[ { "path": ".gitignore", "content": "plot_complexity.py" }, { "path": ".travis.yml", "content": "language: python\n\n# Default Python version is usually 2.7\npython: 3.7\n\n# Install ruby to get gem command\nbefore_install:\n - python --version\n - pip install -U pip\n - pip install -U pytest\n - pip install codecov\n - sudo apt-add-repository -y ppa:brightbox/ruby-ng\n - sudo apt-get -y update\n - sudo apt-get -y install ruby-full\n\nbefore_script:\n - gem install awesome_bot\n\ninstall:\n - pip3 install -r requirements.txt\n - pip3 install pytest\n - pip3 install pytest-cov\n - pip3 install codecov\n\nscript: \n - awesome_bot README.md --allow-dupe --allow-redirect\n - pytest --cov=Algorithms/\n \n # # Dynamic Programming Tests\n # - python Algorithm_tests/dynamic_programming_tests/knapsack_tests/knapsack_bottomup_test.py\n # - python Algorithm_tests/dynamic_programming_tests/sequence_alignment/sequence_alignment_test.py\n # - python Algorithm_tests/dynamic_programming_tests/weighted_interval_scheduling/weighted_interval_scheduling_test.py\n #\n # # Graph Theory Tests\n # - python Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/bellman_ford_test.py\n # - python Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/kahn_topological_ordering_test.py\n # - python Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/Djikstra/djikstra_heap_test.py\n # - python Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/Djikstra/djikstra_naive_test.py\n # - python Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/kruskal_unionfind_test.py\n # - python Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/prims_algorithm_test.py\n # - python Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/BFS_test.py\n # - python Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/DFS_test.py\n #\n # # Math tests\n # - python Algorithm_tests/other_tests/test_binarysearch.py\n # - python Algorithm_tests/math_tests/intersection_test.py\n # - python Algorithm_tests/math_tests/union_test.py\n #\n # # Cryptography tests\n # - python Algorithm_tests/cryptology_tests/ceasar_test.py\n #\n # # \"Other\" tests\n # - python Algorithm_tests/other_tests/test_medianmaintenance.py\n # - python Algorithm_tests/other_tests/test_intervalscheduling.py\n #\n # # Sorting tests\n # - python Algorithm_tests/sorting_tests/test_sorting.py\n\nafter_success:\n - codecov\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/cryptology_tests/ceasar_test.py", "content": "# Import folder where sorting algorithms\nimport sys\nimport unittest\n\n# For importing from different folders\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/cryptology/ceasar_shifting_cipher\")\n\n# If run from local:\n# sys.path.append('../../Algorithms/cryptology/ceasar_shifting_cipher')\n\nfrom ceasar_shift_cipher import encrypt, decrypt\n\n# Note this is not robust.. but im trying to make it a habit to make some tests.\n# Some are better than nothing. But these are not complete at all.\nclass test_ceasar_cipher(unittest.TestCase):\n def setUp(self):\n # test cases we wish to run\n self.message1 = \"abc\"\n self.shift1 = 3\n self.correct_encrypt1 = \"def\"\n\n self.message2 = \"xyz \"\n self.shift2 = 1\n self.correct_encrypt2 = \"yz a\"\n\n def test_encryption_message1(self):\n encrypted_message1 = encrypt(self.message1, self.shift1)\n self.assertEqual(encrypted_message1, self.correct_encrypt1)\n\n def test_decryption_message1(self):\n decrypted_message1 = decrypt(self.correct_encrypt1, self.shift1)\n self.assertEqual(decrypted_message1, self.message1)\n\n def test_encryption_message2(self):\n encrypted_message2 = encrypt(self.message2, self.shift2)\n self.assertEqual(encrypted_message2, self.correct_encrypt2)\n\n def test_decryption_message2(self):\n decrypted_message2 = decrypt(self.correct_encrypt2, self.shift2)\n self.assertEqual(decrypted_message2, self.message2)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"Running ceasar cipher tests:\")\n unittest.main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/dynamic_programming_tests/knapsack_tests/knapsack_bottomup_test.py", "content": "import sys\nimport unittest\n\n# For importing from different folders\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/dynamic_programming/knapsack\")\n\n# If run from local:\n# sys.path.append('../../../Algorithms/dynamic_programming/knapsack/')\nfrom knapsack_bottomup import knapsack\n\n\nclass test_KnapSack(unittest.TestCase):\n def setUp(self):\n self.weights1, self.values1, self.capacity1 = [], [], 100\n self.n1 = len(self.weights1)\n self.correctvalue1, self.correctitems1 = 0, []\n\n self.weights2, self.values2, self.capacity2 = [10], [50], 100\n self.n2 = len(self.weights2)\n self.correctvalue2, self.correctitems2 = 50, [0]\n\n self.weights3, self.values3, self.capacity3 = [10, 20, 30], [-10, -20, -30], 100\n self.n3 = len(self.weights2)\n self.correctvalue3, self.correctitems3 = 0, []\n\n self.weights4, self.values4, self.capacity4 = (\n [1, 2, 4, 2, 5],\n [5, 3, 5, 3, 2],\n 5,\n )\n self.n4 = len(self.weights4)\n self.correctvalue4, self.correctitems4 = 11, [0, 1, 3]\n\n self.weights5, self.values5, self.capacity5 = [10, 10, 10], [30, 30, 30], 5\n self.n5 = len(self.weights5)\n self.correctvalue5, self.correctitems5 = 0, []\n\n def test_noitems(self):\n total_value, items = knapsack(\n self.n1, self.capacity1, self.weights1, self.values1\n )\n self.assertEqual(self.correctvalue1, total_value)\n self.assertEqual(self.correctitems1, items)\n\n def test_singleitem_value(self):\n total_value, items = knapsack(\n self.n2, self.capacity2, self.weights2, self.values2\n )\n self.assertEqual(self.correctvalue2, total_value)\n self.assertEqual(self.correctitems2, items)\n\n def test_negativevalues(self):\n total_value, items = knapsack(\n self.n3, self.capacity3, self.weights3, self.values3\n )\n self.assertEqual(self.correctvalue3, total_value)\n self.assertEqual(self.correctitems3, items)\n\n def test_simpleexample(self):\n total_value, items = knapsack(\n self.n4, self.capacity4, self.weights4, self.values4\n )\n self.assertEqual(self.correctvalue4, total_value)\n self.assertEqual(self.correctitems4, items)\n\n def test_weight_too_heavy(self):\n total_value, items = knapsack(\n self.n5, self.capacity5, self.weights5, self.values5\n )\n self.assertEqual(self.correctvalue5, total_value)\n self.assertEqual(self.correctitems5, items)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"Running Knapsack tests:\")\n unittest.main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/dynamic_programming_tests/sequence_alignment/sequence_alignment_test.py", "content": "import sys\nimport unittest\n\n# For importing from different folders\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/dynamic_programming/\")\n\n# If run from local:\n# sys.path.append('../../../Algorithms/dynamic_programming/')\nfrom sequence_alignment import SequenceAlignment\n\n\nclass test_sequence_alignment(unittest.TestCase):\n def setUp(self):\n self.x1 = \"ABC\"\n self.y1 = \"ADC\"\n self.correct_editstep1 = 1\n\n self.x2 = \"AB\"\n self.y2 = \"A\"\n self.correct_editstep2 = 1\n\n self.x3 = \"A\"\n self.y3 = \"\"\n self.correct_editstep3 = 1\n\n self.x4 = \"ABC\"\n self.y4 = \"ABCDE\"\n self.correct_editstep4 = 2\n\n self.x5 = \"ABCKL\"\n self.y5 = \"ADCE\"\n self.correct_editstep5 = 3\n\n self.x6 = \"A\" * 10\n self.y6 = \"\"\n self.correct_editstep6 = 10\n\n self.x7 = \"\"\n self.y7 = \"A\" * 10\n self.correct_editstep7 = 10\n\n self.x8 = \"TGACGTGC\"\n self.y8 = \"TCGACGTCA\"\n self.correct_editstep8 = 3\n\n self.x9 = \"XYZ\"\n self.y9 = \"XKZ\"\n self.correct_solution9 = [\"align_X\", \"align_K\", \"align_Z\"]\n\n self.x10 = \"XX\"\n self.y10 = \"\"\n self.correct_solution10 = [\"remove_X\", \"remove_X\"]\n\n self.x11 = \"\"\n self.y11 = \"XX\"\n self.correct_solution11 = [\"insert_X\", \"insert_X\"]\n\n def test_simplecase(self):\n sequence_align = SequenceAlignment(self.x1, self.y1)\n editsteps, _ = sequence_align.alignment()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_editstep1, editsteps)\n\n def test_remove(self):\n sequence_align = SequenceAlignment(self.x2, self.y2)\n editsteps, _ = sequence_align.alignment()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_editstep2, editsteps)\n\n def test_remove_to_empty(self):\n sequence_align = SequenceAlignment(self.x3, self.y3)\n editsteps, _ = sequence_align.alignment()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_editstep3, editsteps)\n\n def test_insert_elements(self):\n sequence_align = SequenceAlignment(self.x4, self.y4)\n editsteps, _ = sequence_align.alignment()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_editstep4, editsteps)\n\n def test_remove_insert_align(self):\n sequence_align = SequenceAlignment(self.x5, self.y5)\n editsteps, _ = sequence_align.alignment()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_editstep5, editsteps)\n\n def test_x_longer_than_y(self):\n sequence_align = SequenceAlignment(self.x6, self.y6)\n editsteps, _ = sequence_align.alignment()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_editstep6, editsteps)\n\n def test_y_longer_than_x(self):\n sequence_align = SequenceAlignment(self.x7, self.y7)\n editsteps, _ = sequence_align.alignment()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_editstep7, editsteps)\n\n def test_more_complicated_example(self):\n sequence_align = SequenceAlignment(self.x8, self.y8)\n editsteps, _ = sequence_align.alignment()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_editstep8, editsteps)\n\n def test_findsolution_simplecase(self):\n sequence_align = SequenceAlignment(self.x9, self.y9)\n _, solution = sequence_align.alignment()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_solution9, solution)\n\n def test_findsolution_empty_y(self):\n sequence_align = SequenceAlignment(self.x10, self.y10)\n _, solution = sequence_align.alignment()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_solution10, solution)\n\n def test_findsolution_empty_x(self):\n sequence_align = SequenceAlignment(self.x11, self.y11)\n _, solution = sequence_align.alignment()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_solution11, solution)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"Running Sequence Alignment tests:\")\n unittest.main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/dynamic_programming_tests/weighted_interval_scheduling/weighted_interval_scheduling_test.py", "content": "import sys\nimport unittest\n\n# For importing from different folders\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/dynamic_programming/\")\n\n# If run from local:\n# sys.path.append('../../../Algorithms/dynamic_programming/')\nfrom weighted_interval_scheduling import WeightedIntervalScheduling\n\n\nclass test_weighted_interval_scheduling(unittest.TestCase):\n def setUp(self):\n self.I1 = []\n self.correct_maxweight1 = 0\n self.correct_intervals1 = []\n\n self.I2 = [(0, 3, 10)]\n self.correct_maxweight2 = 10\n self.correct_intervals2 = [(0, 3, 10)]\n\n self.I3 = [(0, 3, 5), (2, 5, 15), (4, 6, 5)]\n self.correct_maxweight3 = 15\n self.correct_intervals3 = [(2, 5, 15)]\n\n self.I4 = [(0, 3, 5), (3, 5, 15), (5, 7, 5)]\n self.correct_maxweight4 = 25\n self.correct_intervals4 = [(0, 3, 5), (3, 5, 15), (5, 7, 5)]\n\n self.I5 = [(0, 3, 5), (3, 5, -100), (5, 7, -50)]\n self.correct_maxweight5 = 5\n self.correct_intervals5 = [(0, 3, 5)]\n\n self.I6 = [(0, 50, 1), (0, 49, 1), (0, 48, 1), (15, 20, 10)]\n self.correct_maxweight6 = 10\n self.correct_intervals6 = [(15, 20, 10)]\n\n self.I7 = [(0, 50, 1), (0, 50, 1), (0, 50, 1), (0, 50, 1)]\n self.correct_maxweight7 = 1\n self.correct_intervals7 = [(0, 50, 1)]\n\n self.I8 = [(0, 50, 1), (0, 49, 1), (0, 48, 1), (0, 47, 1)]\n self.correct_maxweight8 = 1\n self.correct_intervals8 = [(0, 47, 1)]\n\n self.I9 = [(0, 50, 2), (0, 49, 1), (0, 48, 1), (0, 47, 1)]\n self.correct_maxweight9 = 2\n self.correct_intervals9 = [(0, 50, 2)]\n\n def test_empty_interval(self):\n weightedinterval = WeightedIntervalScheduling(self.I1)\n max_weight, best_intervals = weightedinterval.weighted_interval()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_maxweight1, max_weight)\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_intervals1, best_intervals)\n\n def test_single_interval(self):\n weightedinterval = WeightedIntervalScheduling(self.I2)\n max_weight, best_intervals = weightedinterval.weighted_interval()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_maxweight2, max_weight)\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_intervals2, best_intervals)\n\n def test_overlapping_intervals(self):\n weightedinterval = WeightedIntervalScheduling(self.I3)\n max_weight, best_intervals = weightedinterval.weighted_interval()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_maxweight3, max_weight)\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_intervals3, best_intervals)\n\n def test_no_overlapping_intervals(self):\n weightedinterval = WeightedIntervalScheduling(self.I4)\n max_weight, best_intervals = weightedinterval.weighted_interval()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_maxweight4, max_weight)\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_intervals4, best_intervals)\n\n def test_negative_weights(self):\n weightedinterval = WeightedIntervalScheduling(self.I5)\n max_weight, best_intervals = weightedinterval.weighted_interval()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_maxweight5, max_weight)\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_intervals5, best_intervals)\n\n def test_interval_contained_in_all_intervals(self):\n weightedinterval = WeightedIntervalScheduling(self.I6)\n max_weight, best_intervals = weightedinterval.weighted_interval()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_maxweight6, max_weight)\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_intervals6, best_intervals)\n\n def test_all_intervals_same(self):\n weightedinterval = WeightedIntervalScheduling(self.I7)\n max_weight, best_intervals = weightedinterval.weighted_interval()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_maxweight7, max_weight)\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_intervals7, best_intervals)\n\n def test_earliest_finish_time(self):\n weightedinterval = WeightedIntervalScheduling(self.I8)\n max_weight, best_intervals = weightedinterval.weighted_interval()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_maxweight8, max_weight)\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_intervals8, best_intervals)\n\n def test_earliest_finish_time_not_best(self):\n weightedinterval = WeightedIntervalScheduling(self.I9)\n max_weight, best_intervals = weightedinterval.weighted_interval()\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_maxweight9, max_weight)\n self.assertEqual(self.correct_intervals9, best_intervals)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"Running Weighted Interval Scheduling tests:\")\n unittest.main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/BFS_test.py", "content": "# Import folder where sorting algorithms\nimport sys\nimport unittest\nfrom collections import deque\n\n# For importing from different folders\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/graphtheory/breadth-first-search/\")\n\n# If run from local:\n# sys.path.append('../../Algorithms/graphtheory/breadth-first-search/')\nfrom BFS_queue_iterative import BFS\n\n\nclass test_BFS(unittest.TestCase):\n def setUp(self):\n self.G1 = {1: [2], 2: [1, 3], 3: [2]}\n self.correct_visited1 = [True] * 3\n self.correct_path1 = [1, 2, 3]\n\n self.G2 = {1: [2], 2: [1, 3, 4], 3: [2], 4: [2, 5], 5: [4]}\n self.correct_visited2 = [True] * 5\n\n self.G3 = {1: [2], 2: [1, 3, 4], 3: [2], 4: [2], 5: []}\n self.correct_visited3 = [True] * 4 + [False]\n\n self.G4 = {1: [2, 3, 4], 2: [1, 3, 4], 3: [1, 2, 4], 4: [1, 2, 3]}\n self.correct_visited4 = [True] * 4\n\n self.G5 = {\n 1: [2, 3, 4],\n 2: [1, 5],\n 3: [1, 7],\n 4: [1, 6],\n 5: [2],\n 6: [4],\n 7: [3],\n }\n self.correct_visited5 = [True] * 7\n\n def test_linear_graph(self):\n visited, path = BFS(self.G1, start_node=1)\n self.assertEqual(visited, self.correct_visited1)\n self.assertEqual(path, self.correct_path1)\n\n def test_simple_graph(self):\n visited, path = BFS(self.G2, start_node=1)\n self.assertTrue(path.index(3) < path.index(5))\n self.assertEqual(visited, self.correct_visited2)\n\n def test_disconnected_graph(self):\n visited, path = BFS(self.G3, start_node=1)\n self.assertEqual(visited, self.correct_visited3)\n\n def test_complete_graph(self):\n visited, path = BFS(self.G4, start_node=1)\n self.assertEqual(visited, self.correct_visited4)\n\n def test_breadth_before_depth(self):\n visited, path = BFS(self.G5, start_node=1)\n self.assertEqual(visited, self.correct_visited5)\n\n # Make sure it goes breadth first\n self.assertTrue(path.index(2) < path.index(5))\n self.assertTrue(path.index(2) < path.index(6))\n self.assertTrue(path.index(2) < path.index(7))\n self.assertTrue(path.index(3) < path.index(5))\n self.assertTrue(path.index(3) < path.index(6))\n