usual probability normalization constraint, namely
.LB
.EQ
integral from {-2 sup -N-1} to {2 sup -N-1} ~ p(e) de ~~=~ 1.
.EN
.LE
Hence $p(e)=2 sup N $, and so the mean-squared error is $2 sup -2N /12$.
This is $10 ~ log sub 10 (2 sup -2N /12)$\ dB, or around \-77\ dB for 11-bit
quantization.
.pp
This noise level is relative to the maximum amplitude range of the conversion.
A maximum-amplitude sine wave has a power of \-9\ dB relative to the same
reference, giving a signal-to-noise ratio of some 68\ dB. This is far in excess
of that needed for telephone-quality speech. However, look at the very peaky
nature of the typical speech waveform given in Figure 3.5.
.FC "Figure 3.5"
If clipping is to be avoided, the maximum amplitude level of the A/D converter
must be set at a value which makes the power of the speech signal very much
less than a maximum-amplitude sine wave. Furthermore, different people
speak at very different volumes, and the overall level fluctuates constantly
with just one speaker. Experience shows that while 8- or 9-bit quantization
may provide sufficient signal-to-noise ratio to preserve telephone-quality
speech if the overall speaker levels are carefully controlled, about 11 bits
are generally required to provide high-quality representation of speech with
a uniform quantization. With 11 bits, a sine wave whose amplitude is only 1/32
of the full-scale value would be digitized with a signal-to-noise ratio
of around 36\ dB, the most pessimistic figure quoted above for adequate quality.
Even then it is useful if the speaker is provided
with an indication of the amplitude of his speech: a traffic-light
indicator with red signifying clipping overload, orange a suitable level,
and green too low a value, is often convenient for this.
.rh "Logarithmic quantization."
For the purposes of speech
.ul
processing,
it is essential to have the signal quantized uniformly. This is because
all of the theory applies to linear systems, and nonlinearities introduce
complexities which are not amenable to analysis.
Uniform quantization, although a nonlinear operation, is linear in the
limiting case as the number of levels becomes large, and for most purposes
its effect can be modelled by assuming that the quantized signal is obtained
from the original analogue one by the addition of a small amount of
uniformly-distributed quantizing noise, as in fact was done above.
Usually the quantization noise is disregarded in subsequent analysis.
.pp
However, the peakiness of the speech signal illustrated in Figure 3.5 leads
one to suspect that a non-linear representation, for example a logarithmic one,
could provide a better signal-to-noise ratio over a wider range of input
amplitudes, and hence be more useful than linear quantization \(em at least
for speech storage (and transmission).
And indeed this is the case. Linear quantization has the unfortunate effect
that the absolute noise level is independent of the signal level, so that an excessive
number of bits must be used if a reasonable ratio is to be achieved for peaky
signals. It can be shown that a logarithmic representation like
.LB
.EQ
y ~ = ~ 1 ~ + ~ k ~ log ~ x,
.EN
.LE
where $x$ is the original signal and $y$ is the value which is to be quantized,
gives a
signal-to-noise
.ul
ratio
which is independent of the input signal level.
This relationship cannot be realized physically, for it is undefined when the signal
is negative and diverges when it is zero.
However, realizable approximations to it can be made which retain the advantages
of constant signal-to-noise ratio within a useful range of signal amplitudes.
Figure 3.6 shows the logarithmic relation with one widely-used approximation to it,
called the A-law.
.FC "Figure 3.6"
The idea of non-linearly quantizing a signal to achieve adequate signal-to-noise
ratios for a wide variety of amplitudes is called "companding", a contraction
of "compressing-expanding". The original signal can be retrieved from
its A-law compression by antilogarithmic expansion.
.pp
Figure 3.6 also
shows one common coding scheme which is a piecewise linear approximation
to the A-law. This provides an 8-bit code, and gives the equivalent
of 12-bit linear quantization for small signal levels. It approximates
the A-law in 16 linear segments, 8 for positive and 8 for negative
inputs.
Consider the positive part of the curve. The first two segments, which
are actually collinear, correspond exactly to 12-bit linear conversion.
Thus the output codes 0 to 31 correspond to inputs from 0 to 31/2048,
in equal steps. (Remember that both positive and negative signals
must be converted, so a 12-bit linear converter will allocate 2048 levels
for positive signals and 2048 for negative ones.) The next
segment provides 11-bit linear quantization,
output codes 32 to 47 corresponding to inputs from 16/1024 to 31/1024.
Similarly, the next segment corresponds to 10-bit quantization, covering
inputs from 16/512 to 31/512. And so on, the last section giving 6-bit
quantization of inputs from 16/32 to 31/32, the full-scale positive value.
Negative inputs are converted similarly.
For signal levels of less than 32/2048, that is, $2 sup -8$, this implementation
of the A-law provides full 12-bit precision.
As the signal level increases, the precision decreases gradually to 6 bits
at maximum amplitudes.
.pp
Logarithmic encoding provides what is in effect a floating-point representation
of the input. The conventional floating-point format, however, is not used
because many different codes can represent the same value. For example, with
a 4-bit exponent preceding a 4-bit mantissa, the words 0000:1000,
0001:0100, 0010:0010, and 0011:0001 represent the numbers
$0.1 ~ times ~ 2 sup 0$, $0.01 ~ times ~ 2 sup 1
$, $0.001 ~ times ~ 2 sup 2$, \c
and $0.0001 ~ times ~ 2 sup 3$ respectively,
which are the same. (Some floating-point conventions assume that an unwritten
"1" bit precedes the mantissa, except when the whole word is zero; but this
gives decreased resolution around zero \(em which is exactly where we want the
resolution to be greatest.) Table 3.1 shows the 8-bit A-law codes,
.RF
.in+0.7i
.ta 1.6i +\w'bits 1-3 'u
8-bit codeword: bit 0 sign bit
bits 1-3 3-bit exponent
bits 4-7 4-bit mantissa
.sp2
.ta 1.6i 3.5i
.ul
codeword interpretation
.sp
0000 0000 \h'\w'\0-\0 + 'u'$.0000 ~ times ~ 2 sup -7$
\0\0\0... \0\0\0\0...
0000 1111 \h'\w'\0-\0 + 'u'$.1111 ~ times ~ 2 sup -7$
0001 0000 $2 sup -7 ~~ + ~~ .0000 ~ times ~ 2 sup -7$
\0\0\0... \0\0\0\0...
0001 1111 $2 sup -7 ~~ + ~~ .1111 ~ times ~ 2 sup -7$
0010 0000 $2 sup -6 ~~ + ~~ .0000 ~ times ~ 2 sup -6$
\0\0\0... \0\0\0\0...
0010 1111 $2 sup -6 ~~ + ~~ .1111 ~ times ~ 2 sup -6$
0011 0000 $2 sup -5 ~~ + ~~ .0000 ~ times ~ 2 sup -5$
\0\0\0... \0\0\0\0...
0011 1111 $2 sup -5 ~~ + ~~ .1111 ~ times ~ 2 sup -5$
0100 0000 $2 sup -4 ~~ + ~~ .0000 ~ times ~ 2 sup -4$
\0\0\0... \0\0\0\0...
0100 1111 $2 sup -4 ~~ + ~~ .1111 ~ times ~ 2 sup -4$
0101 0000 $2 sup -3 ~~ + ~~ .0000 ~ times ~ 2 sup -3$
\0\0\0... \0\0\0\0...
0101 1111 $2 sup -3 ~~ + ~~ .1111 ~ times ~ 2 sup -3$
0110 0000 $2 sup -2 ~~ + ~~ .0000 ~ times ~ 2 sup -2$
\0\0\0... \0\0\0\0...
0110 1111 $2 sup -2 ~~ + ~~ .1111 ~ times ~ 2 sup -2$
0111 0000 $2 sup -1 ~~ + ~~ .0000 ~ times ~ 2 sup -1$
\0\0\0... \0\0\0\0...
0111 1111 $2 sup -1 ~~ + ~~ .1111 ~ times ~ 2 sup -1$
1000 0000 \h'\w'\0-\0 'u'$- ~~ .0000 ~ times ~ 2 sup -7$ negative numbers treated as
\0\0\0... \0\0\0\0... above, with a sign bit of 1
1111 1111 \h'-\w'\- 'u'\- $2 sup -1 ~~ - ~~ .1111 ~ times ~ 2 sup -1$
.ta 0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i
.in 0
.FG "Table 3.1 8-bit A-law codes, with their floating-point equivalents"
according
to the piecewise linear approximation of Figure 3.6, written in a notation which
suggests floating point. Each linear segment has a different exponent except
the first two segments, which as explained above are collinear.
.pp
Logarithmic encoders and decoders are available from many semiconductor
manufacturers as single-chip devices
called "codecs" (for "coder/decoder"). Intended for use on digital communication
links, these generally provide a serial output bit-stream, which
should be converted to parallel by a shift register if the data is intended
for a computer.
Because of the potentially vast market for codecs in telecommunications,
they are made in great quantities and are consequently very cheap.
Estimates of the speech quality necessary for telephone applications indicate
that somewhat less than this accuracy is needed \(em 7-bit logarithmic encoding
was used in early digital communications links, and it may be that even 6 bits
are adequate. However, during the transition period when digital
networks must coexist with the present analogue one, it is anticipated that
a particular telephone call may have to pass through several links, some
using analogue technology and some being digital. The possibility of
several successive encodings and decodings has led telecommunications
engineers to standardize on 8-bit representations, leaving some margin
before additional degradation of signal quality becomes unduly distracting.
.pp
Unfortunately, world telecommunications authorities cannot agree on a single
standard for logarithmic encoding. The A-law, which we have described,
is the European standard, but there is another system, called
the $mu$-law, which is used universally in North America. It also is available
in single-chip form with an 8-bit code. It has very similar
quantization error characteristics to the A-law, and would be indistinguishable
from it on the scale of Figure 3.6.
.rh "The pre-sampling filter."
Now that we have some idea of the accuracy requirements for quantization,
let us discuss quantitative specifications for the pre-sampling filter.
Figure 3.7 sketches the characteristics of this filter.
.FC "Figure 3.7"
Assume a
sampling frequency of 8\ kHz and a range of interest from 0 to 3.4\ kHz.
Although all components at frequencies above 4\ kHz will fold back into
the 0\ \-\ 4\ kHz baseband, those below 4.6\ kHz fold back above 3.4\ kHz and are
therefore outside the range of interest. This gives a "guard band" between
3.4 and 4.6\ kHz which separates the passband from the stopband. The filter
should transmit negligible components in the stopband above 4.6\ kHz.
To reduce the harmonic distortion caused by aliasing to the same level
as the quantization noise in 11-bit linear conversion, the stopband
attenuation should be around \-68\ dB (the signal-to-noise ratio for a full-scale
sine wave). Passband ripple is not so critical,
for two reasons. Whilst the presence of aliased components means that
information has been lost about the frequency components within the range of
interest, passband ripple does not actually cause a loss of information but
only a distortion, and could, if necessary, be compensated by a suitable
filter acting on the digitized waveform. Secondly, distortion of the
passband spectrum is not nearly so audible as the frequency images caused
by aliasing. Hence one usually aims for a passband ripple of around 0.5\ dB.
.pp
The pass and stopband targets we have mentioned above can be achieved with
a 9'th order elliptic filter. While such a filter is often used in
high-quality signal-processing systems, for telephone-quality speech
much less stringent specifications seem to be sufficient. Figure 3.8, for
example, shows a template which has been recommended by telecommunications
authorities.
.FC "Figure 3.8"
A 5'th order elliptic filter can easily meet this specification.
Such filters, implemented by switched-capacitor means, are available in
single-chip form. Integrated CCD (charge-coupled device)
filters which meet the same specification
are also marketed. Indeed, some codecs provide input filtering on the same
chip as the A/D converter.
.pp
Instead of implementing a filter by analogue means to meet the aliasing
specifications, digital filtering can be used. A high sample-rate A/D
converter, operating at, say, 32\ kHz, and preceded by a very simple low-pass
pre-sampling filter, is followed by a digital filter which meets the
desired specification, and its output is subsampled to provide an 8\ kHz sample
rate. While such implementations may be economic where a multichannel digitizing
capability is required, as in local telephone exchanges where the subscriber
connection is an analogue one, they are unlikely to prove cost-effective for
a single channel.
.rh "Reconstructing the analogue waveform."
Having digitized and stored a signal, it needs to be passed though a D/A
converter (digital-to-analogue) and low-pass filter when replayed.
D/A converters are cheaper than A/D converters, and the characteristics of the
low-pass filter for output can be the same as those for input.
However, the desampling operation introduces an additional distortion, which
has an effect on the component at frequency $f$ of
.LB
.EQ
{ sin ( pi f/f sub s )} over { pi f/f sub s } ~ ,
.EN
.LE
where $f sub s$ is the sampling frequency. An "aperture correction" filter is
needed to compensate for this, although many systems simply do without it.
Such a filter is sometimes incorporated into the codec chip.
.rh "Summary."
For telephone-quality speech, existing codec chips,
coupled if necessary with integrated pre-sampling filters, can
be used, at a remarkably low cost.
For higher-quality speech storage the analogue interface can become quite complex.
A comprehensive study of the problems as they relate to digitization of audio,
which demands much greater fidelity than speech, has been made by Blesser (1978).
.[
Blesser 1978
.]
He notes the following sources of error (amongst others):
.LB
.NP
slew-rate distortion in the pre-sampling filter for signals at the upper end
of the audio band;
.NP
insufficient filtering of high-frequency input signals;
.NP
noise generated by the sample-and-hold amplifier or pre-sampling filter;
.NP
acquisition errors because of the finite settling time of the sample-and-hold
circuit;
.NP
insufficient settling time in the A/D conversion;
.NP
errors in the quantization levels of the A/D and D/A converters;
.NP
noise in the converters;
.NP
jitter on the clock used for timing input or output samples;
.NP
aperture distortion in the output sampler;
.NP
noise in the output filter as a result of limited dynamic range of the
integrated circuits;
.NP
power-supply noise injection or ground coupling;
.NP
changes in characteristics as a result of temperature or ageing.
.LE
Care must be taken with the analogue interface to ensure that the precision
implied by the resolution of the A/D and D/A converters is not compromised
by inadequate analogue circuitry. It is especially important to eliminate
high-frequency noise caused by fast edges on nearby computer buses.