self.assertTrue(path.index(3) < path.index(7))\n self.assertTrue(path.index(4) < path.index(5))\n self.assertTrue(path.index(4) < path.index(6))\n self.assertTrue(path.index(4) < path.index(7))\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"Running BFS/DFS tests:\")\n unittest.main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/DFS_test.py", "content": "# Import folder where sorting algorithms\nimport sys\nimport unittest\nfrom collections import deque\n\n# For importing from different folders\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/graphtheory/depth-first-search/\")\n\n# If run from local:\n# sys.path.append('../../Algorithms/graphtheory/depth-first-search/')\nfrom DFS_recursive import DFS as DFS_rec\nfrom DFS_stack_iterative import DFS as DFS_stack\n\n\nclass test_DFS(unittest.TestCase):\n def setUp(self):\n self.G1 = {1: [2], 2: [1, 3], 3: [2]}\n self.correct_visited1 = [True] * 3\n self.correct_path1 = [1, 2, 3]\n self.DFS_recursive_visited1 = [False for i in range(1, len(self.G1) + 1)]\n\n self.G2 = {1: [2], 2: [1, 3, 4], 3: [2], 4: [2, 5], 5: [4]}\n self.correct_visited2 = [True] * 5\n self.DFS_recursive_visited2 = [False for i in range(1, len(self.G2) + 1)]\n\n self.G3 = {1: [2], 2: [1, 3, 4], 3: [2], 4: [2], 5: []}\n self.correct_visited3 = [True] * 4 + [False]\n self.DFS_recursive_visited3 = [False for i in range(1, len(self.G3) + 1)]\n\n self.G4 = {1: [2, 3, 4], 2: [1, 3, 4], 3: [1, 2, 4], 4: [1, 2, 3]}\n self.correct_visited4 = [True] * 4\n self.DFS_recursive_visited4 = [False for i in range(1, len(self.G4) + 1)]\n\n def test_linear_graph(self):\n visited, path = DFS_stack(self.G1, start_node=1)\n self.assertEqual(visited, self.correct_visited1)\n self.assertEqual(path, self.correct_path1)\n\n DFS_rec(self.G1, 1, self.DFS_recursive_visited1)\n self.assertEqual(self.DFS_recursive_visited1, self.correct_visited1)\n\n def test_simple_graph(self):\n visited, path = DFS_stack(self.G2, start_node=1)\n self.assertEqual(visited, self.correct_visited2)\n\n DFS_rec(self.G2, 1, self.DFS_recursive_visited2)\n self.assertEqual(self.DFS_recursive_visited2, self.correct_visited2)\n\n def test_disconnected_graph(self):\n visited, path = DFS_stack(self.G3, start_node=1)\n self.assertEqual(visited, self.correct_visited3)\n\n DFS_rec(self.G3, 1, self.DFS_recursive_visited3)\n self.assertEqual(self.DFS_recursive_visited3, self.correct_visited3)\n\n def test_complete_graph(self):\n visited, path = DFS_stack(self.G4, start_node=1)\n self.assertEqual(visited, self.correct_visited4)\n\n DFS_rec(self.G4, 1, self.DFS_recursive_visited4)\n self.assertEqual(self.DFS_recursive_visited4, self.correct_visited4)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"Running BFS/DFS tests:\")\n unittest.main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/Djikstra/djikstra_heap_test.py", "content": "# Import folder where sorting algorithms\nimport sys\nimport unittest\n\n# For importing from different folders\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/graphtheory/dijkstra/\")\n\n# If run from local:\n# sys.path.append('../../../Algorithms/graphtheory/dijkstra/')\n\nfrom heapdijkstra import dijkstra\n\n\nclass test_Dijkstra(unittest.TestCase):\n def setUp(self):\n self.G1 = {}\n self.correct_path1 = []\n self.correct_dist1 = float(\"inf\")\n\n self.G2 = {1: {2: 1, 4: 10}, 2: {3: 15}, 3: {6: 5}, 4: {5: 1}, 5: {6: 1}, 6: {}}\n self.correct_path2 = [1, 4, 5, 6]\n self.correct_dist2 = 12\n\n self.G3 = {1: {2: 1, 4: 10}, 2: {3: 15}, 3: {}, 4: {5: 1}, 5: {}, 6: {}}\n self.correct_path3 = []\n self.correct_dist3 = float(\"inf\")\n\n self.G4 = {1: {2: 1, 4: 10}, 2: {3: 15}, 3: {6: 5}, 4: {5: 1}, 5: {6: 1}, 6: {}}\n self.correct_path4 = [1, 4, 5]\n self.correct_dist4 = 11\n\n def test_emptygraph(self):\n path_to_take, distances = dijkstra(self.G1, 0, 1)\n self.assertEqual(distances[1], self.correct_dist1)\n self.assertEqual(path_to_take, self.correct_path1)\n\n def test_simplegraph(self):\n path_to_take, distances = dijkstra(self.G2, 1, 6)\n self.assertEqual(distances[6], self.correct_dist2)\n self.assertEqual(path_to_take, self.correct_path2)\n\n def test_no_path_exists(self):\n path_to_take, distances = dijkstra(self.G3, 1, 6)\n self.assertEqual(distances[6], self.correct_dist3)\n self.assertEqual(path_to_take, self.correct_path3)\n\n def test_not_endpoint(self):\n path_to_take, distances = dijkstra(self.G4, 1, 5)\n self.assertEqual(distances[5], self.correct_dist4)\n self.assertEqual(path_to_take, self.correct_path4)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"Running Djikstra tests:\")\n unittest.main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/Djikstra/djikstra_naive_test.py", "content": "# Import folder where sorting algorithms\nimport sys\nimport unittest\n\n# For importing from different folders\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/graphtheory/dijkstra/\")\n\n# If run from local:\n# sys.path.append('../../../Algorithms/graphtheory/dijkstra/')\n\nfrom dijkstra import dijkstra\n\n\nclass test_Dijkstra(unittest.TestCase):\n def setUp(self):\n self.G1 = {}\n self.correct_path1 = []\n self.correct_dist1 = float(\"inf\")\n\n self.G2 = {1: {2: 1, 4: 10}, 2: {3: 15}, 3: {6: 5}, 4: {5: 1}, 5: {6: 1}, 6: {}}\n self.correct_path2 = [1, 4, 5, 6]\n self.correct_dist2 = 12\n\n self.G3 = {1: {2: 1, 4: 10}, 2: {3: 15}, 3: {}, 4: {5: 1}, 5: {}, 6: {}}\n self.correct_path3 = []\n self.correct_dist3 = float(\"inf\")\n\n self.G4 = {1: {2: 1, 4: 10}, 2: {3: 15}, 3: {6: 5}, 4: {5: 1}, 5: {6: 1}, 6: {}}\n self.correct_path4 = [1, 4, 5]\n self.correct_dist4 = 11\n\n def test_emptygraph(self):\n path_to_take, distance = dijkstra(self.G1, 0, 1)\n self.assertEqual(distance, self.correct_dist1)\n self.assertEqual(path_to_take, self.correct_path1)\n\n def test_simplegraph(self):\n path_to_take, distance = dijkstra(self.G2, 1, 6)\n self.assertEqual(distance, self.correct_dist2)\n self.assertEqual(path_to_take, self.correct_path2)\n\n def test_no_path_exists(self):\n path_to_take, distance = dijkstra(self.G3, 1, 6)\n self.assertEqual(distance, self.correct_dist3)\n self.assertEqual(path_to_take, self.correct_path3)\n\n def test_not_endpoint(self):\n path_to_take, distance = dijkstra(self.G4, 1, 5)\n self.assertEqual(distance, self.correct_dist4)\n self.assertEqual(path_to_take, self.correct_path4)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"Running Djikstra tests:\")\n unittest.main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/bellman_ford_test.py", "content": "# Import folder where sorting algorithms\nimport sys\nimport unittest\n\n# For importing from different folders\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/graphtheory/bellman-ford\")\n\n# If run from local:\n# sys.path.append('../../Algorithms/graphtheory/bellman-ford')\n\nfrom bellman_ford import bellman_ford\n\n\nclass test_BellmanFord(unittest.TestCase):\n def test_negativecycle(self):\n # Because of negative cycles, we shall denote the shortest path for these\n # as -infinity.\n G = {1: {2: 5, 3: 20}, 2: {4: 10}, 3: {5: 10}, 4: {}, 5: {6: 5}, 6: {3: -20}}\n\n correct_shortest_dist = {\n 1: 0,\n 2: 5,\n 3: -float(\"inf\"),\n 4: 15,\n 5: -float(\"inf\"),\n 6: -float(\"inf\"),\n }\n shortest_dist, _ = bellman_ford(G, 1)\n\n self.assertEqual(shortest_dist, correct_shortest_dist)\n\n def test_shortestdist(self):\n G = {1: {2: 100, 3: 5}, 2: {4: 20}, 3: {2: 10}, 4: {}}\n\n start_node = 1\n shortest_dist, _ = bellman_ford(G, start_node)\n\n # Test distance to starting node should be 0\n self.assertEqual(shortest_dist[start_node], 0)\n\n # Test shortest distances from graph\n self.assertEqual(shortest_dist[2], 15)\n self.assertEqual(shortest_dist[3], 5)\n self.assertEqual(shortest_dist[4], 35)\n\n def test_run_emptygraph(self):\n G = {}\n start_node = 1\n\n # Cant run an empty graph without returning error\n with self.assertRaises(ValueError):\n shortest_dist, _ = bellman_ford(G, start_node)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"Running bellman ford tests:\")\n unittest.main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/kahn_topological_ordering_test.py", "content": "# Import folder where sorting algorithms\nimport sys\nimport unittest\n\n# For importing from different folders\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/graphtheory/kahns-toposort/\")\n\n# If run from local:\n# sys.path.append('../../Algorithms/graphtheory/kahns-toposort')\n\nfrom kahn_topological_ordering import topological_ordering\nfrom collections import defaultdict\n\n\nclass test_TopologicalOrdering(unittest.TestCase):\n def setUp(self):\n self.G1 = {}\n self.degree_incoming1 = defaultdict(int, {})\n self.correct_isDAG1 = False\n self.correct_path1 = []\n\n self.G2 = {\"1\": [\"2\"], \"2\": [\"3\"], \"3\": [\"4\"], \"4\": [\"5\"], \"5\": []}\n self.degree_incoming2 = defaultdict(int, {\"2\": 1, \"3\": 1, \"4\": 1, \"5\": 1})\n self.correct_isDAG2 = True\n self.correct_path2 = [\"1\", \"2\", \"3\", \"4\", \"5\"]\n\n self.G3 = {\n \"1\": [\"2\", \"3\", \"4\", \"5\"],\n \"2\": [\"3\", \"4\", \"5\"],\n \"3\": [\"4\", \"5\"],\n \"4\": [\"5\"],\n \"5\": [],\n }\n self.degree_incoming3 = defaultdict(int, {\"2\": 1, \"3\": 2, \"4\": 3, \"5\": 4})\n self.correct_isDAG3 = True\n self.correct_path3 = [\"1\", \"2\", \"3\", \"4\", \"5\"]\n\n self.G4 = {\n \"1\": [\"2\", \"3\", \"4\", \"5\"],\n \"2\": [\"3\", \"4\", \"5\"],\n \"3\": [\"2\", \"4\", \"5\"],\n \"4\": [\"5\"],\n \"5\": [],\n }\n self.degree_incoming4 = defaultdict(int, {\"2\": 2, \"3\": 2, \"4\": 3, \"5\": 4})\n self.correct_isDAG4 = False\n self.correct_path4 = []\n\n def test_emptygraph(self):\n path_to_take, is_DAG = topological_ordering(self.G1, self.degree_incoming1)\n self.assertEqual(path_to_take, self.correct_path1)\n self.assertEqual(is_DAG, self.correct_isDAG1)\n\n def test_clear_ordering(self):\n path_to_take, is_DAG = topological_ordering(self.G2, self.degree_incoming2)\n self.assertEqual(path_to_take, self.correct_path2)\n self.assertEqual(is_DAG, self.correct_isDAG2)\n\n def test_more_complicated_graph(self):\n path_to_take, is_DAG = topological_ordering(self.G3, self.degree_incoming3)\n self.assertEqual(path_to_take, self.correct_path3)\n self.assertEqual(is_DAG, self.correct_isDAG3)\n\n def test_no_topological_ordering(self):\n path_to_take, is_DAG = topological_ordering(self.G4, self.degree_incoming4)\n self.assertEqual(path_to_take, self.correct_path4)\n self.assertEqual(is_DAG, self.correct_isDAG4)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"Running Topological Ordering tests:\")\n unittest.main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/kruskal_unionfind_test.py", "content": "# Import folder where sorting algorithms\nimport sys\nimport unittest\nfrom unionfind import unionfind\n\n# For importing from different folders\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/graphtheory/kruskal/\")\n\n# If run from local:\n# sys.path.append('../../Algorithms/graphtheory/kruskal/')\nfrom kruskal_unionfind import kruskal\n\n\nclass test_Kruskal(unittest.TestCase):\n def setUp(self):\n # self.G1 = {1:[(10, 2, 1)], 2:[(10, 1, 2), (10, 3, 2)], 3:[(10, 2, 3)]}\n self.G1 = [(10, 2, 1), (10, 1, 2), (10, 3, 2), (10, 2, 3)]\n self.num_nodes1 = 3\n self.correct_cost1 = 20\n self.correct_MST1 = [(1, 2, 10), (2, 3, 10)]\n\n self.G2 = [\n (10, 2, 1),\n (10, 3, 1),\n (10, 1, 2),\n (100, 3, 2),\n (10, 1, 3),\n (100, 2, 3),\n ]\n self.num_nodes2 = 3\n self.correct_cost2 = 20\n self.correct_MST2 = [(1, 2, 10), (1, 3, 10)]\n\n self.G3 = [\n (1, 2, 1),\n (1, 1, 2),\n (1, 3, 2),\n (1, 4, 3),\n (5, 5, 3),\n (1, 3, 4),\n (1, 5, 4),\n (5, 3, 5),\n (1, 4, 5),\n ]\n self.num_nodes3 = 5\n self.correct_cost3 = 4\n self.correct_MST3 = [(1, 2, 1), (2, 3, 1), (3, 4, 1), (4, 5, 1)]\n\n self.G4 = [(1, 2, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 4, 3), (1, 3, 4)]\n self.num_nodes4 = 4\n self.correct_cost4 = 2\n self.correct_MST4 = [(1, 2, 1), (3, 4, 1)]\n\n self.G5 = {}\n self.num_nodes5 = 0\n self.correct_cost5 = 0\n self.correct_MST5 = []\n\n # Takes as input G which will have {node1: [(cost, to_node, node1), ...], node2:[(...)] }\n\n def test_linear_graph(self):\n MST, cost = kruskal(sorted(self.G1, key=lambda tup: tup[0]), self.num_nodes1)\n self.assertEqual(MST, self.correct_MST1)\n self.assertEqual(cost, self.correct_cost1)\n\n def test_triangle_graph(self):\n MST, cost = kruskal(sorted(self.G2, key=lambda tup: tup[0]), self.num_nodes2)\n self.assertEqual(MST, self.correct_MST2)\n self.assertEqual(cost, self.correct_cost2)\n\n def test_trickier_mst(self):\n MST, cost = kruskal(sorted(self.G3, key=lambda tup: tup[0]), self.num_nodes3)\n self.assertEqual(MST, self.correct_MST3)\n self.assertEqual(cost, self.correct_cost3)\n\n def test_disconnected_graph(self):\n MST, cost = kruskal(sorted(self.G4, key=lambda tup: tup[0]), self.num_nodes4)\n self.assertEqual(MST, self.correct_MST4)\n self.assertEqual(cost, self.correct_cost4)\n\n def test_empty_graph(self):\n MST, cost = kruskal(self.G5, self.num_nodes5)\n self.assertEqual(MST, self.correct_MST5)\n self.assertEqual(cost, self.correct_cost5)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"Running Kruskal tests:\")\n unittest.main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/prims_algorithm_test.py", "content": "# Import folder where sorting algorithms\nimport sys\nimport unittest\n\n# For importing from different folders\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/graphtheory/prims/\")\n\n# If run from local:\n# sys.path.append('../../Algorithms/graphtheory/prims/')\nfrom prim_heap import prims_algo\n\n\nclass test_primsHeap(unittest.TestCase):\n def setUp(self):\n # How I've decided to construct the graph is confusing, but the reason is because we're using a min heap and\n # want first element in the tuple to be the cost of the edge. However when I return the MST, we want it to be\n # returned as: from_node, to_node, edge_cost, rather than the reverse for constructing the graph.\n\n self.G1 = {1: [(10, 2, 1)], 2: [(10, 1, 2), (10, 3, 2)], 3: [(10, 2, 3)]}\n self.correct_cost1 = 20\n self.correct_MST1 = [(1, 2, 10), (2, 3, 10)]\n\n self.G2 = {\n 1: [(10, 2, 1), (10, 3, 1)],\n 2: [(10, 1, 2), (100, 3, 2)],\n 3: [(10, 1, 3), (100, 2, 3)],\n }\n self.correct_cost2 = 20\n self.correct_MST2 = [(1, 2, 10), (1, 3, 10)]\n\n self.G3 = {\n 1: [(1, 2, 1)],\n 2: [(1, 1, 2), (1, 3, 2)],\n 3: [(1, 4, 3), (5, 5, 3)],\n 4: [(1, 3, 4), (1, 5, 4)],\n 5: [(5, 3, 5), (1, 4, 5)],\n }\n self.correct_cost3 = 4\n self.correct_MST3 = [(1, 2, 1), (2, 3, 1), (3, 4, 1), (4, 5, 1)]\n\n self.G4 = {1: [(1, 2, 1)], 2: [(1, 1, 2)], 3: [(1, 4, 3)], 4: [(1, 3, 4)]}\n self.correct_cost4 = 1\n self.correct_MST4 = [(1, 2, 1)]\n\n self.G5 = {}\n self.correct_cost5 = 0\n self.correct_MST5 = []\n\n # Takes as input G which will have {node1: [(cost, to_node, node1), ...], node2:[(...)] }\n\n def test_linear_graph(self):\n MST, cost = prims_algo(self.G1, start=1)\n self.assertEqual(MST, self.correct_MST1)\n self.assertEqual(cost, self.correct_cost1)\n\n def test_triangle_graph(self):\n MST, cost = prims_algo(self.G2, start=1)\n self.assertEqual(MST, self.correct_MST2)\n self.assertEqual(cost, self.correct_cost2)\n\n def test_trickier_mst(self):\n MST, cost = prims_algo(self.G3, start=1)\n self.assertEqual(MST, self.correct_MST3)\n self.assertEqual(cost, self.correct_cost3)\n\n def test_disconnected_graph(self):\n MST, cost = prims_algo(self.G4, start=1)\n self.assertEqual(MST, self.correct_MST4)\n self.assertEqual(cost, self.correct_cost4)\n\n def test_empty_graph(self):\n MST, cost = prims_algo(self.G5, start=1)\n self.assertEqual(MST, self.correct_MST5)\n self.assertEqual(cost, self.correct_cost5)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"Running Prims Heap tests:\")\n unittest.main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/test_NN.py", "content": "import unittest\nimport sys\n\n# Import from different folder\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/graphtheory/nearest-neighbor-tsp/\")\n\nimport NearestNeighborTSP\n\n\nclass TestNN(unittest.TestCase):\n def setUp(self):\n self.G1 = [[0,3,-1],[3,0,1],[-1,1,0]]\n self.correct_path1 = [0,1,2,0]\n\n # No possible solution for this one so its a dead end\n self.G2 = [[0, 2, -1,-1,-1], [2, 0,5,1,-1], [-1, 5, 0, -1, -1],[-1, 1, -1, 0, 3], [-1, -1, -1, 3, 0]]\n self.correct_path2 = [0,1,3,4]\n\n # No possible solution for this one so its a dead end\n self.G3 = [[0, 2, -1,-1,-1], [2, 0,5,1,-1], [-1, 5, 0, -1, -1],[-1, 1, -1, 0, -1], [-1, -1, -1, -1, 0]]\n self.correct_path3 = [0, 1, 3]\n\n # Multiple possible solutions\n self.G4 = [[0,1,1,1],[1,0,1,1],[1,1,0,1],[1,1,1,0]]\n self.correct_path4 = [0, 1, 2, 3, 0]\n\n\n # adjacency matrix of a graph for testing\n adjMatrix = [[0,2,5,-1,3],[2,0,2,4,-1],[5,2,0,5,5],[-1,4,5,0,2],[3,-1,5,2,0]]\n # correct rank of each node's neighbors\n correctNeighbors = [[1,4,2],[0,2,3],[1,0,3,4],[4,1,2],[3,0,2]]\n\n\n def test_0_rankNeighbors(self):\n for i in range(0,4):\n self.assertEqual(NearestNeighborTSP.rankNeighbors(i, self.adjMatrix), self.correctNeighbors[i], \"Check if order is different.