.sh "3.2 Coding in the time domain"
.pp
There are several methods of coding the time waveform of a speech signal to
reduce the data rate for a given signal-to-noise ratio, or alternatively to
reduce the signal-to-noise ratio for a given data rate. They almost all require
more processing, both at the encoding (for storage) and decoding (for
regeneration) ends of the digitization process. They are sometimes used to
economize on memory in systems using stored speech,
for example the System\ X telephone exchange and the travel consultant described
in Chapter 1, and so will be described here. However, it is to be expected
that simple time-domain coding techniques will be superseded by the more complex
linear predictive method, which is covered in Chapter 6, because this
can give a much more substantial reduction in the data rate for only a small
degradation in speech quality. Hence the aim of this section is to introduce
the ideas in a qualitative way: theoretical development and summaries of
results of listening tests can be found elsewhere (eg Rabiner and Schafer, 1978).
.[
Rabiner Schafer 1978 Digital processing of speech signals
.]
The methods we will examine are summarized in Table 3.2.
.RF
.nr x0 \w'linear PCM 'u
.nr x1 \n(x0+\w' adaptive quantization, or adaptive prediction,'u
.nr x2 (\n(.l-\n(x1)/2
.in \n(x2u
.ta \n(x0u
\l'\n(x1u\(ul'
.sp
linear PCM linearly-quantized pulse code modulation
.sp
log PCM logarithmically-quantized pulse code modulation
(instantaneous companding)
.sp
APCM adaptively quantized pulse code modulation
(usually syllabic companding)
.sp
DPCM differential pulse code modulation
.sp
ADPCM differential pulse code modulation with either
adaptive quantization, or adaptive prediction,
or both
.sp
DM delta modulation (1-bit DPCM)
.sp
ADM delta modulation with adaptive quantization
\l'\n(x1u\(ul'
.ta 0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i +0.8i
.in 0
.FG "Table 3.2 Time-domain encoding techniques"
.rh "Syllabic companding."
We have already studied one time-domain encoding technique, namely logarithmic
quantization, or log PCM (sometimes called "instantaneous companding"). A more
sophisticated encoder could track slowly varying trends in the overall amplitude
of the speech signal and use this information to adjust the quantization
levels dynamically. Speech coding methods based on this principle are called
adaptive pulse code modulation systems (APCM). Because the overall amplitude
changes slowly, it is sufficient to adjust the quantization relatively infrequently
(compared with the sampling rate), and this is often done at rates approximating
the syllable rate of running speech, leading to the term "syllabic companding".
A block floating-point format can be used, with a common exponent being
stored every M samples (with M, say, 125 for a 100\ msec block rate at 8\ kHz
sampling), but the mantissa being stored at the regular sample rate. The overall
energy in the block,
.LB
$sum from n=h to h+M-1 ~x(n) sup 2$ ($M = 125$, say),
.LE
is used to determine a suitable exponent, and every sample
in the block \(em namely
$x(h)$, $x(h+1)$, ..., $x(h+M-1)$ \(em is scaled according to that exponent.
Note that for speech transmission systems this method necessitates a delay of
$M$ samples at the encoder, and indeed some methods base the exponent on the
energy in the last block to avoid this. For speech storage, however, the delay
is irrelevant. A rather different, nonsyllabic, method of adaptive PCM is
continually to change the step size of a uniform quantizer, by multiplying it by
a constant at each sample which is based on the magnitude of the previous code
word.
.pp
Adaptive quantization exploits information about the amplitude of the signal,
and, as a rough generalization, yields a reduction of one bit per sample
in the data rate for telephone-quality speech over ordinary logarithmic
quantization, for a given signal-to-noise ratio. Alternatively, for the
same data rate an improvement of 6\ dB in signal-to-noise ratio can be obtained.
Some results for actual schemes are given by Rabiner and Schafer (1978).
.[
Rabiner Schafer 1978 Digital processing of speech signals
.]
However, there is other information in the time waveform of speech, namely, the
sample-to-sample correlation, which can be exploited to give further reductions.
.rh "Differential coding."
Differential pulse code modulation (DPCM), in its simplest form, uses the
present speech sample as a prediction of the next one,
and stores the prediction error \(em that is, the sample-to-sample difference.
This is a simple case of predictive encoding.
Referring back to the speech waveform displayed in Figure 3.5,
it seems plausible that the data rate can be reduced by transmitting the difference
between successive samples instead of their absolute values: less bits are
required for the difference signal for a given overall accuracy because it
does not assume such extreme values as the absolute signal level.
Actually, the improvement is not all that great \(em about 4\ \-\ 5\ dB in
signal-to-noise ratio, or just under one bit per sample for a given
signal-to-noise ratio \(em for the difference signal can be nearly as large as
the absolute signal level.
.pp
If DPCM is used in conjunction with adaptive quantization, giving one form of
adaptive differential pulse code modulation (ADPCM), both the overall amplitude
variation and the sample-to-sample correlation are exploited, leading to a
combined gain of 10\ \-\ 11\ dB in signal-to-noise ratio (or just under two bits
reduction per sample for telephone-quality speech). Another form of adaptation
is to alter the predictor by multiplying the previous sample value by a
parameter which is adjusted for best performance.
Then the transmitted signal at time $n$ is
.LB
.EQ
e(n) ~~ = ~~ x(n)~ - ~ax(n-1),
.EN
.LE
where the parameter $a$ is adapted (and stored) on a syllabic time-scale. This
leads to a slight improvement in signal-to-noise ratio, which can be combined
with that achieved by adaptive quantization. Much more substantial benefits
can be realized by using a weighted sum of the past several (up to 15) speech
samples, and adapting all the weights. This is the basic idea of linear
prediction, which is developed in Chapter 6.
.rh "Delta modulation."
The coding methods presented so far all increase the complexity of the
analogue-to-digital interface (or, if the sampled waveform is coded
digitally, they increase the processing required before and after storage).
One method which considerably
.ul
simplifies
the interface is the limiting case
of DPCM with just 1-bit quantization. Only the sign of the difference between
the current and last values is transmitted. Figure 3.9 shows the conversion
hardware.
.FC "Figure 3.9"
The encoding part is essentially the same as a tracking D/A,
where the value in a counter is forced to track the analogue input by
incrementing or decrementing the counter according as the input exceeds or
falls short of the analogue equivalent of the counter's contents. However,
for this encoding scheme, called "delta modulation", the increment-decrement
signal itself forms the discrete representation of the waveform, instead of the counter's
contents. The analogue waveform can be reconstituted from the bit stream with
another counter and D/A converter. Alternatively, an all-analogue implementation
can be used, both for the encoder and decoder, with a capacitor as integrator
whose charging current is controlled digitally. This is a much cheaper realization.
.pp
It is fairly obvious that the sampling frequency for delta modulation will need
to be considerably higher than for straightforward PCM. Figure 3.10 shows
an effect called "slope overload" which occurs when the sampling rate is too low.
.FC "Figure 3.10"
Either a higher sample rate or a larger step size will reduce the overload;
however, larger steps increase the noise level of the alternate 1's and \-1's
that occur when no input is present \(em called "granular noise". A compromise
is necessary between slope overload and granular noise for a given bit rate.
Delta modulation results in lower data rates than logarithmic quantization
for a given signal-to-noise ratio if that ratio is low (poor-quality speech).
As the desired speech quality is increased its data rate grows faster than
that of logarithmic PCM. The crossover point occurs at much lower than
telephone quality speech, and so although delta modulation is used for some
applications where the permissible data rate is severely constrained,
it is not really suitable for speech output from computers.