\")\n\n\n def test_1_nnTSP(self):\n path=NearestNeighborTSP.nnTSP(self.adjMatrix)\n # Test if path is null\n self.assertIsNotNone(path,\"Output is empty\")\n # Test if path is not complete\n self.assertEqual(len(path),len(self.adjMatrix)+1,\"Path in incomplete\")\n\n\n def test_linear_graph(self):\n #print(NearestNeighbor.nnTSP(self.G2))\n path = NearestNeighborTSP.nnTSP(self.G1)\n self.assertEqual(path,self.correct_path1)\n\n\n def test_simple_graph(self):\n path = NearestNeighborTSP.nnTSP(self.G2)\n self.assertEqual(path,self.correct_path2)\n\n\n def test_disconnected_graph(self):\n path = NearestNeighborTSP.nnTSP(self.G3)\n self.assertEqual(path, self.correct_path3)\n\n\n def test_complete_graph(self):\n path = NearestNeighborTSP.nnTSP(self.G4)\n self.assertEqual(path, self.correct_path4)\n\nif __name__ == '__main__':\n print(\"Running Nearest Neighbor TSP solver tests:\")\n unittest.main()" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/graphtheory_tests/test_graph.txt", "content": "1 2,5 3,10\n2 4,-5\n3 4,15" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/math_tests/intersection_test.py", "content": "# Import folder where sorting algorithms\nimport sys\nimport unittest\n\n# For importing from different folders\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/math/intersection_of_two_sets\")\n\n# If run from local:\n# sys.path.append('../../Algorithms/math/intersection_of_two_sets')\n\nfrom intersection_of_two_sets import intersection\n\n\nclass test_intersection(unittest.TestCase):\n def setUp(self):\n # test cases we wish to run\n self.L1 = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10]\n self.L2 = [2, 4, 6, 11, 12]\n self.L1L2_correct = []\n\n self.L3 = [1, 3, 5, 10]\n self.L4 = [2, 4, 6, 10]\n self.L3L4_correct = [10]\n\n self.L5 = [1, 3, 5, 10]\n self.L6 = [1, 4, 6, 11]\n self.L5L6_correct = [1]\n\n self.L7 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]\n self.L8 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]\n self.L7L8_correct = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]\n\n self.L9 = []\n self.L10 = []\n self.L9L10_correct = []\n\n def test_intersection_none(self):\n L1L2_output = intersection(self.L1, self.L2)\n self.assertEqual(L1L2_output, self.L1L2_correct)\n\n def test_intersection_lastelement(self):\n L3L4_output = intersection(self.L3, self.L4)\n self.assertEqual(L3L4_output, self.L3L4_correct)\n\n def test_intersection_firstelement(self):\n L5L6_output = intersection(self.L5, self.L6)\n self.assertEqual(L5L6_output, self.L5L6_correct)\n\n def test_intersection_allequal(self):\n L7L8_output = intersection(self.L7, self.L8)\n self.assertEqual(L7L8_output, self.L7L8_correct)\n\n def test_intersection_both_empty(self):\n L9L10_output = intersection(self.L9, self.L10)\n self.assertEqual(L9L10_output, self.L9L10_correct)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"Running sorting tests:\")\n unittest.main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/math_tests/union_test.py", "content": "# Import folder where sorting algorithms\nimport sys\nimport unittest\n\n# For importing from different folders\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/math/union_of_two_sets\")\n\n# If run from local:\n# sys.path.append('../../Algorithms/math/union_of_two_sets')\n\nfrom union_of_two_sets import union\n\n\nclass test_union(unittest.TestCase):\n def setUp(self):\n # test cases we wish to run\n self.L1 = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10]\n self.L2 = [2, 4, 6, 11, 12]\n self.L1L2_correct = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12]\n\n self.L3 = [1, 3, 5, 10]\n self.L4 = [2, 4, 6, 10]\n self.L3L4_correct = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10]\n\n self.L5 = [1, 3, 5, 10]\n self.L6 = [1, 4, 6, 11]\n self.L5L6_correct = [1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 11]\n\n self.L7 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]\n self.L8 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]\n self.L7L8_correct = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]\n\n self.L9 = []\n self.L10 = []\n self.L9L10_correct = []\n\n def test_union_all(self):\n L1L2_output = union(self.L1, self.L2)\n self.assertEqual(L1L2_output, self.L1L2_correct)\n\n def test_union_lastequal(self):\n L3L4_output = union(self.L3, self.L4)\n self.assertEqual(L3L4_output, self.L3L4_correct)\n\n def test_union_firstequal(self):\n L5L6_output = union(self.L5, self.L6)\n self.assertEqual(L5L6_output, self.L5L6_correct)\n\n def test_union_samelist(self):\n L7L8_output = union(self.L7, self.L8)\n self.assertEqual(L7L8_output, self.L7L8_correct)\n\n def test_union_both_empty(self):\n L9L10_output = union(self.L9, self.L10)\n self.assertEqual(L9L10_output, self.L9L10_correct)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"Running sorting tests:\")\n unittest.main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/other_tests/test_binarysearch.py", "content": "# Import folder where sorting algorithms\nimport sys\nimport unittest\n\n# For importing from different folders\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/other\")\n\n# If run from local:\n# sys.path.append('../../Algorithms/other')\n\nfrom binarysearch import binarysearch_iterative, binarysearch_recursive\n\n\nclass test_binarysearch(unittest.TestCase):\n def setUp(self):\n # test cases we wish to run\n self.L1 = [1, 3, 5, 8, 10, 12]\n self.L1_target = 5\n self.L1_correct = True, 2\n\n self.L2 = [1, 3, 5, 8, 10, 12]\n self.L2_target = 6\n self.L2_correct = False, None\n\n self.L3 = [1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1]\n self.L3_target = 1\n self.L3_correct = True, (0 + len(self.L3) - 1) // 2\n\n self.L4 = [1, 3, 6, 11, 16, 21, 25, 27]\n self.L4_target = 27\n self.L4_correct = True, len(self.L4) - 1\n\n self.L5 = [1, 3, 6, 11, 16, 21, 27]\n self.L5_target = 1\n self.L5_correct = True, 0\n\n self.L6 = []\n self.L6_target = 10\n self.L6_correct = False, None\n\n self.L7 = [11, 12, 15, 19, 23, 41, 173, 298]\n self.L7_target = 12\n self.L7_correct = True, 1\n\n def test_binarysearch_basic(self):\n L1_result_iterative = binarysearch_iterative(self.L1, self.L1_target)\n L1_result_recursive = binarysearch_recursive(\n self.L1, self.L1_target, 0, len(self.L1) - 1\n )\n\n self.assertEqual(L1_result_iterative, self.L1_correct)\n self.assertEqual(L1_result_recursive, self.L1_correct)\n\n def test_binarysearch_nonexistant(self):\n L2_result_iterative = binarysearch_iterative(self.L2, self.L2_target)\n L2_result_recursive = binarysearch_recursive(\n self.L2, self.L2_target, 0, len(self.L1) - 1\n )\n\n self.assertEqual(L2_result_iterative, self.L2_correct)\n self.assertEqual(L2_result_recursive, self.L2_correct)\n\n def test_binarysearch_identical(self):\n L3_result_iterative = binarysearch_iterative(self.L3, self.L3_target)\n L3_result_recursive = binarysearch_recursive(\n self.L3, self.L3_target, 0, len(self.L3) - 1\n )\n\n self.assertEqual(L3_result_iterative, self.L3_correct)\n self.assertEqual(L3_result_recursive, self.L3_correct)\n\n def test_binarysearch_lastvalue(self):\n L4_result_iterative = binarysearch_iterative(self.L4, self.L4_target)\n L4_result_recursive = binarysearch_recursive(\n self.L4, self.L4_target, 0, len(self.L4) - 1\n )\n\n self.assertEqual(L4_result_iterative, self.L4_correct)\n self.assertEqual(L4_result_recursive, self.L4_correct)\n\n def test_binarysearch_firstvalue(self):\n L5_result_iterative = binarysearch_iterative(self.L5, self.L5_target)\n L5_result_recursive = binarysearch_recursive(\n self.L5, self.L5_target, 0, len(self.L5) - 1\n )\n\n self.assertEqual(L5_result_iterative, self.L5_correct)\n self.assertEqual(L5_result_recursive, self.L5_correct)\n\n def test_binarysearch_empty(self):\n L6_result_iterative = binarysearch_iterative(self.L6, self.L6_target)\n L6_result_recursive = binarysearch_recursive(\n self.L6, self.L6_target, 0, len(self.L6) - 1\n )\n\n self.assertEqual(L6_result_iterative, self.L6_correct)\n self.assertEqual(L6_result_recursive, self.L6_correct)\n\n def test_binarysearch_standard(self):\n L7_result_iterative = binarysearch_iterative(self.L7, self.L7_target)\n L7_result_recursive = binarysearch_recursive(\n self.L7, self.L7_target, 0, len(self.L7) - 1\n )\n\n self.assertEqual(L7_result_iterative, self.L7_correct)\n self.assertEqual(L7_result_recursive, self.L7_correct)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"Running sorting tests:\")\n unittest.main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/other_tests/test_intervalscheduling.py", "content": "# Import folder where sorting algorithms\r\nimport sys\r\nimport unittest\r\n\r\n# For importing from different folders\r\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\r\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/other\")\r\n\r\n# If run from local:\r\n# sys.path.append('../../Algorithms/other')\r\n\r\nfrom interval_scheduling import interval_scheduling\r\n\r\n\r\nclass test_intervalscheduling(unittest.TestCase):\r\n def setUp(self):\r\n # test cases we wish to run\r\n self.R1 = [(0, 5), (3, 6), (5, 10)]\r\n self.R1_correct = [(0, 5), (5, 10)]\r\n\r\n self.R2 = []\r\n self.R2_correct = []\r\n\r\n self.R3 = [(0, 3), (3, 6), (6, 9), (9, 10)]\r\n self.R3_correct = [(0, 3), (3, 6), (6, 9), (9, 10)]\r\n\r\n self.R4 = [(1, 3), (0, 2), (1, 4), (2, 5)]\r\n self.R4_correct = [(0, 2), (2, 5)]\r\n\r\n self.R5 = [(0, 3)]\r\n self.R5_correct = [(0, 3)]\r\n\r\n def test_intervalscheduling_basic(self):\r\n O = []\r\n O = interval_scheduling(self.R1, O)\r\n self.assertEqual(O, self.R1_correct)\r\n\r\n def test_intervalscheduling_empty(self):\r\n O = []\r\n O = interval_scheduling(self.R2, O)\r\n self.assertEqual(O, self.R2_correct)\r\n\r\n def test_intervalscheduling_take_all(self):\r\n O = []\r\n O = interval_scheduling(self.R3, O)\r\n self.assertEqual(O, self.R3_correct)\r\n\r\n def test_intervalscheduling_unsorted(self):\r\n O = []\r\n O = interval_scheduling(self.R4, O)\r\n self.assertEqual(O, self.R4_correct)\r\n\r\n def test_intervalscheduling_one_element(self):\r\n O = []\r\n O = interval_scheduling(self.R5, O)\r\n self.assertEqual(O, self.R5_correct)\r\n\r\n\r\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\r\n print(\"Running Interval Scheduling tests:\")\r\n unittest.main()\r\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/other_tests/test_medianmaintenance.py", "content": "# Import packages\r\nimport sys\r\nimport unittest\r\n\r\n# For importing from different folders\r\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\r\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/other\")\r\n\r\n# If run from local:\r\n# sys.path.append('../../Algorithms/other')\r\n\r\nfrom median_maintenance import Maintain_Median\r\n\r\n\r\nclass MyTestCase(unittest.TestCase):\r\n def setUp(self):\r\n self.data1 = [1, 3, 8, 5, 10]\r\n self.correct1 = 5\r\n\r\n self.data2 = []\r\n self.correct2 = []\r\n\r\n self.data3 = [10]\r\n self.correct3 = 10\r\n\r\n self.data4 = [1, 2, 3, 4]\r\n self.correct4 = 2.5\r\n\r\n self.data5 = [1, 10, 2, 9, 11, 4, 6, 5, 3, 8, 7]\r\n self.correct5 = 6\r\n\r\n def test_basic(self):\r\n maintain_median = Maintain_Median()\r\n median = maintain_median.main(self.data1)\r\n self.assertEqual(median, self.correct1)\r\n\r\n def test_empty(self):\r\n maintain_median = Maintain_Median()\r\n median = maintain_median.main(self.data2)\r\n self.assertEqual(median, self.correct2)\r\n\r\n def test_single(self):\r\n maintain_median = Maintain_Median()\r\n median = maintain_median.main(self.data3)\r\n self.assertEqual(median, self.correct3)\r\n\r\n def test_even(self):\r\n maintain_median = Maintain_Median()\r\n median = maintain_median.main(self.data4)\r\n self.assertEqual(median, self.correct4)\r\n\r\n def test_longer_example(self):\r\n maintain_median = Maintain_Median()\r\n median = maintain_median.main(self.data5)\r\n self.assertEqual(median, self.correct5)\r\n\r\n\r\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\r\n unittest.main()\r\n" }, { "path": "Algorithm_tests/sorting_tests/test_sorting.py", "content": "# Import folder where sorting algorithms\nimport sys\nimport unittest\n\n# For importing from different folders\n# OBS: This is supposed to be done with automated testing, hence relative to folder we want to import from\nsys.path.append(\"Algorithms/sorting\")\n\n# If run from local:\n# sys.path.append('../../Algorithms/sorting')\n\nfrom bubblesort import bubblesort\nfrom insertionsort import insertionsort\nfrom mergesort import merge_sort, merge\nfrom quicksort import quicksort_firstpivot, quicksort_lastpivot\nfrom randomized_quicksort import quicksort_randomized\nfrom selectionsort import selectionsort\n\n# Test cases we wish to run\nL1 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]\nL1_sorted = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]\n\nL2 = [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]\nL2_sorted = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]\n\nL3 = [1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1]\nL3_sorted = [1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1]\n\nL4 = [6, 7, 3, 5, 1, 3]\nL4_sorted = [1, 3, 3, 5, 6, 7]\n\nL5 = []\nL5_sorted = []\n\nL6 = [-1, -2, -3]\nL6_sorted = [-3, -2, -1]\n\nL7 = [-5, -7, -1, -3, -4]\nL7_sorted = [-7, -5, -4, -3, -1]\n\n\nclass test_sorting(unittest.TestCase):\n def test_bubblesort(self):\n self.assertEqual(bubblesort(L1), L1_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(bubblesort(L2), L2_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(bubblesort(L3), L3_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(bubblesort(L4), L4_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(bubblesort(L5), L5_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(bubblesort(L6), L6_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(bubblesort(L7), L7_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(bubblesort(L7), L7_sorted)\n\n def test_insertionsort(self):\n self.assertEqual(insertionsort(L1), L1_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(insertionsort(L2), L2_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(insertionsort(L3), L3_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(insertionsort(L4), L4_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(insertionsort(L5), L5_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(insertionsort(L6), L6_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(insertionsort(L7), L7_sorted)\n\n def test_mergesort(self):\n self.assertEqual(merge_sort(L1), L1_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(merge_sort(L2), L2_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(merge_sort(L3), L3_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(merge_sort(L4), L4_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(merge_sort(L5), L5_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(merge_sort(L6), L6_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(merge_sort(L7), L7_sorted)\n\n def test_quicksort(self):\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_firstpivot(L1), L1_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_firstpivot(L2), L2_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_firstpivot(L3), L3_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_firstpivot(L4), L4_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_firstpivot(L5), L5_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_firstpivot(L6), L6_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_firstpivot(L7), L7_sorted)\n\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_lastpivot(L1), L1_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_lastpivot(L2), L2_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_lastpivot(L3), L3_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_lastpivot(L4), L4_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_lastpivot(L5), L5_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_lastpivot(L6), L6_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_lastpivot(L7), L7_sorted)\n\n def test_selectionsort(self):\n self.assertEqual(selectionsort(L1), L1_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(selectionsort(L2), L2_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(selectionsort(L3), L3_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(selectionsort(L4), L4_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(selectionsort(L5), L5_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(selectionsort(L6), L6_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(selectionsort(L7), L7_sorted)\n\n def test_quicksort_randomized(self):\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_randomized(L1), L1_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_randomized(L2), L2_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_randomized(L3), L3_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_randomized(L4), L4_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_randomized(L5), L5_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_randomized(L6), L6_sorted)\n self.assertEqual(quicksort_randomized(L7), L7_sorted)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"Running sorting tests:\")\n unittest.main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/cryptology/RSA_algorithm/RSA.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nPurpose of the RSA cryptosystem is to have a secure way of transmitting data\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n* 2019-08-26 Initial programming\n\n\"\"\"\n\nfrom math import gcd\nfrom sympy import isprime\nimport random\nfrom euclid_gcd import extended_euclidean\n\n\ndef generate_pq(bits):\n # Randomly generate two primes p,q\n p = random.getrandbits(bits)\n q = random.getrandbits(bits)\n\n # Check if p,q is prime\n p_isprime = isprime(p)\n q_isprime = isprime(q)\n\n # Keep generating until both are primes\n while not (p_isprime and q_isprime):\n if not p_isprime:\n p = random.getrandbits(bits)\n if not q_isprime:\n q = random.getrandbits(bits)\n\n p_isprime = isprime(p)\n q_isprime = isprime(q)\n\n return p, q\n\n\ndef generate_e(totient):\n # Generate e such that 1 < e < phi(n)\n # phi(n) in this case is totient\n\n while True:\n # Should be (2,totient) so if it is stuck in infinite loop then restart or replace 80000 -> totient\n # Reason why I want e to be a low value is to make encryption faster\n e = random.randint(2, 50000)\n\n if gcd(e, totient) == 1:\n return e\n\n\ndef generate_d(e, totient):\n _, e_inverse, _ = extended_euclidean(e, totient)\n d = e_inverse % totient\n\n return d\n\n\ndef generate_all_values():\n num_bits = 1024\n p, q = generate_pq(num_bits)\n totient = (p - 1) * (q - 1)\n e = generate_e(totient)\n d = generate_d(e, totient)\n\n print(\"Generated value n: \" + str(p * q))\n print(\"Generated e and d: \" + str(e) + \" and \" + str(d))\n\n return p * q, e, d\n\n\ndef encrypt(message, n, e):\n encrypted = \"\"\n for letter in message:\n pad = 3 - len(str(ord(letter)))\n\n if pad > 0:\n new_letter = \"0\" * pad + str(ord(letter))\n else:\n new_letter = ord(letter)\n\n encrypted += str(new_letter)\n\n encrypted = pow(int(encrypted), e, n)\n return encrypted\n\n\ndef decrypt(encrypted, n, d):\n decrypted_message = \"\"\n decrypted_code = str(pow(encrypted, d, n))\n\n if len(decrypted_code) % 3 != 0:\n decrypted_code = \"0\" + decrypted_code\n\n while len(decrypted_code):\n decrypted_message += chr(int(decrypted_code[0:3]))\n decrypted_code = decrypted_code[3:]\n\n return decrypted_message\n\n\ndef example():\n # An example of a test case where we generate all necessary primes, encrypt and then decrypt the message.\n # Only to show how all parts of the code is working. This is not how it's going to be used in practice.\n hidden_message = \"i really love peanuts\"\n n, e, d = generate_all_values()\n encrypted_message = encrypt(hidden_message, n, e)\n decrypted_message = decrypt(encrypted_message, n, d)\n\n print(\"\\n\")\n print(\"Original message: \" + hidden_message)\n print(\"Encrypted message: \" + str(encrypted_message))\n print(\"Decrypted message: \" + decrypted_message)\n\n\ndef main():\n # Write the values of your RSA encryption (Note: Never give the 'd' to someone that doesn't want it)\n n = 354089397494626050014776605732143027269473328409397973403863001639624332101789181044818951483060155060788030618162673282176493895463414816015601230408140046833172059490430968956729878861381343553446553025440156523477822105773362480000716985478565013956749662865189691539813391686696182702224364834273144673717742246537383454469146642154754778836797926780437490677663302034284308892191362266103193070200405420180296005388479418941723827243187899338980201782128797489464650981164232057548015010630986959083998487019465357524040595865260220030689502065850060761344148196291328192760801074939658292752592564874822996765430361631210613041006858858506787439506504448316606509551260553919757840169593791152166515571202450662850988377002989153080277915454500432640601643512909764636398157415600050468972065216354878984114648007494687081718749734915103155014825420081658864982423629447913147575382146725524407739875786801876011026010419782863232303861065841801863420557617962438178979549855959377311548527613240676904989886382444381261628076009466895878852398923237601309285642954207693266358989851324012643315688180744573155217352955083176785543099571257338683938756048920161738393295253775030232399282686809347027784971441882883201432807953\n e = 9361\n # d =\n\n enc_or_dec = input(\n \"Would you like to encrypt or decrypt a message (input: 'enc' or 'dec'): \"\n )\n\n if enc_or_dec.lower() == \"enc\":\n hidden_message = input(\"What is your hidden message?: \")\n print(\"Encrypted message: \" + str(encrypt(hidden_message, n, e)))\n\n elif enc_or_dec.lower() == \"dec\":\n encrypted = input(\"What is your encrypted message?: \")\n print(encrypted)\n print(\"Decrypted message: \" + str(decrypt(int(encrypted), n, d)))\n\n else:\n print(\"Not sure what you typed\")\n\n\nmain()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/cryptology/RSA_algorithm/euclid_gcd.py", "content": "\"\"\"\n\n\n\"\"\"\n\nimport sys\n\nsys.setrecursionlimit(100000)\n\n\ndef extended_euclidean(a, b):\n if a == 0:\n return (b, 0, 1)\n\n else:\n gcd, x, y = extended_euclidean(b % a, a)\n return (gcd, y - (b // a) * x, x)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(extended_euclidean(5, -2772))\n # print(extended_euclidean(13, 2640))\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/cryptology/ceasar_shifting_cipher/ceasar_shift_cipher.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nThe Ceasar cipher is one of the simplest and one of the earliest known ciphers.\nIt is a type of substitution cipher that 'shifts' a letter by a fixed amount in the alphabet.\n\nFor example with a shift = 3:\na -> d\nb -> e\n.\n.\n.\nz -> c\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n* 2019-11-07 Initial programming\n\n\"\"\"\n\n# This alphabet is of 27 letters since I included a space, but normally it is of 26 letters.\n# If you wish to include more letters you need to expand the alphabet used. For example you cannot use '!', '@' now.\nalphabet = \"abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz \"\nletter_to_index = dict(zip(alphabet, range(len(alphabet))))\nindex_to_letter = dict(zip(range(len(alphabet)), alphabet))\n\n\ndef encrypt(message, shift=3):\n cipher = \"\"\n\n for letter in message:\n number = (letter_to_index[letter] + shift) % len(letter_to_index)\n letter = index_to_letter[number]\n cipher += letter\n\n return cipher\n\n\ndef decrypt(cipher, shift=3):\n decrypted = \"\"\n\n for letter in cipher:\n number = (letter_to_index[letter] - shift) % len(letter_to_index)\n letter = index_to_letter[number]\n decrypted += letter\n\n return decrypted\n\n\n# def main():\n# message = 'attackatnoon'\n# cipher = encrypt(message, shift=3)\n# decrypted = decrypt(cipher, shift=3)\n#\n# print('Original message: ' + message)\n# print('Encrypted message: ' + cipher)\n# print('Decrypted message: ' + decrypted)\n#\n# main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/cryptology/hill_cipher/hill_cipher.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nImplementation of Hill Cipher!\n\nImportant notation:\nK = Matrix which is our 'Secret Key'\nP = Vector of plaintext (that has been mapped to numbers)\nC = Vector of Ciphered text (in numbers)\n\nC = E(K,P) = K*P (mod X) -- X is length of alphabet used\nP = D(K,C) = inv(K)*C (mod X) -- X is length of alphabet used\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n* 2019-11-09 Initial programming\n\"\"\"\n\nimport numpy as np\nfrom egcd import egcd # pip install egcd\n\nalphabet = \"abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz\"\n\nletter_to_index = dict(zip(alphabet, range(len(alphabet))))\nindex_to_letter = dict(zip(range(len(alphabet)), alphabet))\n\n\ndef matrix_mod_inv(matrix, modulus):\n \"\"\"We find the matrix modulus inverse by\n Step 1) Find determinant\n Step 2) Find determinant value in a specific modulus (usually length of alphabet)\n Step 3) Take that det_inv times the det*inverted matrix (this will then be the adjoint) in mod 26\n \"\"\"\n\n det = int(np.round(np.linalg.det(matrix))) # Step 1)\n det_inv = egcd(det, modulus)[1] % modulus # Step 2)\n matrix_modulus_inv = (\n det_inv * np.round(det * np.linalg.inv(matrix)).astype(int) % modulus\n ) # Step 3)\n\n return matrix_modulus_inv\n\n\ndef encrypt(message, K):\n encrypted = \"\"\n message_in_numbers = []\n\n for letter in message:\n message_in_numbers.append(letter_to_index[letter])\n\n split_P = [\n message_in_numbers[i : i + int(K.shape[0])]\n for i in range(0, len(message_in_numbers), int(K.shape[0]))\n ]\n\n for P in split_P:\n P = np.transpose(np.asarray(P))[:, np.newaxis]\n\n while P.shape[0] != K.shape[0]:\n P = np.append(P, letter_to_index[\" \"])[:, np.newaxis]\n\n numbers = np.dot(K, P) % len(alphabet)\n n = numbers.shape[0] # length of encrypted message (in numbers)\n\n # Map back to get encrypted text\n for idx in range(n):\n number = int(numbers[idx, 0])\n encrypted += index_to_letter[number]\n\n return encrypted\n\n\ndef decrypt(cipher, Kinv):\n decrypted = \"\"\n cipher_in_numbers = []\n\n for letter in cipher:\n cipher_in_numbers.append(letter_to_index[letter])\n\n split_C = [\n cipher_in_numbers[i : i + int(Kinv.shape[0])]\n for i in range(0, len(cipher_in_numbers), int(Kinv.shape[0]))\n ]\n\n for C in split_C:\n C = np.transpose(np.asarray(C))[:, np.newaxis]\n numbers = np.dot(Kinv, C) % len(alphabet)\n n = numbers.shape[0]\n\n for idx in range(n):\n number = int(numbers[idx, 0])\n decrypted += index_to_letter[number]\n\n return decrypted\n\n\ndef main():\n # message = 'my life is potato'\n message = \"help\"\n\n K = np.matrix([[3, 3], [2, 5]])\n # K = np.matrix([[6, 24, 1], [13,16,10], [20,17,15]]) # for length of alphabet = 26\n # K = np.matrix([[3,10,20],[20,19,17], [23,78,17]]) # for length of alphabet = 27\n Kinv = matrix_mod_inv(K, len(alphabet))\n\n encrypted_message = encrypt(message, K)\n decrypted_message = decrypt(encrypted_message, Kinv)\n\n print(\"Original message: \" + message)\n print(\"Encrypted message: \" + encrypted_message)\n print(\"Decrypted message: \" + decrypted_message)\n\n\nmain()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/cryptology/one_time_pad/one_time_pad.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nImplementation of the famous one time pad / Vernam Cipher\n\nIn practice we need a way to generate random keys which I havn't included.\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n* 2019-11-12 Initial programming\n\n\"\"\"\n\n\ndef xor(s1, s2):\n xor_result = []\n\n for i in range(min(len(s1), len(s2))):\n xor_result.append(int(s1[i]) ^ int(s2[i])) # xor\n\n return xor_result\n\n\ndef encrypt(message, key):\n binary_message = \"\"\n binary_key = \"\"\n ciphered_text = \"\"\n\n for letter in message:\n binary_message += format(ord(letter), \"b\")\n\n for letter in key:\n binary_key += format(ord(letter), \"b\")\n\n cipher_binary = xor(binary_message, binary_key)\n\n return \"\".join(str(e) for e in cipher_binary)\n\n\ndef decrypt(cipher_text, key):\n binary_key = \"\"\n decrypted_text = \"\"\n\n for letter in key:\n binary_key += format(ord(letter), \"b\")\n\n binary_message = xor(cipher_text, binary_key)\n\n for i in range(0, len(binary_message), 7):\n letter = \"\".join(str(e) for e in binary_message[i : i + 7])\n decrypted_text += chr(int(letter, 2))\n\n return decrypted_text\n\n\ndef main():\n message = \"cheesecake\" # 'secret' message\n key = \"randomrandomrandom\" #'random' key\n\n encrypted = encrypt(message, key)\n decrypted = decrypt(encrypted, key)\n\n print(\"Original message: \" + str(message))\n print(\"Encrypted message (in binary): \" + str(encrypted))\n print(\"Decrypted message: \" + str(decrypted))\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/cryptology/vigenere_cipher/vigenere.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nVigenère cipher is one of the simplest that employs a form of polyalphabetic substitution (each letter is assigned\nmore than one substitute).\n\nIt was first described in 1553 but took an entire three centuries to break it in 1863.\n\nWeakness: If someone finds key length then this can be broken.\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n* 2019-11-07 Initial programming\n\n\"\"\"\n\n\nalphabet = \"abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz \"\n\nletter_to_index = dict(zip(alphabet, range(len(alphabet))))\nindex_to_letter = dict(zip(range(len(alphabet)), alphabet))\n\n\ndef encrypt(message, key):\n encrypted = \"\"\n split_message = [\n message[i : i + len(key)] for i in range(0, len(message), len(key))\n ]\n\n for each_split in split_message:\n i = 0\n for letter in each_split:\n number = (letter_to_index[letter] + letter_to_index[key[i]]) % len(alphabet)\n encrypted += index_to_letter[number]\n i += 1\n\n return encrypted\n\n\ndef decrypt(cipher, key):\n decrypted = \"\"\n split_encrypted = [\n cipher[i : i + len(key)] for i in range(0, len(cipher), len(key))\n ]\n\n for each_split in split_encrypted:\n i = 0\n for letter in each_split:\n number = (letter_to_index[letter] - letter_to_index[key[i]]) % len(alphabet)\n decrypted += index_to_letter[number]\n i += 1\n\n return decrypted\n\n\ndef main():\n message = \"i loove peanuts\"\n key = \"banana\"\n encrypted_message = encrypt(message, key)\n decrypted_message = decrypt(encrypted_message, key)\n\n print(\"Original message: \" + message)\n print(\"Encrypted message: \" + encrypted_message)\n print(\"Decrypted message: \" + decrypted_message)\n\n\nmain()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/dynamic_programming/knapsack/knapsack_bottomup.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nPurpose is if having a bunch of items with a weight and corresponding value to each object.\nWhich collection of objects should we choose such that we maximize the value restricted to\na specific capacity of weight. Bottom up implementation of Knapsack (using loops)\n\nTime Complexity: O(nC), pseudo-polynomial\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n 2020-02-15 Initial programming\n\"\"\"\n\n\ndef find_opt(i, c, M, values, items, weights):\n if i <= 0 or c <= 0:\n return items\n\n if (M[i - 1][c] >= (values[i - 1] + M[i - 1][c - weights[i - 1]])) or (\n c - weights[i - 1]\n ) < 0:\n find_opt(i - 1, c, M, values, items, weights)\n\n else:\n items.append(i - 1)\n find_opt(i - 1, c - weights[i - 1], M, values, items, weights)\n\n\ndef knapsack(n, C, weights, values):\n # Initialization of matrix of size (n*W)\n M = [[None for i in range(C + 1)] for j in range(len(values) + 1)]\n\n for c in range(C + 1):\n M[0][c] = 0\n\n for i in range(len(weights) + 1):\n M[i][0] = 0\n\n for i in range(1, n + 1):\n for c in range(1, C + 1):\n # If current weight exceeds capacity then we cannot take it\n if weights[i - 1] > c:\n M[i][c] = M[i - 1][c]\n\n # Else we can take it, then find what gives us the optimal value, either\n # taking it or not taking it and we consider what gives us max value of those\n else:\n M[i][c] = max(M[i - 1][c], values[i - 1] + M[i - 1][c - weights[i - 1]])\n items = []\n\n find_opt(n, C, M, values, items, weights)\n\n return M[n][C], items[::-1]\n\n\n# if __name__ == '__main__':\n# # Run small example\n# weights = [1,2,4,2,5]\n# values = [5,3,5,3,2]\n# n = len(weights)\n# capacity = 3\n# total_value, items = knapsack(n, capacity, weights, values)\n# print('Items at the end: ' + str(items))\n# print('With total value: ' + str(total_value))\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/dynamic_programming/knapsack/knapsack_memoization_recursive_topdown.py", "content": "# Memoization implementation Knapsack\n\n# Purpose is if having a bunch of items with a weight and corresponding value to each object.\n# Which collection of objects should we choose such that we maximize the value restricted to\n# a specific capacity of weight\n\n# Programmed by Aladdin Persson \n# 2019-02-28 Initial programming\n# 2019-03-04 Made code cleaner and included a tracking of which items to choose\n\n\ndef knapsack(n, C, W, v, items, arr):\n # if n == 0 we cannot index further (since we look at n-1), further if we have no more capacity\n # then we cannot obtain more objects\n if n == 0 or C == 0:\n return 0, []\n\n elif arr[n - 1][C - 1] != None:\n return arr[n - 1][C - 1], items\n\n # If the weight is higher than our capacity then we can't pick it\n elif W[n - 1] > C:\n result, items = knapsack(n - 1, C, W, v, items, arr)\n\n # Recursively search through all choices\n else:\n tmp1, items1 = knapsack(n - 1, C, W, v, items, arr) # exclude item\n tmp2, items2 = knapsack(n - 1, C - W[n - 1], W, v, items, arr) # include item\n\n items = items2 + [n - 1] if (tmp2 + v[n - 1] > tmp1) else items1\n\n result = max(tmp1, tmp2 + v[n - 1])\n\n arr[n - 1][C - 1] = result\n\n return result, items\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n # Run a small example\n weight = [1, 2, 4, 2, 5]\n value = [5, 3, 5, 3, 2]\n num_objects = len(weight)\n capacity = 3\n\n arr = [[None for i in range(capacity)] for j in range(num_objects)]\n\n total_val_and_items = knapsack(num_objects, capacity, weight, value, [])\n print(total_val_and_items)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/dynamic_programming/knapsack/knapsack_naive_recursive.py", "content": "# \"Naive\" Implementation of the knapsack problem\n\n# Purpose is if having a bunch of items with a weight and corresponding value to each object.