.pp
It is profitable to adjust the step size, leading to
.ul
adaptive
delta modulation.
A common strategy is to increase or decrease the step size by a multiplicative
constant, which depends on whether the new transmitted bit will be equal to
or different from the last one. That is,
.LB "nnnn"
.NI "nn"
$stepsize(n+1) = stepsize(n) times 2$ if $x(n+1)
* long hash = XxHash64Hasher.hash(data);
* long hash = XxHash64Hasher.hash(data, seed);
*
*
* try (XxHash64Hasher hasher = XxHash64Hasher.create()) {
* hasher.update(chunk1);
* hasher.update(chunk2);
* long hash = hasher.digest();
* }
*
*/
public sealed interface XxHash64Hasher
extends AutoCloseable
permits XxHash64JavaHasher, XxHash64NativeHasher
{
long DEFAULT_SEED = 0;
// ========== Static one-shot methods ==========
static long hash(long value)
{
return hash(value, DEFAULT_SEED);
}
static long hash(long value, long seed)
{
// always call the Java version, for this simple case
return XxHash64JavaHasher.hash(value, seed);
}
static long hash(byte[] input)
{
return hash(input, 0, input.length, DEFAULT_SEED);
}
static long hash(byte[] input, int offset, int length)
{
return hash(input, offset, length, DEFAULT_SEED);
}
static long hash(byte[] input, long seed)
{
return hash(input, 0, input.length, seed);
}
static long hash(byte[] input, int offset, int length, long seed)
{
if (XxHash64NativeHasher.isEnabled()) {
return XxHash64NativeHasher.hash(input, offset, length, seed);
}
return XxHash64JavaHasher.hash(input, offset, length, seed);
}
static long hash(MemorySegment input)
{
return hash(input, DEFAULT_SEED);
}
static long hash(MemorySegment input, long seed)
{
if (XxHash64NativeHasher.isEnabled()) {
return XxHash64NativeHasher.hash(input, seed);
}
return XxHash64JavaHasher.hash(input, seed);
}
// ========== Factory methods for streaming ==========
static XxHash64Hasher create()
{
return create(DEFAULT_SEED);
}
static XxHash64Hasher create(long seed)
{
if (XxHash64NativeHasher.isEnabled()) {
return new XxHash64NativeHasher(seed);
}
return new XxHash64JavaHasher(seed);
}
// ========== Instance methods for streaming ==========
/**
* Updates the hash state with the given input data.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash64Hasher update(byte[] input);
/**
* Updates the hash state with the given input data.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash64Hasher update(byte[] input, int offset, int length);
/**
* Updates the hash state with the given input data.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash64Hasher update(MemorySegment input);
/**
* Updates the hash state with the given long value in little-endian byte order.
* This is useful for hashing length-prefixed data without manual byte conversion.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash64Hasher updateLE(long value);
/**
* Updates the hash state with the given int value in little-endian byte order.
* This is useful for hashing length-prefixed data without manual byte conversion.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash64Hasher updateLE(int value);
/**
* Computes and returns the 64-bit hash of all data passed to update().
* The state is not modified, so you can continue to call update() and digest().
*/
long digest();
/**
* Resets the hasher to its initial state with the default seed.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash64Hasher reset();
/**
* Resets the hasher with the given seed.
*
* @return this hasher for fluent chaining
*/
XxHash64Hasher reset(long seed);
/**
* Closes this hasher and releases any resources.
*/
@Override
void close();
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/xxhash/XxHash64JavaHasher.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.xxhash;
import java.lang.foreign.MemorySegment;
import java.lang.foreign.ValueLayout;
import java.lang.invoke.MethodHandles;
import java.lang.invoke.VarHandle;
import java.nio.ByteOrder;
import static java.lang.Long.rotateLeft;
import static java.lang.Math.min;
import static java.util.Objects.checkFromIndexSize;
public final class XxHash64JavaHasher
implements XxHash64Hasher
{
private static final long PRIME64_1 = 0x9E3779B185EBCA87L;
private static final long PRIME64_2 = 0xC2B2AE3D27D4EB4FL;
private static final long PRIME64_3 = 0x165667B19E3779F9L;
private static final long PRIME64_4 = 0x85EBCA77C2b2AE63L;
private static final long PRIME64_5 = 0x27D4EB2F165667C5L;
private static final VarHandle LONG_HANDLE = MethodHandles.byteArrayViewVarHandle(long[].class, ByteOrder.LITTLE_ENDIAN);
private static final VarHandle INT_HANDLE = MethodHandles.byteArrayViewVarHandle(int[].class, ByteOrder.LITTLE_ENDIAN);
private final byte[] buffer = new byte[32];
private int bufferSize;
private long bodyLength;
private long v1;
private long v2;
private long v3;
private long v4;
private long seed;
public XxHash64JavaHasher(long seed)
{
this.seed = seed;
resetState(seed);
}
private void resetState(long seed)
{
this.v1 = seed + PRIME64_1 + PRIME64_2;
this.v2 = seed + PRIME64_2;
this.v3 = seed;
this.v4 = seed - PRIME64_1;
this.bufferSize = 0;
this.bodyLength = 0;
}
public static long hash(long value, long seed)
{
long hash = seed + PRIME64_5 + Long.BYTES;
hash = updateTail(hash, value);
return finalShuffle(hash);
}
public static long hash(byte[] input, int offset, int length, long seed)
{
checkFromIndexSize(offset, length, input.length);
long hash;
int index = offset;
int end = offset + length;
if (length >= 32) {
long v1 = seed + PRIME64_1 + PRIME64_2;
long v2 = seed + PRIME64_2;
long v3 = seed;
long v4 = seed - PRIME64_1;
while (index <= end - 32) {
v1 = mix(v1, (long) LONG_HANDLE.get(input, index));
v2 = mix(v2, (long) LONG_HANDLE.get(input, index + 8));
v3 = mix(v3, (long) LONG_HANDLE.get(input, index + 16));
v4 = mix(v4, (long) LONG_HANDLE.get(input, index + 24));
index += 32;
}
hash = rotateLeft(v1, 1) + rotateLeft(v2, 7) + rotateLeft(v3, 12) + rotateLeft(v4, 18);
hash = update(hash, v1);
hash = update(hash, v2);
hash = update(hash, v3);
hash = update(hash, v4);
}
else {
hash = seed + PRIME64_5;
}
hash += length;
// Process remaining bytes
while (index <= end - 8) {
hash = updateTail(hash, (long) LONG_HANDLE.get(input, index));
index += 8;
}
if (index <= end - 4) {
hash = updateTail(hash, (int) INT_HANDLE.get(input, index));
index += 4;
}
while (index < end) {
hash = updateTail(hash, input[index]);
index++;
}
return finalShuffle(hash);
}
public static long hash(MemorySegment input, long seed)
{
// For heap segments backed by byte arrays, extract and use direct array access
if (input.isNative()) {
return hashSegment(input, seed);
}
// Try to get the backing array for better performance
byte[] array = input.heapBase()
.filter(base -> base instanceof byte[])
.map(base -> (byte[]) base)
.orElse(null);
if (array != null) {
// Calculate offset into the array
// heapBase gives us the array, address gives us offset from array start
long arrayOffset = input.address();
return hash(array, (int) arrayOffset, (int) input.byteSize(), seed);
}
return hashSegment(input, seed);
}
private static long hashSegment(MemorySegment input, long seed)
{
long length = input.byteSize();
long hash;
long index = 0;
if (length >= 32) {
long v1 = seed + PRIME64_1 + PRIME64_2;
long v2 = seed + PRIME64_2;
long v3 = seed;
long v4 = seed - PRIME64_1;
while (index <= length - 32) {
v1 = mix(v1, input.get(ValueLayout.JAVA_LONG_UNALIGNED, index));
v2 = mix(v2, input.get(ValueLayout.JAVA_LONG_UNALIGNED, index + 8));
v3 = mix(v3, input.get(ValueLayout.JAVA_LONG_UNALIGNED, index + 16));
v4 = mix(v4, input.get(ValueLayout.JAVA_LONG_UNALIGNED, index + 24));
index += 32;
}
hash = rotateLeft(v1, 1) + rotateLeft(v2, 7) + rotateLeft(v3, 12) + rotateLeft(v4, 18);
hash = update(hash, v1);
hash = update(hash, v2);
hash = update(hash, v3);
hash = update(hash, v4);
}
else {
hash = seed + PRIME64_5;
}
hash += length;
while (index <= length - 8) {
hash = updateTail(hash, input.get(ValueLayout.JAVA_LONG_UNALIGNED, index));
index += 8;
}
if (index <= length - 4) {
hash = updateTail(hash, input.get(ValueLayout.JAVA_INT_UNALIGNED, index));
index += 4;
}
while (index < length) {
hash = updateTail(hash, input.get(ValueLayout.JAVA_BYTE, index));
index++;
}
return finalShuffle(hash);
}
@Override
public XxHash64Hasher update(byte[] input)
{
return update(input, 0, input.length);
}
@Override
public XxHash64Hasher update(byte[] input, int offset, int length)
{
checkFromIndexSize(offset, length, input.length);
int index = offset;
int remaining = length;
// Fill buffer if partially filled
if (bufferSize > 0) {
int available = min(32 - bufferSize, remaining);
System.arraycopy(input, index, buffer, bufferSize, available);
bufferSize += available;
index += available;
remaining -= available;
if (bufferSize == 32) {
updateBodyFromBuffer();
bufferSize = 0;
}
}
// Process full 32-byte blocks directly from input
while (remaining >= 32) {
v1 = mix(v1, (long) LONG_HANDLE.get(input, index));
v2 = mix(v2, (long) LONG_HANDLE.get(input, index + 8));
v3 = mix(v3, (long) LONG_HANDLE.get(input, index + 16));
v4 = mix(v4, (long) LONG_HANDLE.get(input, index + 24));
index += 32;
remaining -= 32;
bodyLength += 32;
}
// Buffer remaining bytes
if (remaining > 0) {
System.arraycopy(input, index, buffer, bufferSize, remaining);
bufferSize += remaining;
}
return this;
}
@Override
public XxHash64Hasher update(MemorySegment input)
{
// For heap segments backed by byte arrays, use direct array access
byte[] array = input.heapBase()
.filter(base -> base instanceof byte[])
.map(base -> (byte[]) base)
.orElse(null);
if (array != null) {
long arrayOffset = input.address();
return update(array, (int) arrayOffset, (int) input.byteSize());
}
// Fall back to MemorySegment access for native memory
return updateSegment(input);
}
private XxHash64Hasher updateSegment(MemorySegment input)
{
long length = input.byteSize();
long inputOffset = 0;
if (bufferSize > 0) {
int available = (int) min(32 - bufferSize, length);
for (int i = 0; i < available; i++) {
buffer[bufferSize + i] = input.get(ValueLayout.JAVA_BYTE, inputOffset + i);
}
bufferSize += available;
inputOffset += available;
length -= available;
if (bufferSize == 32) {
updateBodyFromBuffer();
bufferSize = 0;
}
}
while (length >= 32) {
v1 = mix(v1, input.get(ValueLayout.JAVA_LONG_UNALIGNED, inputOffset));
v2 = mix(v2, input.get(ValueLayout.JAVA_LONG_UNALIGNED, inputOffset + 8));
v3 = mix(v3, input.get(ValueLayout.JAVA_LONG_UNALIGNED, inputOffset + 16));
v4 = mix(v4, input.get(ValueLayout.JAVA_LONG_UNALIGNED, inputOffset + 24));
inputOffset += 32;
length -= 32;
bodyLength += 32;
}
if (length > 0) {
for (int i = 0; i < length; i++) {
buffer[bufferSize + i] = input.get(ValueLayout.JAVA_BYTE, inputOffset + i);
}
bufferSize += (int) length;
}
return this;
}
@Override
public XxHash64Hasher updateLE(long value)
{
byte[] bytes = new byte[8];
LONG_HANDLE.set(bytes, 0, value);
return update(bytes);
}
@Override
public XxHash64Hasher updateLE(int value)
{
byte[] bytes = new byte[4];
INT_HANDLE.set(bytes, 0, value);
return update(bytes);
}
private void updateBodyFromBuffer()
{
v1 = mix(v1, (long) LONG_HANDLE.get(buffer, 0));
v2 = mix(v2, (long) LONG_HANDLE.get(buffer, 8));
v3 = mix(v3, (long) LONG_HANDLE.get(buffer, 16));
v4 = mix(v4, (long) LONG_HANDLE.get(buffer, 24));
bodyLength += 32;
}
@Override
public long digest()
{
long hash;
if (bodyLength > 0) {
hash = computeBody();
}
else {
hash = seed + PRIME64_5;
}
hash += bodyLength + bufferSize;
// Process remaining bytes in buffer
int index = 0;
while (index <= bufferSize - 8) {
hash = updateTail(hash, (long) LONG_HANDLE.get(buffer, index));
index += 8;
}
if (index <= bufferSize - 4) {
hash = updateTail(hash, (int) INT_HANDLE.get(buffer, index));
index += 4;
}
while (index < bufferSize) {
hash = updateTail(hash, buffer[index]);
index++;
}
return finalShuffle(hash);
}
private long computeBody()
{
long hash = rotateLeft(v1, 1) + rotateLeft(v2, 7) + rotateLeft(v3, 12) + rotateLeft(v4, 18);
hash = update(hash, v1);
hash = update(hash, v2);
hash = update(hash, v3);
hash = update(hash, v4);
return hash;
}
@Override
public XxHash64Hasher reset()
{
return reset(DEFAULT_SEED);
}
@Override
public XxHash64Hasher reset(long seed)
{
this.seed = seed;
resetState(seed);
return this;
}
@Override
public void close() {}
private static long mix(long current, long value)
{
return rotateLeft(current + value * PRIME64_2, 31) * PRIME64_1;
}
private static long update(long hash, long value)
{
long temp = hash ^ mix(0, value);
return temp * PRIME64_1 + PRIME64_4;
}
private static long updateTail(long hash, long value)
{
long temp = hash ^ mix(0, value);
return rotateLeft(temp, 27) * PRIME64_1 + PRIME64_4;
}
private static long updateTail(long hash, int value)
{
long unsigned = value & 0xFFFF_FFFFL;
long temp = hash ^ (unsigned * PRIME64_1);
return rotateLeft(temp, 23) * PRIME64_2 + PRIME64_3;
}
private static long updateTail(long hash, byte value)
{
int unsigned = value & 0xFF;
long temp = hash ^ (unsigned * PRIME64_5);
return rotateLeft(temp, 11) * PRIME64_1;
}
private static long finalShuffle(long hash)
{
hash ^= hash >>> 33;
hash *= PRIME64_2;
hash ^= hash >>> 29;
hash *= PRIME64_3;
hash ^= hash >>> 32;
return hash;
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/xxhash/XxHash64NativeHasher.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.xxhash;
import java.lang.foreign.Arena;
import java.lang.foreign.MemorySegment;
import java.lang.foreign.ValueLayout;
import java.lang.ref.Cleaner;
import java.nio.ByteOrder;
import static java.util.Objects.checkFromIndexSize;
public final class XxHash64NativeHasher
implements XxHash64Hasher
{
private static final Cleaner CLEANER = Cleaner.create();
private static final ValueLayout.OfLong JAVA_LONG_LE_UNALIGNED = ValueLayout.JAVA_LONG_UNALIGNED.withOrder(ByteOrder.LITTLE_ENDIAN);
private static final ValueLayout.OfInt JAVA_INT_LE_UNALIGNED = ValueLayout.JAVA_INT_UNALIGNED.withOrder(ByteOrder.LITTLE_ENDIAN);
private final MemorySegment state;
private final Cleaner.Cleanable cleanable;
private final byte[] scratch = new byte[8];
private boolean closed;
public XxHash64NativeHasher(long seed)
{
XxHash64Bindings.verifyEnabled();
NativeResources resources = new NativeResources();
this.cleanable = CLEANER.register(this, resources);
Arena arena = resources.arena();
MemorySegment rawState = XxHash64Bindings.createState();
if (rawState.equals(MemorySegment.NULL)) {
cleanable.clean();
throw new IllegalStateException("Failed to create XXH64 state");
}
this.state = rawState.reinterpret(arena, XxHash64Bindings::freeState);
XxHash64Bindings.reset(state, seed);
}
// ========== Static methods ==========
public static boolean isEnabled()
{
return XxHash64Bindings.isEnabled();
}
public static long hash(byte[] input, int offset, int length, long seed)
{
checkFromIndexSize(offset, length, input.length);
XxHash64Bindings.verifyEnabled();
MemorySegment segment = MemorySegment.ofArray(input).asSlice(offset, length);
return XxHash64Bindings.hash(segment, length, seed);
}
public static long hash(MemorySegment input, long seed)
{
XxHash64Bindings.verifyEnabled();
return XxHash64Bindings.hash(input, input.byteSize(), seed);
}
// ========== Instance streaming methods ==========
@Override
public XxHash64Hasher update(byte[] input)
{