\n# Which collection of objects should we choose such that we maximize the value restricted to\n# a specific capacity of weight?\n\n# Programmed by Aladdin Persson \n# 2019-02-28 Initial programming\n# 2019-03-04 Cleaned up code and included a tracking of which items to choose\n\n\ndef knapsack(n, C, W, v, items):\n # if n == 0 we cannot index further (since we look at n-1), further if we have no more capacity\n # then we cannot obtain more objects\n if n == 0 or C == 0:\n return 0, []\n\n # If the weight is higher than our capacity then we can't pick it\n elif W[n - 1] > C:\n result, items = knapsack(n - 1, C, W, v, items)\n\n # Recursively search through all choices\n else:\n tmp1, items1 = knapsack(n - 1, C, W, v, items) # exclude item\n tmp2, items2 = knapsack(n - 1, C - W[n - 1], W, v, items) # include item\n\n items = items2 + [n - 1] if (tmp2 + v[n - 1] > tmp1) else items1\n\n result = max(tmp1, tmp2 + v[n - 1])\n\n return result, items\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n # Run small example\n weight = [1, 2, 4, 2, 5]\n value = [5, 3, 5, 3, 2]\n num_objects = len(weight)\n capacity = 3\n\n arr = [[None for i in range(capacity)] for j in range(num_objects)]\n\n total_val_and_items = knapsack(num_objects, capacity, weight, value, [])\n print(total_val_and_items) # items = []\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/dynamic_programming/longest_increasing_subsequence.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nO(n^2) algorithm, can be faster and done in O(nlogn), but this works ok.\nTo do: Create extensive test cases before adding to algorithm list.\n\n\"\"\"\n\n\ndef longest_increasing_subsequence(nums):\n if len(nums) == 0:\n return 0\n\n OPT = [1 for i in range(len(nums))]\n\n for i in range(1, len(nums)):\n for j in range(0, i):\n if nums[j] < nums[i] and OPT[j] + 1 > OPT[i]:\n OPT[i] = OPT[j] + 1\n\n return max(OPT)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n # test1 = [1,5,-2,10, 50, -10, 10, 1,2,3,4]\n test2 = [10, 1, 2, 11, 3, 5]\n # test3 = [10,9,8,5,3,2,1,2,3]\n # test4 = [1,5,2,3,4,5,6]\n test5 = []\n\n print(test2)\n print(longest_increasing_subsequence(test2))\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/dynamic_programming/sequence_alignment.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nAlgorithm for solving sequence alignment\nInput strings x,y of len(x) = m, len(y) = n and find minimum number of\nedit steps and the specific steps to transform x into y.\n\nTime Complexity: O(nm)\n\nVideo of algorithm explanation: https://youtu.be/bQ7kRW6zo9Y\nVideo of code explanation: https://youtu.be/XmyxiSc3LKg\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n 2020-02-15 Initial coding\n 2020-02-16 Improved find_solution and made code cleaner\n 2020-03-13 There was an error in the code in function find_solution,\n I was working with list indexing as if it was a matrix.\n Should be working now. Extensive testing would be good.\n\n 2020-03-28 Cleaned up code by making SequenceAlignment into class\n\"\"\"\n\n\nclass SequenceAlignment(object):\n def __init__(self, x, y):\n self.x = x\n self.y = y\n self.solution = []\n\n delta = lambda self, x, y, i, j: 1 if x[i] != y[j] else 0\n\n def find_solution(self, OPT, m, n):\n if m == 0 and n == 0:\n return\n\n # We can only do insert if n != 0, align if there are element in both x, y, etc.\n insert = OPT[m][n - 1] + 1 if n != 0 else float(\"inf\")\n align = (\n OPT[m - 1][n - 1] + self.delta(self.x, self.y, m - 1, n - 1)\n if m != 0 and n != 0\n else float(\"inf\")\n )\n delete = OPT[m - 1][n] + 1 if m != 0 else float(\"inf\")\n\n best_choice = min(insert, align, delete)\n\n if best_choice == insert:\n self.solution.append(\"insert_\" + str(self.y[n - 1]))\n return self.find_solution(OPT, m, n - 1)\n\n elif best_choice == align:\n self.solution.append(\"align_\" + str(self.y[n - 1]))\n return self.find_solution(OPT, m - 1, n - 1)\n\n elif best_choice == delete:\n self.solution.append(\"remove_\" + str(self.x[m - 1]))\n return self.find_solution(OPT, m - 1, n)\n\n def alignment(self):\n n = len(self.y)\n m = len(self.x)\n OPT = [[0 for i in range(n + 1)] for j in range(m + 1)]\n\n for i in range(1, m + 1):\n OPT[i][0] = i\n\n for j in range(1, n + 1):\n OPT[0][j] = j\n\n for i in range(1, m + 1):\n for j in range(1, n + 1):\n OPT[i][j] = min(\n OPT[i - 1][j - 1] + self.delta(self.x, self.y, i - 1, j - 1),\n OPT[i - 1][j] + 1,\n OPT[i][j - 1] + 1,\n ) # align, delete, insert respectively\n\n self.find_solution(OPT, m, n)\n\n return (OPT[m][n], self.solution[::-1])\n\n\n# if __name__ == '__main__':\n# x = 'TGACGTGC'\n# y = 'TCGACGTCA'\n# print('We we want to transform: ' + x + ' to: ' + y)\n# sqalign = SequenceAlignment(x, y)\n# min_edit, steps = sqalign.alignment()\n# print('Minimum amount of edit steps are: ' + str(min_edit))\n# print('And the way to do it is: ' + str(steps))\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/dynamic_programming/weighted_interval_scheduling.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nWeighted Interval Scheduling\nExplained YouTube video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIX1YvbLbvc\nImplementation walkthrough video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dU-coYsd7zw\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n 2020-02-13 Initial programming\n 2020-03-28 Cleaned up code by making WeightedIntervalScheduling class\n\nTime complexity: O(nlogn)\n\"\"\"\n\nimport bisect\n\n\nclass WeightedIntervalScheduling(object):\n def __init__(self, I):\n self.I = sorted(I, key=lambda tup: tup[1]) # (key = lambda tup : tup[1])\n self.OPT = []\n self.solution = []\n\n def previous_intervals(self):\n start = [task[0] for task in self.I]\n finish = [task[1] for task in self.I]\n p = []\n\n for i in range(len(self.I)):\n # finds idx for which to input start[i] in finish times to still be sorted\n idx = bisect.bisect(finish, start[i]) - 1\n p.append(idx)\n\n return p\n\n def find_solution(self, j):\n if j == -1:\n return\n\n else:\n if (self.I[j][2] + self.compute_opt(self.p[j])) > self.compute_opt(j - 1):\n self.solution.append(self.I[j])\n self.find_solution(self.p[j])\n\n else:\n self.find_solution(j - 1)\n\n def compute_opt(self, j):\n if j == -1:\n return 0\n\n elif (0 <= j) and (j < len(self.OPT)):\n return self.OPT[j]\n\n else:\n return max(\n self.I[j][2] + self.compute_opt(self.p[j]), self.compute_opt(j - 1)\n )\n\n def weighted_interval(self):\n if len(self.I) == 0:\n return 0, self.solution\n\n self.p = self.previous_intervals()\n\n for j in range(len(self.I)):\n opt_j = self.compute_opt(j)\n self.OPT.append(opt_j)\n\n self.find_solution(len(self.I) - 1)\n\n return self.OPT[-1], self.solution[::-1]\n\n\n# Small Example\n# if __name__ == '__main__':\n# # They are labeled as: (start, end, weight)\n# t1 = (0,3,3)\n# t2 = (1,4,2)\n# t3 = (0,5,4)\n# t4 = (3,6,1)\n# t5 = (4,7,2)\n# t6 = (3,9,5)\n# t7 = (5,10,2)\n# t8 = (8,10,1)\n# I = [t1,t2,t3,t4,t5,t6,t7,t8]\n# weightedinterval = WeightedIntervalScheduling(I)\n# max_weight, best_intervals = weightedinterval.weighted_interval()\n# print('Maximum weight: ' + str(max_weight))\n# print('The best items to take are: ' + str(best_intervals))\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/bellman-ford/bellman_ford.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nPurpose is to find the shortest path between one source node to all other nodes using Bellman-Ford Algorithm.\nThe difference between Dijkstra and this is that this can handle negative edges. We do pay for this as it is\na lot slower than Dijkstra.\n\nTime Complexity: O(mn)\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n 2019-03-04 Initial programming\n\"\"\"\n\n\ndef bellman_ford(G, start):\n \"\"\"\n :param G: {from_node1: {to_node1, cost1, to_node2, cost2}, from_node2: {etc}}\n :param start: node to start from\n \"\"\"\n\n if len(G) == 0:\n raise ValueError(\"There should be something in the graph\")\n\n # step1: initialize by setting to infinity etc.\n shortest_distance = {}\n predecessor = {}\n infinity = float(\"inf\")\n\n for node in G:\n shortest_distance[node] = infinity\n\n shortest_distance[start] = 0\n num_vertices = len(G)\n\n # step2: relax edges\n for _ in range(num_vertices - 1):\n for from_node in G:\n for to_node, weight in G[from_node].items():\n if shortest_distance[from_node] + weight < shortest_distance[to_node]:\n shortest_distance[to_node] = shortest_distance[from_node] + weight\n predecessor[to_node] = from_node\n\n # step3: check neg. cycles\n for from_node in G:\n for to_node, weight in G[from_node].items():\n if shortest_distance[from_node] + weight < shortest_distance[to_node]:\n shortest_distance[to_node] = -infinity\n\n return shortest_distance, predecessor\n\n\n# if __name__ == '__main__':\n# G = {1: {2: -10, 3: 20},\n# 2: {4: 40},\n# 3: {4: 5},\n# 4: {}}\n#\n# print(f'Current graph is: {G}')\n# shortest, predecessor = bellman_ford(G, 1)\n# print(shortest)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/bellman-ford/data.txt", "content": "1\t80,982\t163,8164\t170,2620\t145,648\t200,8021\t173,2069\t92,647\t26,4122\t140,546\t11,1913\t160,6461\t27,7905\t40,9047\t150,2183\t61,9146\t159,7420\t198,1724\t114,508\t104,6647\t30,4612\t99,2367\t138,7896\t169,8700\t49,2437\t125,2909\t117,2597\t55,6399\t\n2\t42,1689\t127,9365\t5,8026\t170,9342\t131,7005\t172,1438\t34,315\t30,2455\t26,2328\t6,8847\t11,1873\t17,5409\t157,8643\t159,1397\t142,7731\t182,7908\t93,8177\t\n3\t57,1239\t101,3381\t43,7313\t41,7212\t91,2483\t31,3031\t167,3877\t106,6521\t76,7729\t122,9640\t144,285\t44,2165\t6,9006\t177,7097\t119,7711\t\n4\t162,3924\t70,5285\t195,2490\t72,6508\t126,2625\t121,7639\t31,399\t118,3626\t90,9446\t127,6808\t135,7582\t159,6133\t106,4769\t52,9267\t190,7536\t78,8058\t75,7044\t116,6771\t49,619\t107,4383\t89,6363\t54,313\t\n5\t200,4009\t112,1522\t25,3496\t23,9432\t64,7836\t56,8262\t120,1862\t2,8026\t90,8919\t142,1195\t81,2469\t182,8806\t17,2514\t83,8407\t146,5308\t147,1087\t51,22\t\n6\t141,8200\t98,5594\t66,6627\t159,9500\t143,3110\t129,8525\t118,8547\t88,2039\t83,4949\t165,6473\t162,6897\t184,8021\t123,13\t176,3512\t195,2233\t42,7265\t47,274\t132,1514\t2,8847\t171,3722\t3,9006\t\n7\t156,7027\t187,9522\t87,4976\t121,8739\t56,6616\t10,2904\t71,8206\t53,179\t146,4823\t165,6019\t125,5670\t27,4888\t63,9920\t150,9031\t84,4061\t\n8\t152,1257\t189,2780\t58,4708\t26,8342\t199,1918\t31,3987\t35,3160\t71,5829\t27,3483\t69,8815\t130,55\t168,2076\t122,5338\t73,4528\t28,9996\t17,3535\t40,3193\t72,7308\t24,8434\t87,2833\t25,3949\t175,1022\t177,8508\t\n9\t152,1087\t115,7827\t17,7002\t72,794\t150,4539\t190,3613\t95,9480\t36,5284\t166,8702\t63,1753\t199,70\t131,700\t76,9340\t70,2\t139,8701\t140,4163\t180,5995\t\n10\t57,9988\t78,3771\t62,4816\t137,5273\t7,2904\t187,4786\t184,3207\t96,807\t31,1184\t88,2539\t135,4650\t168,9495\t164,3866\t11,8988\t116,1493\t51,5578\t171,2029\t\n11\t1,1913\t185,2045\t77,815\t22,8425\t181,8448\t47,8727\t81,7299\t150,4802\t178,1696\t28,2275\t183,594\t131,833\t157,8497\t25,5057\t59,3203\t10,8988\t2,1873\t134,294\t83,4211\t124,6180\t\n12\t78,5753\t17,4602\t62,5676\t16,8068\t60,5933\t67,371\t71,6734\t53,7001\t72,3626\t34,6690\t59,761\t18,1520\t128,7542\t38,6699\t57,9416\t\n13\t144,9987\t59,9801\t97,7026\t50,758\t43,5400\t163,3870\t178,4194\t151,9629\t45,1794\t105,6821\t29,2784\t172,2070\t57,6850\t77,8638\t135,861\t\n14\t149,4352\t187,4874\t26,3841\t128,9662\t155,4446\t118,373\t123,2733\t106,7912\t169,4333\t53,9197\t161,4275\t126,9602\t73,4106\t160,7860\t131,358\t141,4477\t119,960\t43,3199\t47,7898\t175,6718\t177,6741\t60,2464\t127,5682\t31,1945\t143,5848\t94,3551\t82,3283\t\n15\t42,1789\t22,3571\t25,7019\t163,818\t56,2334\t100,809\t143,1041\t107,4589\t190,6854\t169,7485\t94,9606\t34,7961\t54,8983\t157,2136\t24,8040\t\n16\t200,2848\t198,2223\t92,2896\t18,8663\t27,8673\t75,4116\t150,1680\t36,1555\t41,2747\t90,4558\t68,5894\t12,8068\t42,2596\t185,6280\t171,3482\t109,1469\t127,9807\t178,1714\t35,839\t56,9828\t134,5203\t55,6680\t110,4252\t\n17\t26,1275\t45,5114\t142,8016\t83,4615\t140,6440\t8,3535\t69,3610\t153,8545\t9,7002\t12,4602\t173,7312\t114,8915\t108,1942\t54,3115\t66,6176\t190,7000\t70,3899\t5,2514\t178,7464\t166,4762\t2,5409\t146,5362\t117,6266\t\n18\t57,4216\t80,5252\t86,7517\t62,1926\t120,44\t173,7256\t133,2702\t148,589\t167,7625\t16,8663\t170,4989\t118,6388\t142,332\t95,6122\t99,5717\t154,453\t150,5150\t149,2664\t146,9000\t171,4403\t111,785\t12,1520\t\n19\t33,6938\t77,7013\t187,107\t109,8397\t88,2002\t95,8691\t132,3157\t195,5038\t154,4320\t23,8560\t152,9751\t185,5896\t119,7406\t160,3997\t80,62\t\n20\t66,2667\t173,2676\t43,8105\t135,6434\t33,6387\t74,6183\t106,8785\t75,2484\t130,9048\t56,7194\t50,9507\t88,3014\t124,392\t61,2580\t90,7372\t92,1704\t87,2639\t154,2398\t41,4203\t85,1435\t169,5990\t166,6086\t28,2234\t145,8099\t\n21\t23,5183\t40,2199\t31,2556\t71,4986\t165,2151\t193,494\t154,1845\t111,3060\t85,2880\t101,2775\t182,2447\t80,9884\t87,2681\t102,6643\t131,3748\t\n22\t92,5592\t64,4257\t11,8425\t24,594\t15,3571\t42,3783\t41,1374\t114,9960\t144,9362\t146,3620\t71,3243\t143,8603\t131,6075\t192,4606\t108,9656\t168,4356\t177,8713\t132,1560\t\n23\t143,7543\t161,6863\t45,8074\t165,208\t21,5183\t118,5079\t40,8336\t27,9054\t112,3201\t135,4560\t167,2133\t188,4236\t166,8077\t195,3179\t48,4485\t137,7591\t99,6485\t5,9432\t71,3316\t96,2431\t125,922\t19,8560\t\n24\t141,6862\t197,9337\t66,5879\t59,6941\t70,4670\t55,4106\t103,8083\t61,7906\t48,7959\t151,784\t177,393\t102,8731\t199,2838\t73,3509\t8,8434\t187,9327\t22,594\t150,5669\t164,7312\t157,9540\t15,8040\t\n25\t115,9233\t197,3875\t185,3573\t72,2332\t104,4899\t137,5378\t8,3949\t5,3496\t77,2729\t136,9251\t143,108\t83,9569\t15,7019\t48,3214\t155,3242\t153,2477\t129,3005\t132,219\t11,5057\t37,1591\t68,4188\t\n26\t14,3841\t8,8342\t1,4122\t147,5759\t113,5553\t157,7\t65,9434\t116,4221\t66,2747\t138,7027\t145,6697\t130,5706\t60,701\t127,9896\t136,7200\t17,1275\t120,5788\t175,6165\t70,9252\t95,36\t106,6940\t2,2328\t96,425\t51,9329\t183,4842\t196,6754\t\n27\t23,9054\t78,3066\t8,3483\t1,7905\t152,2124\t108,9929\t63,389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6,2860\t27,5918\t188,892\t169,7498\t178,6589\t125,9932\t76,5683\t117,7762\t54,6261\t140,5446\t\n139\t197,1386\t98,1235\t92,6763\t181,5456\t176,8186\t182,2354\t133,4719\t158,3451\t196,3988\t73,4428\t90,7846\t155,2100\t194,6966\t69,9030\t94,7116\t127,2526\t162,4510\t9,8701\t37,8208\t\n140\t1,546\t17,6440\t97,6527\t158,4029\t151,5289\t68,9624\t138,5446\t43,4482\t169,2230\t9,4163\t155,5001\t188,6223\t102,6370\t166,9829\t65,5376\t\n141\t154,3188\t68,3540\t106,674\t79,7918\t104,8162\t24,6862\t63,5607\t6,8200\t75,9237\t150,2634\t124,168\t14,4477\t112,130\t164,6499\t198,2621\t114,6388\t185,6820\t59,9126\t64,158\t137,7872\t81,4032\t76,1969\t48,7941\t\n142\t66,777\t17,8016\t104,6236\t18,332\t47,5297\t81,424\t91,9164\t150,2598\t5,1195\t34,7791\t155,6613\t169,7506\t86,1663\t100,2994\t190,8070\t2,7731\t71,6038\t145,5378\t37,6433\t\n143\t23,7543\t6,3110\t22,8603\t108,972\t25,108\t81,9810\t43,1171\t186,8430\t14,5848\t129,8021\t101,4042\t76,1079\t98,4300\t155,2442\t177,3884\t36,5111\t153,9940\t96,9274\t15,1041\t176,5062\t\n144\t115,3825\t173,8693\t29,6452\t98,7198\t68,2277\t195,652\t102,7884\t30,1616\t111,5456\t33,4841\t13,9987\t44,2276\t86,8808\t148,3617\t35,3087\t40,7772\t101,3619\t22,9362\t184,5222\t135,6396\t90,6223\t3,285\t100,6605\t\n145\t200,2753\t1,648\t136,1769\t26,6697\t64,2685\t174,7252\t47,9483\t108,521\t44,2888\t123,8804\t71,6127\t142,5378\t20,8099\t78,7244\t110,6099\t100,5512\t55,3342\t\n146\t115,9828\t22,3620\t47,2959\t60,2317\t5,5308\t127,8151\t7,4823\t134,9556\t18,9000\t31,2837\t17,5362\t68,3895\t72,4264\t188,5715\t167,52\t107,7862\t38,4400\t\n147\t26,5759\t59,2651\t163,7221\t95,1278\t132,2847\t124,9014\t5,1087\t34,9758\t96,6736\t38,8391\t41,1858\t167,5546\t130,9251\t149,6379\t58,2267\t93,7807\t\n148\t160,3995\t144,3617\t185,2814\t64,6419\t18,589\t30,4760\t173,6725\t179,6374\t70,7231\t155,6603\t122,3230\t192,4834\t36,9550\t121,8115\t29,3252\t\n149\t14,4352\t59,2405\t188,1003\t163,9897\t70,2366\t83,6823\t187,9580\t174,2824\t73,5233\t112,8736\t55,3088\t18,2664\t176,2255\t190,3755\t180,3407\t147,6379\t\n150\t141,2634\t1,2183\t16,1680\t41,7278\t36,116\t135,9732\t11,4802\t98,2093\t58,4857\t142,2598\t73,8061\t9,4539\t18,5150\t24,5669\t52,634\t190,5243\t88,6770\t53,662\t7,9031\t93,9213\t\n151\t80,6728\t156,6169\t24,784\t27,5915\t174,1846\t168,9216\t99,4990\t88,2295\t178,5979\t96,5643\t83,162\t13,9629\t140,5289\t189,9732\t163,3624\t\n152\t161,6939\t58,5877\t48,5835\t9,1087\t8,1257\t46,9550\t189,8140\t199,2697\t109,2743\t65,3595\t186,2075\t115,4383\t50,5767\t193,5444\t90,4427\t80,9606\t114,