return update(input, 0, input.length);
}
@Override
public XxHash64Hasher update(byte[] input, int offset, int length)
{
checkFromIndexSize(offset, length, input.length);
checkNotClosed();
MemorySegment segment = MemorySegment.ofArray(input).asSlice(offset, length);
XxHash64Bindings.update(state, segment, length);
return this;
}
@Override
public XxHash64Hasher update(MemorySegment input)
{
checkNotClosed();
XxHash64Bindings.update(state, input, input.byteSize());
return this;
}
@Override
public XxHash64Hasher updateLE(long value)
{
checkNotClosed();
MemorySegment segment = MemorySegment.ofArray(scratch);
segment.set(JAVA_LONG_LE_UNALIGNED, 0, value);
XxHash64Bindings.update(state, segment, 8);
return this;
}
@Override
public XxHash64Hasher updateLE(int value)
{
checkNotClosed();
MemorySegment segment = MemorySegment.ofArray(scratch);
segment.set(JAVA_INT_LE_UNALIGNED, 0, value);
XxHash64Bindings.update(state, segment, 4);
return this;
}
@Override
public long digest()
{
checkNotClosed();
return XxHash64Bindings.digest(state);
}
@Override
public XxHash64Hasher reset()
{
return reset(DEFAULT_SEED);
}
@Override
public XxHash64Hasher reset(long seed)
{
checkNotClosed();
XxHash64Bindings.reset(state, seed);
return this;
}
private void checkNotClosed()
{
if (closed) {
throw new IllegalStateException("Hasher has been closed");
}
}
@Override
public void close()
{
if (!closed) {
closed = true;
cleanable.clean();
}
}
/**
* Holds native resources that must be freed.
* Implements Runnable so it can be used with Cleaner.
*/
private record NativeResources(Arena arena)
implements Runnable
{
NativeResources()
{
this(Arena.ofShared());
}
@Override
public void run()
{
arena.close();
}
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/main/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/zstd/BitInputStream.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Constants.SIZE_OF_LONG;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.UnsafeUtil.UNSAFE;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.highestBit;
import static io.airlift.compress.v3.zstd.Util.verify;
/**
* Bit streams are encoded as a byte-aligned little-endian stream. Thus, bits are laid out
* in the following manner, and the stream is read from right to left.
*
* mvn exec:java -Dexec.mainClass="io.airlift.compress.v3.benchmark.HashBenchmark" -Dexec.classpathScope="test"
*
*
*
* mvn exec:java -Dexec.mainClass="io.airlift.compress.v3.benchmark.HashBenchmark" -Dexec.classpathScope="test" -Dexec.args="-p size=64,1024,65536"
*
*/
@State(Scope.Thread)
@OutputTimeUnit(TimeUnit.MILLISECONDS)
@Warmup(iterations = 5, time = 500, timeUnit = TimeUnit.MILLISECONDS)
@Measurement(iterations = 10, time = 500, timeUnit = TimeUnit.MILLISECONDS)
@Fork(1)
public class HashBenchmark
{
@Param({"8", "64", "1024", "65536"})
private int size;
private byte[] data;
private MemorySegment segment;
@Setup
public void setup()
{
data = new byte[size];
ThreadLocalRandom.current().nextBytes(data);
segment = MemorySegment.ofArray(data);
}
// ========== XxHash64 Java (VarHandle-based) ==========
@Benchmark
public long xxhash64_java()
{
return XxHash64JavaHasher.hash(data, 0, data.length, 0);
}
@Benchmark
public long xxhash64_java_segment()
{
return XxHash64JavaHasher.hash(segment, 0);
}
// ========== XxHash64 Native ==========
@Benchmark
public long xxhash64_native()
{
return XxHash64NativeHasher.hash(data, 0, data.length, 0);
}
@Benchmark
public long xxhash64_native_segment()
{
return XxHash64NativeHasher.hash(segment, 0);
}
// ========== XxHash3 64-bit Native ==========
@Benchmark
public long xxhash3_64_native()
{
return XxHash3Native.hash(data);
}
@Benchmark
public long xxhash3_64_native_segment()
{
return XxHash3Native.hash(segment);
}
// ========== XxHash3 128-bit Native ==========
@Benchmark
public XxHash128 xxhash3_128_native()
{
return XxHash3Native.hash128(data);
}
@Benchmark
public XxHash128 xxhash3_128_native_segment()
{
return XxHash3Native.hash128(segment);
}
public static void main(String[] args)
throws RunnerException, CommandLineOptionException
{
CommandLineOptions parsedOptions = new CommandLineOptions(args);
new Runner(new OptionsBuilder()
.parent(parsedOptions)
.include(".*\\." + HashBenchmark.class.getSimpleName() + ".*")
.build())
.run();
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/test/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/bzip2/TestBZip2Codec.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.bzip2;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.AbstractTestCompression;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Compressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Decompressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopCodecCompressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopCodecDecompressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopNative;
import org.apache.hadoop.conf.Configuration;
import org.apache.hadoop.io.compress.CompressionCodec;
class TestBZip2Codec
extends AbstractTestCompression
{
static {
HadoopNative.requireHadoopNative();
}
private final CompressionCodec verifyCodec;
TestBZip2Codec()
{
org.apache.hadoop.io.compress.BZip2Codec codec = new org.apache.hadoop.io.compress.BZip2Codec();
codec.setConf(new Configuration());
this.verifyCodec = codec;
}
@Override
protected boolean isMemorySegmentSupported()
{
return false;
}
@Override
protected Compressor getCompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecCompressor(new BZip2Codec(), TestBZip2Codec::guessMaxCompressedSize);
}
@Override
protected Decompressor getDecompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecDecompressor(new BZip2Codec());
}
@Override
protected Compressor getVerifyCompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecCompressor(verifyCodec, TestBZip2Codec::guessMaxCompressedSize);
}
@Override
protected Decompressor getVerifyDecompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecDecompressor(verifyCodec);
}
private static int guessMaxCompressedSize(int size)
{
return (int) (size * 1.2) + 256;
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/test/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/bzip2/TestBZip2CodecByteAtATime.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.bzip2;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.AbstractTestCompression;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Compressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Decompressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopCodecCompressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopCodecDecompressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopCodecDecompressorByteAtATime;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopNative;
import org.apache.hadoop.conf.Configuration;
import org.apache.hadoop.io.compress.CompressionCodec;
class TestBZip2CodecByteAtATime
extends AbstractTestCompression
{
static {
HadoopNative.requireHadoopNative();
}
private final CompressionCodec verifyCodec;
TestBZip2CodecByteAtATime()
{
org.apache.hadoop.io.compress.BZip2Codec codec = new org.apache.hadoop.io.compress.BZip2Codec();
codec.setConf(new Configuration());
this.verifyCodec = codec;
}
@Override
protected boolean isMemorySegmentSupported()
{
return false;
}
@Override
protected Compressor getCompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecCompressor(new BZip2Codec(), TestBZip2CodecByteAtATime::guessMaxCompressedSize);
}
@Override
protected Decompressor getDecompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecDecompressorByteAtATime(new BZip2Codec());
}
@Override