9627\t62,7404\t79,6519\t27,2124\t111,1940\t19,9751\t93,6543\t\n153\t17,8545\t99,4560\t70,6532\t164,8748\t29,5446\t25,2477\t72,541\t143,9940\t173,7613\t77,4483\t50,4905\t165,897\t133,8437\t33,6574\t67,6204\t100,9522\t\n154\t141,3188\t119,741\t198,5078\t156,8062\t62,3238\t20,2398\t18,453\t49,2962\t187,1808\t168,6317\t200,229\t185,1448\t93,4073\t78,8423\t84,5421\t41,901\t60,6667\t170,5971\t19,4320\t21,1845\t199,5786\t\n155\t57,893\t14,4446\t98,5515\t112,7915\t123,3251\t120,6822\t25,3242\t139,2100\t143,2442\t65,5533\t142,6613\t96,1251\t137,5736\t148,6603\t61,5301\t126,307\t37,609\t140,5001\t194,6768\t\n156\t66,2965\t42,6539\t82,4691\t53,4662\t151,6169\t7,7027\t85,6669\t29,5083\t154,8062\t130,2264\t108,7039\t34,8641\t121,195\t175,2205\t69,9959\t70,4830\t127,6372\t37,7714\t\n157\t119,9158\t26,7\t86,4447\t101,1393\t187,7184\t137,5286\t99,6818\t11,8497\t2,8643\t158,1881\t128,6815\t175,1597\t72,604\t24,9540\t28,6880\t15,2136\t\n158\t78,6367\t187,6714\t91,5553\t139,3451\t169,1709\t135,8348\t63,5709\t195,4912\t140,4029\t157,1881\t124,1870\t181,969\t112,383\t87,4081\t134,119\t\n159\t4,6133\t160,4243\t61,49\t180,5757\t6,9500\t194,9391\t43,9621\t100,6567\t126,2980\t73,4969\t131,4355\t124,6580\t1,7420\t52,7816\t74,8960\t198,8330\t42,5951\t120,5811\t87,19\t36,6043\t84,8763\t129,6895\t2,1397\t51,3017\t193,3786\t\n160\t14,7860\t138,9902\t127,7534\t49,8648\t85,3613\t189,1530\t57,2058\t159,4243\t183,9293\t148,3995\t87,8712\t180,624\t179,2542\t91,383\t42,2382\t1,6461\t77,105\t28,9059\t111,9702\t19,3997\t\n161\t152,6939\t14,4275\t23,6863\t78,6310\t136,3866\t42,4792\t62,4144\t79,8395\t127,6643\t69,6171\t126,4512\t56,9811\t196,9729\t102,8230\t88,1726\t28,9217\t\n162\t4,3924\t98,6139\t6,6897\t59,391\t194,1483\t122,3518\t57,6483\t121,1977\t179,9718\t139,4510\t199,7749\t40,3056\t111,8771\t96,3737\t45,3436\t186,6114\t48,201\t\n163\t1,8164\t101,6033\t41,5256\t173,5799\t15,818\t13,3870\t149,9897\t131,8625\t181,5593\t119,5189\t61,448\t42,1278\t68,4920\t100,9709\t147,7221\t44,18\t49,4688\t192,2762\t151,3624\t89,4055\t\n164\t141,6499\t112,1492\t42,347\t120,5926\t43,6849\t87,3629\t184,9774\t170,328\t153,8748\t10,3866\t172,9550\t74,8627\t195,9730\t105,4661\t24,7312\t183,615\t176,8681\t\n165\t23,208\t6,6473\t79,3768\t187,1291\t50,2667\t153,897\t166,4221\t74,2602\t21,2151\t121,7147\t124,9797\t83,1555\t65,3705\t7,6019\t41,3741\t110,4097\t\n166\t23,8077\t98,2364\t79,8726\t173,6917\t44,6953\t167,7080\t118,3979\t165,4221\t168,4399\t17,4762\t9,8702\t122,6712\t20,6086\t169,5530\t115,3001\t35,2816\t55,3686\t140,9829\t\n167\t23,2133\t188,6549\t187,9538\t43,8120\t18,7625\t127,3756\t180,6183\t87,1022\t79,820\t83,8200\t3,3877\t129,5370\t85,8110\t193,8116\t166,7080\t131,6269\t146,52\t147,5546\t45,1163\t199,2001\t93,5670\t\n168\t119,1890\t8,2076\t136,9519\t87,9716\t154,6317\t121,7186\t133,899\t122,1574\t85,6193\t173,3859\t59,4170\t27,1578\t69,2357\t151,9216\t22,4356\t70,1295\t34,3923\t166,4399\t10,9495\t52,1134\t\n169\t14,4333\t175,9164\t177,2274\t45,662\t20,5990\t63,5160\t119,3511\t104,3712\t187,9225\t192,8603\t109,382\t158,1709\t55,7795\t1,8700\t138,7498\t142,7506\t166,5530\t107,668\t15,7485\t54,2296\t140,2230\t\n170\t119,275\t1,2620\t198,8089\t136,1529\t33,3648\t18,4989\t177,2774\t44,6940\t84,2436\t2,9342\t154,5971\t164,328\t45,8060\t71,1539\t94,9318\t\n171\t188,6981\t101,4083\t16,3482\t67,1394\t61,6888\t49,9736\t182,4704\t94,9959\t10,2029\t33,3913\t185,5113\t71,6702\t6,3722\t18,4403\t72,8573\t\n172\t200,6888\t42,5383\t72,3153\t104,561\t174,3433\t102,6572\t175,5353\t35,992\t73,2239\t164,9550\t29,5830\t80,7715\t77,4771\t2,1438\t60,2781\t125,8515\t13,2070\t\n173\t112,7338\t1,2069\t144,8693\t33,5949\t17,7312\t20,2676\t18,7256\t121,2976\t168,3859\t32,9631\t148,6725\t82,591\t163,5799\t192,2550\t166,6917\t179,4234\t138,8555\t44,5518\t95,4092\t153,7613\t135,5664\t61,4803\t125,2615\t193,4808\t46,2969\t\n174\t130,4481\t89,858\t73,2581\t135,6977\t68,7082\t136,5711\t91,3418\t125,9048\t122,8205\t145,7252\t72,2019\t151,1846\t172,3433\t108,5669\t99,5675\t179,1886\t149,2824\t90,6914\t\n175\t156,2205\t187,2864\t27,210\t199,3779\t67,5048\t121,8821\t169,9164\t134,4489\t65,7920\t26,6165\t172,5353\t197,5909\t8,1022\t129,7121\t14,6718\t184,9107\t70,3256\t58,3675\t157,1597\t\n176\t200,1709\t115,8236\t6,3512\t33,3258\t187,1128\t191,3352\t139,8186\t149,2255\t116,4512\t46,9923\t143,5062\t51,1625\t164,8681\t107,6806\t74,8129\t\n177\t86,7010\t92,3182\t24,393\t64,7660\t102,4462\t43,9544\t22,8713\t190,1332\t14,6741\t8,8508\t170,2774\t82,7882\t169,2274\t32,6902\t53,9852\t60,5345\t143,3884\t178,7547\t118,8279\t3,7097\t\n178\t130,615\t72,5128\t70,3394\t13,4194\t120,8906\t11,1696\t151,5979\t16,1714\t138,6589\t102,1334\t17,7464\t49,9747\t177,7547\t35,5774\t136,2752\t28,3642\t76,8433\t\n179\t80,7729\t160,2542\t136,6711\t120,3327\t56,5284\t50,2502\t186,9993\t180,664\t104,8827\t90,3149\t74,1223\t148,6374\t174,1886\t126,7436\t173,4234\t162,9718\t116,8099\t34,8528\t52,3504\t122,7377\t\n180\t160,624\t159,5757\t114,8490\t59,2435\t86,4604\t39,9506\t85,5525\t179,664\t191,6312\t31,3598\t149,3407\t167,6183\t89,6612\t9,5995\t126,7176\t105,341\t\n181\t112,2524\t187,7956\t41,5235\t118,8129\t185,9712\t139,5456\t76,3275\t40,2338\t11,8448\t34,5267\t102,3585\t126,8920\t106,5332\t93,4071\t91,5060\t191,4844\t163,5593\t158,969\t51,158\t\n182\t27,6234\t47,8382\t99,2897\t139,2354\t5,8806\t133,8241\t132,6433\t56,7267\t74,1873\t35,7369\t64,4701\t107,8313\t54,438\t171,4704\t2,7908\t21,2447\t\n183\t160,9293\t112,9037\t102,9634\t99,3577\t81,3061\t88,5547\t11,594\t96,5939\t53,5304\t105,7722\t26,4842\t57,9093\t70,5332\t125,9920\t164,615\t38,5213\t\n184\t6,8021\t130,8488\t188,198\t40,4306\t123,2832\t101,9591\t113,4999\t129,5623\t144,5222\t175,9107\t136,6682\t164,9774\t86,801\t57,7592\t29,9797\t81,4485\t35,7437\t135,7629\t28,4164\t10,3207\t128,6339\t\n185\t57,9772\t105,1033\t90,7284\t52,8925\t83,9306\t97,7065\t148,2814\t25,3573\t197,3140\t50,3968\t11,2045\t141,6820\t76,3674\t108,8699\t60,6670\t188,700\t120,556\t181,9712\t154,1448\t30,3846\t16,6280\t109,6644\t171,5113\t19,5896\t196,1339\t\n186\t57,8815\t152,2075\t197,1324\t42,9391\t188,5027\t92,7980\t179,9993\t191,8255\t58,8993\t143,8430\t116,8639\t162,6114\t71,7143\t189,8128\t195,2099\t68,2528\t103,9654\t\n187\t14,4874\t200,6767\t176,1128\t37,4105\t7,9522\t175,2864\t19,107\t107,2610\t167,9538\t157,7184\t24,9327\t181,7956\t42,3075\t158,6714\t165,1291\t50,2485\t154,1808\t113,6332\t169,9225\t149,9580\t10,4786\t\n188\t23,4236\t198,9114\t137,9117\t184,198\t101,8531\t167,6549\t54,4883\t149,1003\t28,3816\t196,88\t52,7805\t55,5181\t185,700\t186,5027\t171,6981\t97,4695\t138,892\t125,230\t146,5715\t140,6223\t\n189\t152,8140\t160,1530\t8,2780\t114,3102\t86,1115\t40,4263\t77,5702\t50,7031\t47,5939\t85,1147\t60,4415\t69,5215\t186,8128\t198,9430\t122,2017\t51,8899\t151,9732\t193,2375\t\n190\t4,7536\t200,5999\t47,5892\t113,697\t130,3429\t135,1431\t150,5243\t61,9775\t69,8022\t133,9958\t128,2968\t100,6674\t17,7000\t106,3305\t9,3613\t177,1332\t31,5055\t149,3755\t142,8070\t15,6854\t105,2518\t\n191\t77,5135\t126,3989\t176,3352\t94,8318\t186,8255\t121,8606\t87,6921\t44,8130\t103,9683\t75,1403\t181,4844\t50,5026\t180,6312\t111,5723\t37,3573\t133,4296\t\n192\t114,6813\t97,6411\t77,561\t39,7454\t22,4606\t104,4219\t27,5344\t85,544\t173,2550\t91,6625\t169,8603\t116,5906\t49,3113\t163,2762\t122,1494\t148,4834\t\n193\t152,5444\t167,8116\t114,4000\t55,8583\t58,6166\t189,2375\t159,3786\t96,8831\t79,7737\t21,494\t28,9441\t62,6610\t123,7460\t99,4566\t173,4808\t46,199\t\n194\t200,2915\t159,9391\t136,2496\t130,9429\t42,6498\t92,426\t139,6966\t162,1483\t73,8521\t99,5832\t155,6768\t114,949\t46,2429\t79,5784\t135,5726\t\n195\t23,3179\t4,2490\t197,5337\t144,652\t136,4279\t6,2233\t158,4912\t186,2099\t200,8114\t61,8928\t46,8206\t164,9730\t119,617\t19,5038\t67,5737\t\n196\t188,88\t39,9267\t139,3988\t95,231\t61,5577\t161,9729\t125,4519\t117,3366\t103,696\t46,9632\t26,6754\t112,5663\t128,1760\t119,2824\t185,1339\t\n197\t54,2223\t186,1324\t121,6502\t134,6225\t68,8223\t24,9337\t25,3875\t139,1386\t81,5540\t44,4900\t195,5337\t37,9188\t111,4083\t86,9714\t110,751\t136,9068\t185,3140\t104,4174\t175,5909\t\n198\t141,2621\t170,8089\t44,2619\t188,9114\t41,7215\t1,1724\t154,5078\t84,5999\t16,2223\t117,3936\t123,3493\t159,8330\t69,6284\t132,2393\t134,4071\t77,5081\t50,3798\t65,3575\t36,6280\t28,366\t128,1860\t189,9430\t\n199\t152,2697\t8,1918\t136,7783\t59,8958\t24,2838\t175,3779\t31,5564\t162,7749\t65,11\t76,6878\t9,70\t89,2446\t34,8196\t167,2001\t154,5786\t\n200\t108,9976\t103,6851\t145,2753\t41,2622\t187,6767\t190,5999\t16,2848\t194,2915\t5,4009\t172,6888\t39,4319\t176,1709\t60,3269\t138,678\t43,8943\t98,2690\t1,8021\t104,7083\t154,229\t91,1988\t67,475\t76,4623\t195,8114\t37,7541\t54,4899\t\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/breadth-first-search/BFS_queue_iterative.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n 2019-02-17 Initial programming\n 2020-03-29 Cleaned up code, removed load graph, I think a small example is sufficient\n and instead only have the BFS function.\n\"\"\"\n\nfrom collections import deque\n\n\ndef BFS(G, start_node=1):\n \"\"\"\n :param G: Graph with G = {from_node1:[to_node1, to_node2], from_node2: [to_node,] etc}\n :param start_node: starting node to run BFS from\n :return: returns visited boolean array and path in which order it visited them\n \"\"\"\n visited = [False for i in range(1, len(G) + 1)]\n\n Q = deque()\n Q.append(start_node)\n\n path = []\n\n while Q:\n curr_node = Q.popleft()\n path.append(curr_node)\n\n if not visited[curr_node - 1]:\n visited[curr_node - 1] = True\n\n for connected_node in G[curr_node]:\n if not visited[connected_node - 1]:\n Q.append(connected_node)\n\n return visited, path\n\n\n# Small Example Run\n# if __name__ == '__main__':\n# G = {1:[2,3], 2:[1,4], 3:[1,4],4:[]}\n# visited, path = BFS(G)\n#\n# if all(visited) == True:\n# print(\"Return: This graph is connected!\")\n\n# else:\n# print(\"Not all nodes were reachable, i.e the graph is not connected.\")\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/breadth-first-search/exgraph.txt", "content": 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}, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/depth-first-search/DFS_recursive.py", "content": "# Purpose of Depth first search is (mainly from my understanding) to find if a graph G is connected.\n# Identify all nodes that are reachable from a given starting node.\n\n# Programmed by Aladdin Persson \n# 2019-02-16 Initial programming\n\n\ndef DFS(G, curr_node, visited):\n \"\"\"\n :param G: G = {from_node1:[to_node1, to_node2], from_node2: [to_node,] etc}\n :param curr_node: Node currently at, run from beginning this is the starting node\n :param visited: since it is recursive, visited is updated and needs to be sent in on recursive call\n :return: visited is initialized outside of DFS and updates this boolean array with which nodes has been visited\n \"\"\"\n if visited[curr_node - 1]:\n return\n\n visited[curr_node - 1] = True\n\n neighbours = G[curr_node]\n\n for next_node in neighbours:\n DFS(G, next_node, visited)\n\n\n# Small Eaxmple\n# if __name__ == '__main__':\n# G = {1: [2], 2: [1, 3, 4], 3: [2], 4: [2, 5], 5: [4]}\n#\n# visited = [False for i in range(1, len(G) + 1)]\n# start_node = 1\n#\n# DFS(G, start_node, visited)\n#\n# if any(visited) == False:\n# print(\"Result: This graph is connected!\")\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/depth-first-search/DFS_stack_iterative.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nDepth first search has many applications,for example finding if a graph G is connected.\nIdentify all nodes that are reachable from a given starting node.\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n 2019-02-17 Initial programming\n 2020-03-29 Cleaned up code, made test cases\n\"\"\"\n\n\ndef DFS(G, start_node):\n \"\"\"\n :param G: Graph with G = {from_node1:[to_node1, to_node2], from_node2: [to_node,] etc}\n :param start_node: starting node to run BFS from\n :return: returns visited boolean array and path in which order it visited them\n \"\"\"\n visited = [False for i in range(1, len(G) + 1)]\n path = [start_node]\n stack = []\n stack.append(start_node)\n\n while stack:\n v = stack.pop()\n if not visited[v - 1]:\n visited[v - 1] = True\n\n for connected_node in G[v]:\n if not visited[connected_node - 1]:\n stack.append(connected_node)\n path.append(connected_node)\n\n return visited, path\n\n\n# if __name__ == '__main__':\n# G = {1: [2, 3], 2: [1, 4], 3: [1, 4], 4: []}\n# start_node = 1\n# visited = DFS(G, start_node)\n#\n# if all(visited) == True:\n# print(\"Return: This graph is connected!\")\n# else:\n# print(\"Not all nodes were reachable, i.e the graph is not connected.\")\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/depth-first-search/exgraph.txt", "content": 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}, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/dijkstra/dijkstra.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nDijkstra's algorithm for finding the shortest path in a graph, this implementation\nis a naive implementation, check my Heap implementation for a more efficient algorithm\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n 2019-01-28 Initial programming\n 2020-03-28 Cleaned up code\n\"\"\"\n\n\ndef dijkstra(G, start, end):\n \"\"\"\n :param G: {from_node1: {to_node1:cost1, to_node2:cost2}, from_node2 : {.., etc.}, ...}\n :param start: starting node\n :param end: ending node where we want to find path to\n :return: path from starting node to end node and the cost to get between them\n \"\"\"\n\n if start not in G or end not in G:\n return [], float(\"inf\")\n\n shortest_distance = {}\n predecessor = {}\n unseenNodes = G\n infinity = float(\"inf\")\n path = []\n\n for node in unseenNodes:\n shortest_distance[node] = infinity\n\n shortest_distance[start] = 0\n\n while unseenNodes:\n minNode = None\n\n for node in unseenNodes:\n if minNode is None:\n minNode = node\n elif shortest_distance[node] < shortest_distance[minNode]:\n minNode = node\n\n for childNode, weight in G[minNode].items():\n if weight + shortest_distance[minNode] < shortest_distance[childNode]:\n shortest_distance[childNode] = weight + shortest_distance[minNode]\n predecessor[childNode] = minNode\n\n unseenNodes.pop(minNode)\n\n # Find path from start node s to end node t\n currentNode = end\n\n while currentNode != start:\n try:\n path.insert(0, currentNode)\n currentNode = predecessor[currentNode]\n except KeyError:\n return [], float(\"inf\")\n\n path.insert(0, start)\n\n return path, shortest_distance[end]\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n G = {1: {2: 10, 3: 20}, 2: {4: 40}, 3: {4: 5}, 4: {}}\n\n print(f\"Current graph is: {G}\")\n path, shortest = dijkstra(G, 1, 4)\n\n print(path)\n print(shortest)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/dijkstra/dijkstraData.txt", "content": "1\t80,982\t163,8164\t170,2620\t145,648\t200,8021\t173,2069\t92,647\t26,4122\t140,546\t11,1913\t160,6461\t27,7905\t40,9047\t150,2183\t61,9146\t159,7420\t198,1724\t114,508\t104,6647\t30,4612\t99,2367\t138,7896\t169,8700\t49,2437\t125,2909\t117,2597\t55,6399\t\n2\t42,1689\t127,9365\t5,8026\t170,9342\t131,7005\t172,1438\t34,315\t30,2455\t26,2328\t6,8847\t11,1873\t17,5409\t157,8643\t159,1397\t142,7731\t182,7908\t93,8177\t\n3\t57,1239\t101,3381\t43,7313\t41,7212\t91,2483\t31,3031\t167,3877\t106,6521\t76,7729\t122,9640\t144,285\t44,2165\t6,9006\t177,7097\t119,7711\t\n4\t162,3924\t70,5285\t195,2490\t72,6508\t126,2625\t121,7639\t31,399\t118,3626\t90,9446\t127,6808\t135,7582\t159,6133\t106,4769\t52,9267\t190,7536\t78,8058\t75,7044\t116,6771\t49,619\t107,4383\t89,6363\t54,313\t\n5\t200,4009\t112,1522\t25,3496\t23,9432\t64,7836\t56,8262\t120,1862\t2,8026\t90,8919\t142,1195\t81,2469\t182,8806\t17,2514\t83,8407\t146,5308\t147,1087\t51,22\t\n6\t141,8200\t98,5594\t66,6627\t159,9500\t143,3110\t129,8525\t118,8547\t88,2039\t83,4949\t165,6473\t162,6897\t184,8021\t123,13\t176,3512\t195,2233\t42,7265\t47,274\t132,1514\t2,8847\t171,3722\t3,9006\t\n7\t156,7027\t187,9522\t87,4976\t121,8739\t56,6616\t10,2904\t71,8206\t53,179\t146,4823\t165,6019\t125,5670\t27,4888\t63,9920\t150,9031\t84,4061\t\n8\t152,1257\t189,2780\t58,4708\t26,8342\t199,1918\t31,3987\t35,3160\t71,5829\t27,3483\t69,8815\t130,55\t168,2076\t122,5338\t73,4528\t28,9996\t17,3535\t40,3193\t72,7308\t24,8434\t87,2833\t25,3949\t175,1022\t177,8508\t\n9\t152,1087\t115,7827\t17,7002\t72,794\t150,4539\t190,3613\t95,9480\t36,5284\t166,8702\t63,1753\t199,70\t131,700\t76,9340\t70,2\t139,8701\t140,4163\t180,5995\t\n10\t57,9988\t78,3771\t62,4816\t137,5273\t7,2904\t187,4786\t184,3207\t96,807\t31,1184\t88,2539\t135,4650\t168,9495\t164,3866\t11,8988\t116,1493\t51,5578\t171,2029\t\n11\t1,1913\t185,2045\t77,815\t22,8425\t181,8448\t47,8727\t81,7299\t150,4802\t178,1696\t28,2275\t183,594\t131,833\t157,8497\t25,5057\t59,3203\t10,8988\t2,1873\t134,294\t83,4211\t124,6180\t\n12\t78,5753\t17,4602\t62,5676\t16,8068\t60,5933\t67,371\t71,6734\t53,7001\t72,3626\t34,6690\t59,761\t18,1520\t128,7542\t38,6699\t57,9416\t\n13\t144,9987\t59,9801\t97,7026\t50,758\t43,5400\t163,3870\t178,4194\t151,9629\t45,1794\t105,6821\t29,2784\t172,2070\t57,6850\t77,8638\t135,861\t\n14\t149,4352\t187,4874\t26,3841\t128,9662\t155,4446\t118,373\t123,2733\t106,7912\t169,4333\t53,9197\t161,4275\t126,9602\t73,4106\t160,7860\t131,358\t141,4477\t119,960\t43,3199\t47,7898\t175,6718\t177,6741\t60,2464\t127,5682\t31,1945\t143,5848\t94,3551\t82,3283\t\n15\t42,1789\t22,3571\t25,7019\t163,818\t56,2334\t100,809\t143,1041\t107,4589\t190,6854\t169,7485\t94,9606\t34,7961\t54,8983\t157,2136\t24,8040\t\n16\t200,2848\t198,2223\t92,2896\t18,8663\t27,8673\t75,4116\t150,1680\t36,1555\t41,2747\t90,4558\t68,5894\t12,8068\t42,2596\t185,6280\t171,3482\t109,1469\t127,9807\t178,1714\t35,839\t56,9828\t134,5203\t55,6680\t110,4252\t\n17\t26,1275\t45,5114\t142,8016\t83,4615\t140,6440\t8,3535\t69,3610\t153,8545\t9,7002\t12,4602\t173,7312\t114,8915\t108,1942\t54,3115\t66,6176\t190,7000\t70,3899\t5,2514\t178,7464\t166,4762\t2,5409\t146,5362\t117,6266\t\n18\t57,4216\t80,5252\t86,7517\t62,1926\t120,44\t173,7256\t133,2702\t148,589\t167,7625\t16,8663\t170,4989\t118,6388\t142,332\t95,6122\t99,5717\t154,453\t150,5150\t149,2664\t146,9000\t171,4403\t111,785\t12,1520\t\n19\t33,6938\t77,7013\t187,107\t109,8397\t88,2002\t95,8691\t132,3157\t195,5038\t154,4320\t23,8560\t152,9751\t185,5896\t119,7406\t160,3997\t80,62\t\n20\t66,2667\t173,2676\t43,8105\t135,6434\t33,6387\t74,6183\t106,8785\t75,2484\t130,9048\t56,7194\t50,9507\t88,3014\t124,392\t61,2580\t90,7372\t92,1704\t87,2639\t154,2398\t41,4203\t85,1435\t169,5990\t166,6086\t28,2234\t145,8099\t\n21\t23,5183\t40,2199\t31,2556\t71,4986\t165,2151\t193,494\t154,1845\t111,3060\t85,2880\t101,2775\t182,2447\t80,9884\t87,2681\t102,6643\t131,3748\t\n22\t92,5592\t64,4257\t11,8425\t24,594\t15,3571\t42,3783\t41,1374\t114,9960\t144,9362\t146,3620\t71,3243\t143,8603\t131,6075\t192,4606\t108,9656\t168,4356\t177,8713\t132,1560\t\n23\t143,7543\t161,6863\t45,8074\t165,208\t21,5183\t118,5079\t40,8336\t27,9054\t112,3201\t135,4560\t167,2133\t188,4236\t166,8077\t195,3179\t48,4485\t137,7591\t99,6485\t5,9432\t71,3316\t96,2431\t125,922\t19,8560\t\n24\t141,6862\t197,9337\t66,5879\t59,6941\t70,4670\t55,4106\t103,8083\t61,7906\t48,7959\t151,784\t177,393\t102,8731\t199,2838\t73,3509\t8,8434\t187,9327\t22,594\t150,5669\t164,7312\t157,9540\t15,8040\t\n25\t115,9233\t197,3875\t185,3573\t72,2332\t104,4899\t137,5378\t8,3949\t5,3496\t77,2729\t136,9251\t143,108\t83,9569\t15,7019\t48,3214\t155,3242\t153,2477\t129,3005\t132,219\t11,5057\t37,1591\t68,4188\t\n26\t14,3841\t8,8342\t1,4122\t147,5759\t113,5553\t157,7\t65,9434\t116,4221\t66,2747\t138,7027\t145,6697\t130,5706\t60,701\t127,9896\t136,7200\t17,1275\t120,5788\t175,6165\t70,9252\t95,36\t106,6940\t2,2328\t96,425\t51,9329\t183,4842\t196,6754\t\n27\t23,9054\t78,3066\t8,3483\t1,7905\t152,2124\t108,9929\t63,3896\t151,5915\t111,3101\t34,8912\t182,6234\t133,7749\t16,8673\t192,5344\t114,714\t168,1578\t175,210\t138,5918\t7,4888\t122,84\t\n28\t8,9996\t188,3816\t116,2638\t132,5604\t20,2234\t178,3642\t76,3705\t122,9165\t184,4164\t198,366\t161,9217\t160,9059\t56,5375\t120,8874\t11,2275\t111,4495\t193,9441\t157,6880\t48,2803\t\n29\t78,8190\t144,6452\t114,9478\t156,5083\t62,9692\t121,4537\t184,9797\t109,6873\t153,5446\t67,3449\t172,5830\t111,1005\t100,1642\t148,3252\t13,2784\t\n30\t78,5469\t119,7372\t144,1616\t130,1356\t59,4458\t40,9818\t79,503\t43,6233\t148,4760\t42,263\t1,4612\t57,5668\t185,3846\t101,6979\t94,6976\t106,7819\t2,2455\t71,9294\t\n31\t4,399\t8,3987\t50,2598\t75,7688\t47,7840\t99,8583\t190,5055\t112,5231\t114,7617\t118,6949\t180,3598\t21,2556\t199,5564\t14,1945\t3,3031\t35,9855\t10,1184\t146,2837\t51,3739\t83,6588\t46,5964\t\n32\t136,3823\t77,1689\t92,3395\t121,1615\t85,7494\t173,9631\t177,6902\t88,8129\t36,7329\t116,6065\t61,3332\t68,7352\t119,1914\t82,8571\t70,9909\t\n33\t144,4841\t173,5949\t170,3648\t113,652\t110,1986\t82,3577\t61,1837\t97,5671\t55,1252\t19,6938\t48,914\t74,3642\t125,67\t89,3089\t176,3258\t20,6387\t138,6960\t153,6574\t171,3913\t\n34\t86,6435\t156,8641\t72,2540\t181,5267\t27,8912\t58,8824\t179,8528\t62,9864\t70,2348\t57,5471\t53,236\t168,3923\t101,3383\t142,7791\t55,7174\t2,315\t147,9758\t15,7961\t199,8196\t12,6690\t\n35\t57,3693\t8,3160\t144,3087\t114,490\t65,8910\t178,5774\t172,992\t16,839\t118,8640\t41,6749\t31,9855\t39,853\t64,6071\t166,2816\t184,7437\t49,3098\t182,7369\t110,4985\t93,8775\t\n36\t80,2032\t130,7589\t123,6226\t16,1555\t150,116\t88,7759\t100,8612\t9,5284\t198,6280\t49,953\t143,5111\t42,4917\t134,979\t159,6043\t32,7329\t67,2380\t148,9550\t48,7266\t\n37\t197,9188\t119,9313\t187,4105\t191,3573\t109,2135\t75,751\t200,7541\t139,8208\t155,609\t142,6433\t25,1591\t132,821\t156,7714\t107,1144\t99,7757\t\n38\t91,7087\t88,502\t132,6092\t126,5441\t147,8391\t12,6699\t130,5227\t146,4400\t108,8712\t100,1369\t134,4730\t87,2975\t99,6169\t183,5213\t109,4945\t\n39\t200,4319\t98,3993\t130,2414\t40,2489\t196,9267\t133,8145\t82,3528\t44,9175\t42,5464\t127,6103\t93,6132\t180,9506\t192,7454\t119,1376\t115,983\t81,7400\t35,853\t\n40\t23,8336\t1,9047\t120,7760\t101,2885\t21,2199\t144,7772\t96,5739\t136,4658\t184,4306\t189,4263\t30,9818\t39,2489\t108,8883\t8,3193\t80,9657\t181,2338\t162,3056\t71,2826\t68,5800\t\n41\t200,2622\t78,63\t66,4654\t198,7215\t59,284\t75,7333\t22,1374\t181,5235\t16,2747\t154,901\t150,7278\t3,7212\t103,7917\t163,5256\t20,4203\t91,7776\t35,6749\t147,1858\t165,3741\t107,8116\t\n42\t160,2382\t156,6539\t6,7265\t15,1789\t61,8096\t164,347\t194,6498\t172,5383\t104,2726\t124,3496\t161,4792\t159,5951\t117,7074\t2,1689\t186,9391\t62,3249\t79,9404\t39,5464\t187,3075\t22,3783\t30,263\t16,2596\t137,4572\t163,1278\t60,6663\t70,9396\t36,4917\t73,9154\t\n43\t200,8943\t159,9621\t97,3906\t20,8105\t164,6849\t13,5400\t3,7313\t133,8488\t108,8964\t30,6233\t79,5052\t131,8231\t167,8120\t14,3199\t130,2685\t138,7965\t177,9544\t143,1171\t65,5805\t118,8008\t140,4482\t93,8479\t\n44\t197,4900\t144,2276\t198,2619\t39,9175\t87,7875\t191,8130\t166,6953\t170,6940\t163,18\t79,9988\t145,2888\t173,5518\t57,9979\t82,3134\t54,4113\t3,2165\t\n45\t57,4630\t23,8074\t112,9496\t130,4994\t86,8207\t17,5114\t120,5279\t169,662\t162,3436\t170,8060\t118,5918\t124,3290\t110,8317\t13,1794\t167,1163\t\n46\t57,2413\t152,9550\t86,7512\t123,132\t138,2860\t195,8206\t176,9923\t119,2687\t54,9328\t196,9632\t73,5109\t31,5964\t173,2969\t193,199\t80,7968\t194,2429\t\n47\t57,9584\t114,9480\t145,9483\t190,5892\t182,8382\t31,7840\t129,9533\t142,5297\t58,1229\t146,2959\t6,274\t14,7898\t189,5939\t11,8727\t76,2138\t70,2236\t\n48\t152,5835\t23,4485\t33,914\t24,7959\t25,3214\t135,8869\t53,3578\t162,201\t28,2803\t141,7941\t36,7266\t85,2792\t86,3588\t124,2593\t130,7921\t\n49\t160,8648\t154,2962\t109,7520\t36,953\t178,9747\t192,3113\t112,2935\t35,3098\t71,3441\t4,619\t96,9901\t171,9736\t163,4688\t1,2437\t133,5167\t117,2896\t105,9278\t\n50\t152,5767\t112,6454\t185,3968\t77,5220\t20,9507\t165,2667\t98,990\t187,2485\t198,3798\t13,758\t128,2987\t189,7031\t52,9931\t127,3622\t31,2598\t179,2502\t191,5026\t153,4905\t\n51\t80,7589\t72,4882\t137,1096\t138,8755\t109,662\t67,4225\t181,158\t132,6107\t189,8899\t159,3017\t5,22\t10,5578\t31,3739\t120,5675\t26,9329\t176,1625\t\n52\t4,9267\t115,4973\t159,7816\t185,8925\t188,7805\t97,9063\t50,9931\t137,9846\t91,424\t150,634\t56,2416\t107,3647\t68,7601\t168,1134\t179,3504\t\n53\t14,9197\t114,7352\t156,4662\t62,153\t85,1227\t177,9852\t34,236\t7,179\t12,7001\t48,3578\t71,9285\t86,7353\t150,662\t183,5304\t125,8054\t54,8361\t\n54\t197,2223\t66,2906\t136,1794\t188,4883\t17,3115\t109,7832\t44,4113\t182,438\t15,8983\t200,4899\t112,2279\t169,2296\t4,313\t53,8361\t138,6261\t46,9328\t\n55\t33,1252\t188,5181\t101,6050\t24,4106\t169,7795\t149,3088\t34,7174\t193,8583\t1,6399\t145,3342\t105,8477\t166,3686\t121,44\t16,6680\t82,3547\t\n56\t101,3516\t20,7194\t179,5284\t127,3031\t5,8262\t161,9811\t16,9828\t15,2334\t52,2416\t7,6616\t77,7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6,2860\t27,5918\t188,892\t169,7498\t178,6589\t125,9932\t76,5683\t117,7762\t54,6261\t140,5446\t\n139\t197,1386\t98,1235\t92,6763\t181,5456\t176,8186\t182,2354\t133,4719\t158,3451\t196,3988\t73,4428\t90,7846\t155,2100\t194,6966\t69,9030\t94,7116\t127,2526\t162,4510\t9,8701\t37,8208\t\n140\t1,546\t17,6440\t97,6527\t158,4029\t151,5289\t68,9624\t138,5446\t43,4482\t169,2230\t9,4163\t155,5001\t188,6223\t102,6370\t166,9829\t65,5376\t\n141\t154,3188\t68,3540\t106,674\t79,7918\t104,8162\t24,6862\t63,5607\t6,8200\t75,9237\t150,2634\t124,168\t14,4477\t112,130\t164,6499\t198,2621\t114,6388\t185,6820\t59,9126\t64,158\t137,7872\t81,4032\t76,1969\t48,7941\t\n142\t66,777\t17,8016\t104,6236\t18,332\t47,5297\t81,424\t91,9164\t150,2598\t5,1195\t34,7791\t155,6613\t169,7506\t86,1663\t100,2994\t190,8070\t2,7731\t71,6038\t145,5378\t37,6433\t\n143\t23,7543\t6,3110\t22,8603\t108,972\t25,108\t81,9810\t43,1171\t186,8430\t14,5848\t129,8021\t101,4042\t76,1079\t98,4300\t155,2442\t177,3884\t36,5111\t153,9940\t96,9274\t15,1041\t176,5062\t\n144\t115,3825\t173,8693\t29,6452\t98,7198\t68,2277\t195,652\t102,7884\t30,1616\t111,5456\t33,4841\t13,9987\t44,2276\t86,8808\t148,3617\t35,3087\t40,7772\t101,3619\t22,9362\t184,5222\t135,6396\t90,6223\t3,285\t100,6605\t\n145\t200,2753\t1,648\t136,1769\t26,6697\t64,2685\t174,7252\t47,9483\t108,521\t44,2888\t123,8804\t71,6127\t142,5378\t20,8099\t78,7244\t110,6099\t100,5512\t55,3342\t\n146\t115,9828\t22,3620\t47,2959\t60,2317\t5,5308\t127,8151\t7,4823\t134,9556\t18,9000\t31,2837\t17,5362\t68,3895\t72,4264\t188,5715\t167,52\t107,7862\t38,4400\t\n147\t26,5759\t59,2651\t163,7221\t95,1278\t132,2847\t124,9014\t5,1087\t34,9758\t96,6736\t38,8391\t41,1858\t167,5546\t130,9251\t149,6379\t58,2267\t93,7807\t\n148\t160,3995\t144,3617\t185,2814\t64,6419\t18,589\t30,4760\t173,6725\t179,6374\t70,7231\t155,6603\t122,3230\t192,4834\t36,9550\t121,8115\t29,3252\t\n149\t14,4352\t59,2405\t188,1003\t163,9897\t70,2366\t83,6823\t187,9580\t174,2824\t73,5233\t112,8736\t55,3088\t18,2664\t176,2255\t190,3755\t180,3407\t147,6379\t\n150\t141,2634\t1,2183\t16,1680\t41,7278\t36,116\t135,9732\t11,4802\t98,2093\t58,4857\t142,2598\t73,8061\t9,4539\t18,5150\t24,5669\t52,634\t190,5243\t88,6770\t53,662\t7,9031\t93,9213\t\n151\t80,6728\t156,6169\t24,784\t27,5915\t174,1846\t168,9216\t99,4990\t88,2295\t178,5979\t96,5643\t83,162\t13,9629\t140,5289\t189,9732\t163,3624\t\n152\t161,6939\t58,5877\t48,5835\t9,1087\t8,1257\t46,9550\t189,8140\t199,2697\t109,2743\t65,3595\t186,2075\t115,4383\t50,5767\t193,5444\t90,4427\t80,9606\t114,9627\t62,7404\t79,6519\t27,2124\t111,1940\t19,9751\t93,6543\t\n153\t17,8545\t99,4560\t70,6532\t164,8748\t29,5446\t25,2477\t72,541\t143,9940\t173,7613\t77,4483\t50,4905\t165,897\t133,8437\t33,6574\t67,6204\t100,9522\t\n154\t141,3188\t119,741\t198,5078\t156,8062\t62,3238\t20,2398\t18,453\t49,2962\t187,1808\t168,6317\t200,229\t185,1448\t93,4073\t78,8423\t84,5421\t41,901\t60,6667\t170,5971\t19,4320\t21,1845\t199,5786\t\n155\t57,893\t14,4446\t98,5515\t112,7915\t123,3251\t120,6822\t25,3242\t139,2100\t143,2442\t65,5533\t142,6613\t96,1251\t137,5736\t148,6603\t61,5301\t126,307\t37,609\t140,5001\t194,6768\t\n156\t66,2965\t42,6539\t82,4691\t53,4662\t151,6169\t7,7027\t85,6669\t29,5083\t154,8062\t130,2264\t108,7039\t34,8641\t121,195\t175,2205\t69,9959\t70,4830\t127,6372\t37,7714\t\n157\t119,9158\t26,7\t86,4447\t101,1393\t187,7184\t137,5286\t99,6818\t11,8497\t2,8643\t158,1881\t128,6815\t175,1597\t72,604\t24,9540\t28,6880\t15,2136\t\n158\t78,6367\t187,6714\t91,5553\t139,3451\t169,1709\t135,8348\t63,5709\t195,4912\t140,4029\t157,1881\t124,1870\t181,969\t112,383\t87,4081\t134,119\t\n159\t4,6133\t160,4243\t61,49\t180,5757\t6,9500\t194,9391\t43,9621\t100,6567\t126,2980\t73,4969\t131,4355\t124,6580\t1,7420\t52,7816\t74,8960\t198,8330\t42,5951\t120,5811\t87,19\t36,6043\t84,8763\t129,6895\t2,1397\t51,3017\t193,3786\t\n160\t14,7860\t138,9902\t127,7534\t49,8648\t85,3613\t189,1530\t57,2058\t159,4243\t183,9293\t148,3995\t87,8712\t180,624\t179,2542\t91,383\t42,2382\t1,6461\t77,105\t28,9059\t111,9702\t19,3997\t\n161\t152,6939\t14,4275\t23,6863\t78,6310\t136,3866\t42,4792\t62,4144\t79,8395\t127,6643\t69,6171\t126,4512\t56,9811\t196,9729\t102,8230\t88,1726\t28,9217\t\n162\t4,3924\t98,6139\t6,6897\t59,391\t194,1483\t122,3518\t57,6483\t121,1977\t179,9718\t139,4510\t199,7749\t40,3056\t111,8771\t96,3737\t45,3436\t186,6114\t48,201\t\n163\t1,8164\t101,6033\t41,5256\t173,5799\t15,818\t13,3870\t149,9897\t131,8625\t181,5593\t119,5189\t61,448\t42,1278\t68,4920\t100,9709\t147,7221\t44,18\t49,4688\t192,2762\t151,3624\t89,4055\t\n164\t141,6499\t112,1492\t42,347\t120,5926\t43,6849\t87,3629\t184,9774\t170,328\t153,8748\t10,3866\t172,9550\t74,8627\t195,9730\t105,4661\t24,7312\t183,615\t176,8681\t\n165\t23,208\t6,6473\t79,3768\t187,1291\t50,2667\t153,897\t166,4221\t74,2602\t21,2151\t121,7147\t124,9797\t83,1555\t65,3705\t7,6019\t41,3741\t110,4097\t\n166\t23,8077\t98,2364\t79,8726\t173,6917\t44,6953\t167,7080\t118,3979\t165,4221\t168,4399\t17,4762\t9,8702\t122,6712\t20,6086\t169,5530\t115,3001\t35,2816\t55,3686\t140,9829\t\n167\t23,2133\t188,6549\t187,9538\t43,8120\t18,7625\t127,3756\t180,6183\t87,1022\t79,820\t83,8200\t3,3877\t129,5370\t85,8110\t193,8116\t166,7080\t131,6269\t146,52\t147,5546\t45,1163\t199,2001\t93,5670\t\n168\t119,1890\t8,2076\t136,9519\t87,9716\t154,6317\t121,7186\t133,899\t122,1574\t85,6193\t173,3859\t59,4170\t27,1578\t69,2357\t151,9216\t22,4356\t70,1295\t34,3923\t166,4399\t10,9495\t52,1134\t\n169\t14,4333\t175,9164\t177,2274\t45,662\t20,5990\t63,5160\t119,3511\t104,3712\t187,9225\t192,8603\t109,382\t158,1709\t55,7795\t1,8700\t138,7498\t142,7506\t166,5530\t107,668\t15,7485\t54,2296\t140,2230\t\n170\t119,275\t1,2620\t198,8089\t136,1529\t33,3648\t18,4989\t177,2774\t44,6940\t84,2436\t2,9342\t154,5971\t164,328\t45,8060\t71,1539\t94,9318\t\n171\t188,6981\t101,4083\t16,3482\t67,1394\t61,6888\t49,9736\t182,4704\t94,9959\t10,2029\t33,3913\t185,5113\t71,6702\t6,3722\t18,4403\t72,8573\t\n172\t200,6888\t42,5383\t72,3153\t104,561\t174,3433\t102,6572\t175,5353\t35,992\t73,2239\t164,9550\t29,5830\t80,7715\t77,4771\t2,1438\t60,2781\t125,8515\t13,2070\t\n173\t112,7338\t1,2069\t144,8693\t33,5949\t17,7312\t20,2676\t18,7256\t121,2976\t168,3859\t32,9631\t148,6725\t82,591\t163,5799\t192,2550\t166,6917\t179,4234\t138,8555\t44,5518\t95,4092\t153,7613\t135,5664\t61,4803\t125,2615\t193,4808\t46,2969\t\n174\t130,4481\t89,858\t73,2581\t135,6977\t68,7082\t136,5711\t91,3418\t125,9048\t122,8205\t145,7252\t72,2019\t151,1846\t172,3433\t108,5669\t99,5675\t179,1886\t149,2824\t90,6914\t\n175\t156,2205\t187,2864\t27,210\t199,3779\t67,5048\t121,8821\t169,9164\t134,4489\t65,7920\t26,6165\t172,5353\t197,5909\t8,1022\t129,7121\t14,6718\t184,9107\t70,3256\t58,3675\t157,1597\t\n176\t200,1709\t115,8236\t6,3512\t33,3258\t187,1128\t191,3352\t139,8186\t149,2255\t116,4512\t46,9923\t143,5062\t51,1625\t164,8681\t107,6806\t74,8129\t\n177\t86,7010\t92,3182\t24,393\t64,7660\t102,4462\t43,9544\t22,8713\t190,1332\t14,6741\t8,8508\t170,2774\t82,7882\t169,2274\t32,6902\t53,9852\t60,5345\t143,3884\t178,7547\t118,8279\t3,7097\t\n178\t130,615\t72,5128\t70,3394\t13,4194\t120,8906\t11,1696\t151,5979\t16,1714\t138,6589\t102,1334\t17,7464\t49,9747\t177,7547\t35,5774\t136,2752\t28,3642\t76,8433\t\n179\t80,7729\t160,2542\t136,6711\t120,3327\t56,5284\t50,2502\t186,9993\t180,664\t104,8827\t90,3149\t74,1223\t148,6374\t174,1886\t126,7436\t173,4234\t162,9718\t116,8099\t34,8528\t52,3504\t122,7377\t\n180\t160,624\t159,5757\t114,8490\t59,2435\t86,4604\t39,9506\t85,5525\t179,664\t191,6312\t31,3598\t149,3407\t167,6183\t89,6612\t9,5995\t126,7176\t105,341\t\n181\t112,2524\t187,7956\t41,5235\t118,8129\t185,9712\t139,5456\t76,3275\t40,2338\t11,8448\t34,5267\t102,3585\t126,8920\t106,5332\t93,4071\t91,5060\t191,4844\t163,5593\t158,969\t51,158\t\n182\t27,6234\t47,8382\t99,2897\t139,2354\t5,8806\t133,8241\t132,6433\t56,7267\t74,1873\t35,7369\t64,4701\t107,8313\t54,438\t171,4704\t2,7908\t21,2447\t\n183\t160,9293\t112,9037\t102,9634\t99,3577\t81,3061\t88,5547\t11,594\t96,5939\t53,5304\t105,7722\t26,4842\t57,9093\t70,5332\t125,9920\t164,615\t38,5213\t\n184\t6,8021\t130,8488\t188,198\t40,4306\t123,2832\t101,9591\t113,4999\t129,5623\t144,5222\t175,9107\t136,6682\t164,9774\t86,801\t57,7592\t29,9797\t81,4485\t35,7437\t135,7629\t28,4164\t10,3207\t128,6339\t\n185\t57,9772\t105,1033\t90,7284\t52,8925\t83,9306\t97,7065\t148,2814\t25,3573\t197,3140\t50,3968\t11,2045\t141,6820\t76,3674\t108,8699\t60,6670\t188,700\t120,556\t181,9712\t154,1448\t30,3846\t16,6280\t109,6644\t171,5113\t19,5896\t196,1339\t\n186\t57,8815\t152,2075\t197,1324\t42,9391\t188,5027\t92,7980\t179,9993\t191,8255\t58,8993\t143,8430\t116,8639\t162,6114\t71,7143\t189,8128\t195,2099\t68,2528\t103,9654\t\n187\t14,4874\t200,6767\t176,1128\t37,4105\t7,9522\t175,2864\t19,107\t107,2610\t167,9538\t157,7184\t24,9327\t181,7956\t42,3075\t158,6714\t165,1291\t50,2485\t154,1808\t113,6332\t169,9225\t149,9580\t10,4786\t\n188\t23,4236\t198,9114\t137,9117\t184,198\t101,8531\t167,6549\t54,4883\t149,1003\t28,3816\t196,88\t52,7805\t55,5181\t185,700\t186,5027\t171,6981\t97,4695\t138,892\t125,230\t146,5715\t140,6223\t\n189\t152,8140\t160,1530\t8,2780\t114,3102\t86,1115\t40,4263\t77,5702\t50,7031\t47,5939\t85,1147\t60,4415\t69,5215\t186,8128\t198,9430\t122,2017\t51,8899\t151,9732\t193,2375\t\n190\t4,7536\t200,5999\t47,5892\t113,697\t130,3429\t135,1431\t150,5243\t61,9775\t69,8022\t133,9958\t128,2968\t100,6674\t17,7000\t106,3305\t9,3613\t177,1332\t31,5055\t149,3755\t142,8070\t15,6854\t105,2518\t\n191\t77,5135\t126,3989\t176,3352\t94,8318\t186,8255\t121,8606\t87,6921\t44,8130\t103,9683\t75,1403\t181,4844\t50,5026\t180,6312\t111,5723\t37,3573\t133,4296\t\n192\t114,6813\t97,6411\t77,561\t39,7454\t22,4606\t104,4219\t27,5344\t85,544\t173,2550\t91,6625\t169,8603\t116,5906\t49,3113\t163,2762\t122,1494\t148,4834\t\n193\t152,5444\t167,8116\t114,4000\t55,8583\t58,6166\t189,2375\t159,3786\t96,8831\t79,7737\t21,494\t28,9441\t62,6610\t123,7460\t99,4566\t173,4808\t46,199\t\n194\t200,2915\t159,9391\t136,2496\t130,9429\t42,6498\t92,426\t139,6966\t162,1483\t73,8521\t99,5832\t155,6768\t114,949\t46,2429\t79,5784\t135,5726\t\n195\t23,3179\t4,2490\t197,5337\t144,652\t136,4279\t6,2233\t158,4912\t186,2099\t200,8114\t61,8928\t46,8206\t164,9730\t119,617\t19,5038\t67,5737\t\n196\t188,88\t39,9267\t139,3988\t95,231\t61,5577\t161,9729\t125,4519\t117,3366\t103,696\t46,9632\t26,6754\t112,5663\t128,1760\t119,2824\t185,1339\t\n197\t54,2223\t186,1324\t121,6502\t134,6225\t68,8223\t24,9337\t25,3875\t139,1386\t81,5540\t44,4900\t195,5337\t37,9188\t111,4083\t86,9714\t110,751\t136,9068\t185,3140\t104,4174\t175,5909\t\n198\t141,2621\t170,8089\t44,2619\t188,9114\t41,7215\t1,1724\t154,5078\t84,5999\t16,2223\t117,3936\t123,3493\t159,8330\t69,6284\t132,2393\t134,4071\t77,5081\t50,3798\t65,3575\t36,6280\t28,366\t128,1860\t189,9430\t\n199\t152,2697\t8,1918\t136,7783\t59,8958\t24,2838\t175,3779\t31,5564\t162,7749\t65,11\t76,6878\t9,70\t89,2446\t34,8196\t167,2001\t154,5786\t\n200\t108,9976\t103,6851\t145,2753\t41,2622\t187,6767\t190,5999\t16,2848\t194,2915\t5,4009\t172,6888\t39,4319\t176,1709\t60,3269\t138,678\t43,8943\t98,2690\t1,8021\t104,7083\t154,229\t91,1988\t67,475\t76,4623\t195,8114\t37,7541\t54,4899\t\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/dijkstra/heapdijkstra.