protected Compressor getVerifyCompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecCompressor(verifyCodec, TestBZip2CodecByteAtATime::guessMaxCompressedSize);
}
@Override
protected Decompressor getVerifyDecompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecDecompressor(verifyCodec);
}
private static int guessMaxCompressedSize(int size)
{
return (int) (size * 1.2) + 256;
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/test/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/deflate/MockJdkDeflateCompressor.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.deflate;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Compressor;
import java.lang.foreign.MemorySegment;
public class MockJdkDeflateCompressor
implements Compressor
{
private static final int OVERHEAD = 128;
@Override
public int maxCompressedLength(int uncompressedSize)
{
return uncompressedSize + OVERHEAD;
}
@Override
public int compress(byte[] input, int inputOffset, int inputLength, byte[] output, int outputOffset, int maxOutputLength)
{
throw new UnsupportedOperationException("method is not supported");
}
@Override
public int compress(MemorySegment input, MemorySegment output)
{
throw new UnsupportedOperationException();
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/test/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/deflate/TestDeflate.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.deflate;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.AbstractTestCompression;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Compressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Decompressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopNative;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.MalformedInputException;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.lzo.LzoDecompressor;
import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
import java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream;
import java.io.IOException;
import static org.assertj.core.api.Assertions.assertThatThrownBy;
public class TestDeflate
extends AbstractTestCompression
{
static {
HadoopNative.requireHadoopNative();
}
@Override
protected Compressor getCompressor()
{
return new DeflateJavaCompressor();
}
@Override
protected Decompressor getDecompressor()
{
return new DeflateJavaDecompressor();
}
@Override
protected Compressor getVerifyCompressor()
{
return new DeflateJavaCompressor();
}
@Override
protected Decompressor getVerifyDecompressor()
{
return new DeflateJavaDecompressor();
}
@Test
void testLiteralLengthOverflow()
throws IOException
{
ByteArrayOutputStream buffer = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
// Command
buffer.write(0);
// Causes overflow for `literalLength`
buffer.write(new byte[Integer.MAX_VALUE / 255 + 1]); // ~9MB
buffer.write(1);
byte[] data = buffer.toByteArray();
assertThatThrownBy(() -> new LzoDecompressor().decompress(data, 0, data.length, new byte[20000], 0, 20000))
.isInstanceOf(MalformedInputException.class);
}
@Test
void testMatchLengthOverflow1()
throws IOException
{
ByteArrayOutputStream buffer = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
// Write some data so that `matchOffset` validation later passes
// Command
buffer.write(0);
buffer.write(new byte[66]);
buffer.write(8);
buffer.write(new byte[2107 * 8]);
// Command
buffer.write(0b001_0000);
// Causes overflow for `matchLength`
buffer.write(new byte[Integer.MAX_VALUE / 255 + 1]); // ~9MB
buffer.write(1);
// Trailer
buffer.write(0b0000_0000);
buffer.write(0b0000_0100);
buffer.write(new byte[10]);
byte[] data = buffer.toByteArray();
assertThatThrownBy(() -> new LzoDecompressor().decompress(data, 0, data.length, new byte[20000], 0, 20000))
.isInstanceOf(MalformedInputException.class);
}
@Test
void testMatchLengthOverflow2()
throws IOException
{
ByteArrayOutputStream buffer = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
// Write some data so that `matchOffset` validation later passes
// Command
buffer.write(0);
buffer.write(246);
buffer.write(new byte[264]);
// Command
buffer.write(0b0010_0000);
// Causes overflow for `matchLength`
buffer.write(new byte[Integer.MAX_VALUE / 255 + 1]); // ~9MB
buffer.write(1);
// Trailer
buffer.write(0b0000_0000);
buffer.write(0b0000_0100);
buffer.write(new byte[10]);
byte[] data = buffer.toByteArray();
assertThatThrownBy(() -> new LzoDecompressor().decompress(data, 0, data.length, new byte[20000], 0, 20000))
.isInstanceOf(MalformedInputException.class);
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/test/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/deflate/TestDeflateNative.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.deflate;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.AbstractTestCompression;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Compressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Decompressor;
public class TestDeflateNative
extends AbstractTestCompression
{
@Override
protected Compressor getCompressor()
{
return new DeflateNativeCompressor();
}
@Override
protected Decompressor getDecompressor()
{
return new DeflateNativeDecompressor();
}
@Override
protected Compressor getVerifyCompressor()
{
return new DeflateJavaCompressor();
}
@Override
protected Decompressor getVerifyDecompressor()
{
return new DeflateJavaDecompressor();
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/test/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/deflate/TestJdkDeflateCodec.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.deflate;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.AbstractTestCompression;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Compressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Decompressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopCodecCompressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopCodecDecompressor;
import org.apache.hadoop.conf.Configuration;
import org.apache.hadoop.io.compress.CompressionCodec;
import org.apache.hadoop.io.compress.DefaultCodec;
class TestJdkDeflateCodec
extends AbstractTestCompression
{
private final CompressionCodec verifyCodec;
TestJdkDeflateCodec()
{
DefaultCodec codec = new DefaultCodec();
codec.setConf(new Configuration());
this.verifyCodec = codec;
}
@Override
protected boolean isMemorySegmentSupported()
{
return false;
}
@Override
protected Compressor getCompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecCompressor(new JdkDeflateCodec(), new MockJdkDeflateCompressor());
}
@Override
protected Decompressor getDecompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecDecompressor(new JdkDeflateCodec());
}
@Override
protected Compressor getVerifyCompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecCompressor(verifyCodec, new MockJdkDeflateCompressor());
}
@Override
protected Decompressor getVerifyDecompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecDecompressor(verifyCodec);
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/test/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/deflate/TestJdkDeflateCodecByteAtATime.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.deflate;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.AbstractTestCompression;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Compressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Decompressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopCodecCompressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopCodecDecompressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopCodecDecompressorByteAtATime;
import org.apache.hadoop.conf.Configuration;
import org.apache.hadoop.io.compress.CompressionCodec;
import org.apache.hadoop.io.compress.DefaultCodec;
class TestJdkDeflateCodecByteAtATime
extends AbstractTestCompression
{
private final CompressionCodec verifyCodec;
TestJdkDeflateCodecByteAtATime()
{
DefaultCodec codec = new DefaultCodec();
codec.setConf(new Configuration());
this.verifyCodec = codec;
}
@Override
protected boolean isMemorySegmentSupported()
{
return false;
}
@Override
protected Compressor getCompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecCompressor(new JdkDeflateCodec(), new MockJdkDeflateCompressor());
}
@Override
protected Decompressor getDecompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecDecompressorByteAtATime(new JdkDeflateCodec());
}
@Override
protected Compressor getVerifyCompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecCompressor(verifyCodec, new MockJdkDeflateCompressor());
}
@Override
protected Decompressor getVerifyDecompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecDecompressor(verifyCodec);
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/test/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/gzip/MockJdkGzipCompressor.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.gzip;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Compressor;
import java.lang.foreign.MemorySegment;
public class MockJdkGzipCompressor
implements Compressor
{
private static final int OVERHEAD = 128;
@Override
public int maxCompressedLength(int uncompressedSize)
{
return uncompressedSize + OVERHEAD;
}
@Override
public int compress(byte[] input, int inputOffset, int inputLength, byte[] output, int outputOffset, int maxOutputLength)
{
throw new UnsupportedOperationException("method is not supported");
}
@Override
public int compress(MemorySegment input, MemorySegment output)
{
throw new UnsupportedOperationException("method is not supported");
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/test/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/gzip/TestJdkGzipCodec.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.gzip;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.AbstractTestCompression;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Compressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Decompressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopCodecCompressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopCodecDecompressor;
import org.apache.hadoop.conf.Configuration;
import org.apache.hadoop.io.compress.CompressionCodec;
class TestJdkGzipCodec
extends AbstractTestCompression
{
private final CompressionCodec verifyCodec;
TestJdkGzipCodec()
{
org.apache.hadoop.io.compress.GzipCodec codec = new org.apache.hadoop.io.compress.GzipCodec();
codec.setConf(new Configuration());
this.verifyCodec = codec;
}
@Override
protected boolean isMemorySegmentSupported()
{
return false;
}
@Override
protected Compressor getCompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecCompressor(new JdkGzipCodec(), new MockJdkGzipCompressor());
}
@Override
protected Decompressor getDecompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecDecompressor(new JdkGzipCodec());
}
@Override
protected Compressor getVerifyCompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecCompressor(verifyCodec, new MockJdkGzipCompressor());
}
@Override
protected Decompressor getVerifyDecompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecDecompressor(verifyCodec);
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/test/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/gzip/TestJdkGzipCodecByteAtATime.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.gzip;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.AbstractTestCompression;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Compressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.Decompressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopCodecCompressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopCodecDecompressor;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.HadoopCodecDecompressorByteAtATime;
import org.apache.hadoop.conf.Configuration;
import org.apache.hadoop.io.compress.CompressionCodec;
class TestJdkGzipCodecByteAtATime
extends AbstractTestCompression
{
private final CompressionCodec verifyCodec;
TestJdkGzipCodecByteAtATime()
{
org.apache.hadoop.io.compress.GzipCodec codec = new org.apache.hadoop.io.compress.GzipCodec();
codec.setConf(new Configuration());
this.verifyCodec = codec;
}
@Override
protected boolean isMemorySegmentSupported()
{
return false;
}
@Override
protected Compressor getCompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecCompressor(new JdkGzipCodec(), new MockJdkGzipCompressor());
}
@Override
protected Decompressor getDecompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecDecompressorByteAtATime(new JdkGzipCodec());
}
@Override
protected Compressor getVerifyCompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecCompressor(verifyCodec, new MockJdkGzipCompressor());
}
@Override
protected Decompressor getVerifyDecompressor()
{
return new HadoopCodecDecompressor(verifyCodec);
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/test/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/gzip/TestJdkGzipHadoopInputStream.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.gzip;
import com.google.common.io.ByteStreams;
import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
import java.io.ByteArrayInputStream;
import java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream;
import java.io.IOException;
import java.io.InputStream;
import java.io.OutputStream;
import java.io.SequenceInputStream;
import java.util.zip.GZIPOutputStream;
import static org.assertj.core.api.Assertions.assertThat;
class TestJdkGzipHadoopInputStream
{
@Test
void testGzipInputStreamBug()
throws IOException
{
byte[] part1 = zip("hello ".getBytes());
byte[] part2 = zip("world".getBytes());
InputStream compressed = new SequenceInputStream(new ByteArrayInputStream(part1), new ByteArrayInputStream(part2));
byte[] data = ByteStreams.toByteArray(new JdkGzipHadoopStreams().createInputStream(compressed));
assertThat(data).isEqualTo("hello world".getBytes());
}
private static byte[] zip(byte[] data)
throws IOException
{
ByteArrayOutputStream out = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
try (OutputStream gzipOut = new GZIPOutputStream(out)) {
gzipOut.write(data);
}
return out.toByteArray();
}
}
================================================
FILE: src/test/java/io/airlift/compress/v3/internal/TestNativeLoader.java
================================================
/*
* Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
* you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
* You may obtain a copy of the License at
*
* http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
* WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
* See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
* limitations under the License.
*/
package io.airlift.compress.v3.internal;
import io.airlift.compress.v3.internal.NativeLoader.Symbols;
import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
import java.lang.invoke.MethodHandle;
import java.lang.invoke.MethodHandles;
import static java.lang.invoke.MethodHandles.lookup;
import static org.assertj.core.api.Assertions.assertThat;
import static org.assertj.core.api.Assertions.assertThatThrownBy;
class TestNativeLoader
{
@Test
void testUnknownLibrary()
{
assertThatThrownBy(() -> NativeLoader.loadLibrary("unknown"))
.isInstanceOf(LinkageError.class)
.hasMessageMatching("Library not found: /aircompressor/.*/.*unknown.*");
}
@Test
void testLoadSymbols()
throws Throwable
{
Symbols