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nDijkstra's algorithm for finding the shortest path.\nImproved version with the usage of heaps.\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n 2019-02-15 Initial coding\n 2020-03-28 Small code changes, fixed for edge cases not covered\n\n\"\"\"\n\nimport heapq\n\n\ndef make_graph(file):\n try:\n f = open(file, \"r\")\n except IOError:\n raise (\"File does not exist!\")\n\n line_list = f.readlines()\n\n # Kinda messy graph loading\n G = {\n int(line.split()[0]): {\n (int(tup.split(\",\")[0])): int(tup.split(\",\")[1])\n for tup in line.split()[1:]\n if tup\n }\n for line in line_list\n if line\n }\n f.close()\n return G\n\n\ndef dijkstra(G, start, end=None):\n if start not in G or (end != None and end not in G):\n return [], {end: float(\"inf\")}\n\n distance, visited, history, heap, path = {}, {}, {}, [], []\n\n for node in G.keys():\n distance[node] = float(\"inf\")\n visited[node] = False\n\n distance[start], visited[start] = 0, True\n heapq.heappush(heap, (0, start))\n\n while heap:\n (d, node) = heapq.heappop(heap)\n visited[node] = True\n\n for child_node, weight in G[node].items():\n if (not visited[child_node]) and (d + weight < distance[child_node]):\n history[child_node] = node\n distance[child_node] = d + weight\n heapq.heappush(heap, (distance[child_node], child_node))\n\n if end != None:\n current_node = end\n\n while current_node != start:\n try:\n path.insert(0, current_node)\n current_node = history[current_node]\n\n except KeyError:\n return [], distance\n\n path.insert(0, start)\n\n return path, distance\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n # start, end = 1, 160\n # print(f'Goal is to find the path from node {start} to node {end}')\n # G = make_graph('dijkstraData.txt')\n\n G = {1: {2: 10, 3: 20}, 2: {4: 40}, 3: {4: 5}, 4: {}}\n start = 1\n end = 2\n\n path, dist = dijkstra(G, start, end)\n print(f\"Path found: {path}\")\n print(dist)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/floyd-warshall/floyd-warshall.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nPurpose is to the find shortest path from all nodes to all other nodes, O(n^3).\nCan be used with negative weights, however to check if it has negative cycles, bellman ford should prob. be used first.\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n* 2019-03-08 Initial programming\n\n\"\"\"\n\n\ndef load_graph(file_name):\n try:\n with open(file_name) as file:\n line_list = file.readlines()\n file.close()\n\n except IOError:\n raise IOError(\"File does not exist\")\n\n G = {\n int(line.split()[0]): {\n (int(tup.split(\",\")[0])): int(tup.split(\",\")[1])\n for tup in line.split()[1:]\n if tup\n }\n for line in line_list\n if line\n }\n\n # If we have path set path else make value infinity\n adjacency_matrix = [\n [\n G[i][j] if (i in G and j in G[i]) else float(\"inf\")\n for j in range(1, len(G) + 1)\n ]\n for i in range(1, len(G) + 1)\n ]\n\n # Make diagonal values all 0\n for i in range(len(G)):\n adjacency_matrix[i][i] = 0\n\n # next will be matrix showing which path to take for the shortest path\n next = [\n [j if adjacency_matrix[i][j] != float(\"inf\") else None for j in range(len(G))]\n for i in range(len(G))\n ]\n\n return adjacency_matrix, next\n\n\ndef floyd_warshall(adj_matrix, next):\n n = len(adj_matrix)\n # make a copy of adj_matrix, dp will contain APSP (All-Path-Shortest-Path) solutions,\n APSP = adj_matrix.copy()\n\n # Can we get a better path by going through node k?\n for k in range(n):\n # Goal is to find path from i to j\n for i in range(n):\n for j in range(n):\n # if distance from i to k, then k to j is less than distance i to j\n if APSP[i][k] + APSP[k][j] < APSP[i][j]:\n APSP[i][j] = APSP[i][k] + APSP[k][j]\n next[i][j] = next[i][k]\n\n # return APSP (All-Path-Shortest-Path) matrix\n return APSP, next\n\n\ndef construct_path_to_take(next, start, end):\n go_through = start\n path = [start]\n\n while next[go_through][end] != end:\n go_through = next[go_through][end]\n path.append(go_through)\n\n path.append(end)\n\n return path\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n adj_matrix, next = load_graph(\"test_graph.txt\")\n APSP, next = floyd_warshall(adj_matrix, next)\n\n print(f\"The shortest paths are {APSP}\")\n print(f\"The path to take is given by {next}\")\n\n path_to_take = construct_path_to_take(next, 0, 3)\n print(path_to_take)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/floyd-warshall/test_graph.txt", "content": "1 2,5 3,10\n2 4,-3\n3 4,20\n4" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/kahns-toposort/example.txt", "content": "Step C must be finished before step A can begin.\nStep C must be finished before step F can begin.\nStep A must be finished before step B can begin.\nStep A must be finished before step D can begin.\nStep B must be finished before step E can begin.\nStep D must be finished before step E can begin.\nStep F must be finished before step E can begin." }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/kahns-toposort/kahn_topological_ordering.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nPurpose of this algorithm is finding a path that is in topological ordering for a directed acyclic graph (DAG).\nIf the graph is not a DAG and includes cycles it will return is_DAG = 'False' meaning it has cycles.\n\nTime Complexity: O(n + m), n = |V|, m = |E|\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n* 2019-03-17 Intitial programming\n* 2020-03-28 Removed load graph function, just having topological sort seems to make more sense\n The loading of the graph is so varying depending on input, doesn't make much sense to include it\n\n\"\"\"\n\nfrom collections import defaultdict, deque\n\n\ndef topological_ordering(graph, degree_incoming):\n if len(graph) == 0:\n return [], False\n\n curr_accessible_nodes = deque()\n\n for node in graph:\n if degree_incoming[node] == 0:\n curr_accessible_nodes.append(node)\n\n path = []\n\n while curr_accessible_nodes:\n node_topological = curr_accessible_nodes.popleft()\n path.append(node_topological)\n\n for connected_node in graph[node_topological]:\n degree_incoming[connected_node] -= 1\n\n if degree_incoming[connected_node] == 0:\n curr_accessible_nodes.append(connected_node)\n\n # Check if there are still incoming edges (meaning it will have cycles)\n is_DAG = True\n\n for val in degree_incoming.values():\n if val != 0:\n is_DAG = False\n path = []\n\n return path, is_DAG\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n G = {\"A\": [\"B\"], \"B\": [\"C\", \"D\"], \"C\": [\"D\"], \"D\": []}\n degree_incoming = defaultdict(int, {\"B\": 1, \"C\": 1, \"D\": 2})\n\n print(\"The graph to check is : \" + str(G))\n print(\"Which has incoming edges: \" + str(degree_incoming))\n print(\"\\n\")\n path_to_take, is_DAG = topological_ordering(G, degree_incoming)\n print(\"The graph has a topological ordering <--> G is a DAG: \" + str(is_DAG))\n print(f'One path to take that is a topological ordering is {\"\".join(path_to_take)}')\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/kargers/kargermincut.py", "content": "# Purpose of Karger's algorithm is to compute the minimum cut of a connected graph.\n# If you have nodes connected to edges, where should the graph be cut so that we cut\n# the minimum amount of edges possible\n\n# Programmed by Aladdin Persson\n# 2019-01-25 Initial programming\n\n# Improvements to be made:\n# * Comment code better\n# * See if there is a datastructure to be used to make it faster\n\nimport random, copy\n\nrandom.seed(1)\n\n\ndef load_graph():\n data = open(\"data.txt\", \"r\")\n G = {}\n\n for line in data:\n lst = [int(x) for x in line.split()]\n G[lst[0]] = lst[1:]\n\n return G\n\n\ndef get_random_edge(G):\n v1 = random.choice(list(G.keys()))\n v2 = random.choice(list(G[v1]))\n return v1, v2\n\n\ndef karger_contraction(G):\n length = []\n\n while len(G) > 2:\n v1, v2 = get_random_edge(G)\n G[v1].extend(G[v2])\n\n for edge in G[v2]:\n G[edge].remove(v2)\n G[edge].append(v1)\n\n # self-connections\n while v1 in G[v1]:\n G[v1].remove(v1)\n\n del G[v2]\n\n for key in G.keys():\n length.append(len(G[key]))\n\n return length[0]\n\n\ndef main():\n count = None\n G = load_graph()\n N = 100\n\n for i in range(N):\n data = copy.deepcopy(G)\n min_cut = karger_contraction(data)\n if count == None or min_cut < count:\n count = min_cut\n\n return count\n\n\nval = main()\nprint(val)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/kargers/kargermincutdata.txt", "content": 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}, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/kruskal/edges.txt", "content": "500 2184\n1 2 6807\n2 3 -8874\n3 4 -1055\n4 5 4414\n5 6 1728\n6 7 -2237\n7 8 -7507\n8 9 7990\n9 10 -5012\n10 11 7353\n11 12 -6736\n12 13 -7604\n13 14 5273\n14 15 9331\n15 16 -7753\n16 17 -4370\n17 18 267\n18 19 903\n19 20 7674\n20 21 5436\n21 22 9479\n22 23 9432\n23 24 4472\n24 25 7258\n25 26 8709\n26 27 4358\n27 28 -6775\n28 29 68\n29 30 -2849\n30 31 -9951\n31 32 -8643\n32 33 -4010\n33 34 -4667\n34 35 -5829\n35 36 -5222\n36 37 -7609\n37 38 3054\n38 39 7935\n39 40 173\n40 41 9596\n41 42 -4557\n42 43 -4823\n43 44 -6198\n44 45 8450\n45 46 5533\n46 47 -6059\n47 48 7411\n48 49 9102\n49 50 914\n50 51 9501\n51 52 2704\n52 53 -140\n53 54 1179\n54 55 -1572\n55 56 7095\n56 57 3613\n57 58 5888\n58 59 -4184\n59 60 1910\n60 61 4401\n61 62 591\n62 63 -9504\n63 64 3116\n64 65 -6230\n65 66 1867\n66 67 3816\n67 68 2402\n68 69 7667\n69 70 -3532\n70 71 -2985\n71 72 -3462\n72 73 7737\n73 74 8886\n74 75 -102\n75 76 -3013\n76 77 9948\n77 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-8205\n159 378 3173\n159 397 -7157\n159 406 8444\n160 247 3760\n161 218 1596\n161 377 -9871\n161 439 4256\n161 484 6320\n162 173 8856\n162 298 718\n162 433 -5687\n163 169 -105\n163 400 7596\n164 214 7529\n164 247 -2548\n164 405 -4926\n164 448 3596\n165 198 -414\n165 248 -7477\n165 292 8625\n166 265 -3934\n166 282 702\n166 285 4258\n166 356 -2006\n166 495 4133\n167 201 -2809\n167 248 -976\n167 312 -6573\n167 314 -4689\n167 379 6664\n167 440 2182\n167 445 1085\n167 488 -9090\n167 493 -4072\n168 197 5974\n168 240 -3640\n168 399 -5704\n168 421 3367\n169 338 -8967\n169 394 -4660\n169 425 951\n169 449 -7246\n169 461 6563\n170 172 6055\n170 193 617\n170 218 -7389\n170 224 -8631\n170 245 -769\n170 267 9033\n170 320 -7051\n170 357 8702\n170 411 -2058\n171 177 9792\n171 372 -6686\n171 421 7323\n171 449 6235\n172 211 -8557\n172 314 6500\n172 322 -5817\n173 203 2295\n173 213 2724\n173 372 8600\n173 428 -8093\n173 456 8760\n174 291 5666\n174 492 -694\n174 495 1955\n175 185 1216\n175 200 8457\n175 205 -8284\n175 256 -438\n175 307 -5851\n175 339 -7008\n175 365 -6619\n175 393 -5717\n176 207 6188\n176 242 -649\n176 289 3109\n176 422 4779\n177 445 2306\n177 486 8223\n178 232 2530\n178 448 -2604\n178 468 134\n179 227 -1273\n179 288 -4893\n179 425 5093\n179 428 -8340\n180 298 2504\n181 488 1886\n182 193 -6632\n182 270 -1554\n182 320 7394\n182 340 6280\n182 377 7890\n182 425 8577\n182 480 1362\n183 193 6227\n183 199 -1706\n183 237 6799\n183 367 -1432\n183 408 4053\n183 415 6853\n183 431 1276\n184 210 -3111\n184 290 -4607\n184 465 2062\n184 479 -3142\n185 213 7099\n185 320 5947\n185 359 -6637\n185 428 -114\n186 198 -9486\n186 199 3250\n186 298 3968\n187 387 -4246\n187 486 6414\n188 351 7176\n188 398 7300\n188 420 -243\n188 479 2577\n189 225 -2315\n189 420 8513\n189 488 8460\n189 498 3052\n190 256 3716\n191 213 -4766\n191 355 3463\n191 476 -7120\n192 263 -3627\n192 339 3794\n192 350 8272\n192 433 -6813\n192 435 1662\n193 248 -4769\n193 360 3623\n193 443 -772\n193 452 -9490\n193 474 -2936\n193 478 -4892\n194 274 583\n194 308 9724\n194 331 4260\n194 496 -4010\n195 346 -9407\n195 350 -212\n195 355 3065\n195 431 -7120\n196 219 3442\n196 263 -4895\n196 266 -6390\n196 296 -5022\n196 334 9480\n196 340 1123\n196 416 9233\n197 208 1046\n197 242 8330\n197 250 2194\n197 380 -885\n197 412 -564\n197 435 1743\n198 200 -7410\n198 234 -6093\n198 252 -6392\n198 459 8674\n199 258 -621\n199 406 -3337\n200 212 -5618\n200 272 1856\n200 349 171\n200 400 -3876\n200 407 -146\n201 260 -3438\n201 304 4721\n201 324 4802\n201 454 7876\n202 217 -5366\n202 286 8869\n203 211 -4145\n203 253 6998\n203 331 6905\n203 374 -6327\n203 406 -9424\n203 412 3675\n204 231 -6073\n204 243 6298\n204 283 832\n204 389 8924\n204 459 9117\n204 467 -8510\n205 252 3285\n205 446 -1787\n206 432 -8822\n207 214 -3104\n207 235 -3264\n207 348 5600\n207 385 4137\n208 232 4028\n208 236 -4332\n208 246 9627\n208 385 -1105\n208 448 7275\n208 466 -7370\n209 243 -3754\n209 267 -6273\n209 305 6161\n211 230 3348\n211 421 -4794\n211 443 -7502\n212 264 -7012\n212 286 -9917\n212 311 8251\n212 423 2755\n213 348 -1196\n213 364 -2205\n214 305 -3680\n214 363 -2848\n214 376 3221\n214 497 -505\n215 470 -401\n215 493 -191\n216 239 -3522\n216 393 -534\n216 410 -2461\n216 460 7812\n217 270 -4519\n217 275 9153\n217 292 6055\n217 475 6329\n217 491 -9531\n218 244 -8687\n219 290 3758\n219 396 3953\n219 485 -6143\n220 250 -135\n220 269 2763\n220 319 -5456\n220 353 789\n220 399 -5050\n221 246 5281\n221 304 4355\n221 312 -3212\n221 479 -3444\n222 292 3415\n222 338 1753\n222 346 8628\n222 370 9853\n222 380 -3720\n222 407 1917\n222 423 -1460\n222 446 8140\n222 473 4443\n222 488 7164\n223 236 8651\n223 243 5533\n223 305 -826\n223 358 2512\n223 407 1829\n223 473 6710\n224 482 2769\n225 283 -4027\n225 315 -9440\n225 485 -3447\n226 258 -9022\n226 263 4293\n226 302 8024\n226 390 7503\n226 446 6681\n226 459 2031\n226 492 9193\n226 495 -2439\n227 229 7428\n227 357 9224\n227 473 -573\n227 477 1183\n228 234 4008\n228 386 -9013\n228 397 -7927\n228 472 1465\n229 239 -1880\n229 356 -7955\n229 368 -3874\n229 449 5955\n230 276 -5718\n230 311 4350\n230 315 -9532\n230 341 -9152\n230 424 -3571\n230 499 -2295\n231 276 582\n231 412 -5595\n231 440 -5095\n231 480 -3834\n231 482 -1069\n232 312 -6425\n232 313 8251\n232 331 -1972\n232 374 -1096\n233 263 -8107\n233 277 -7785\n233 455 -1766\n234 266 5292\n234 296 9612\n234 369 6746\n234 377 -1774\n234 400 3627\n235 298 -449\n235 336 5364\n235 413 -8868\n236 274 9390\n236 421 -6331\n236 469 1319\n236 477 4382\n237 268 -6651\n237 341 190\n237 385 7935\n237 409 -2603\n237 459 1672\n238 263 8954\n238 271 -3836\n238 275 -7472\n238 369 -5942\n238 377 2927\n238 409 8221\n239 391 -9266\n239 421 -4822\n239 452 5937\n240 322 -3338\n240 339 3282\n240 399 -2622\n241 302 -2907\n241 409 7745\n241 444 -6059\n242 289 -955\n242 339 2001\n242 368 1164\n243 460 -7045\n243 463 -5135\n243 470 1449\n243 487 6043\n244 265 1566\n244 374 -1285\n244 398 7976\n244 448 718\n244 500 -4182\n245 260 8850\n245 436 4045\n245 484 7330\n246 265 -3434\n246 336 -6729\n246 438 -3820\n246 486 8603\n247 343 3748\n247 382 -1009\n248 292 7907\n248 450 -4786\n248 468 -1092\n248 478 3078\n248 482 -6116\n249 313 3515\n249 325 -5814\n249 411 7358\n249 438 1582\n249 458 -6860\n249 459 238\n249 480 9963\n250 446 3422\n250 462 -5069\n250 489 7450\n251 257 1209\n251 449 -7320\n251 453 2129\n252 287 -397\n252 314 1118\n252 414 6273\n253 263 5128\n253 306 -952\n253 402 2856\n253 436 -5911\n254 280 -8438\n254 322 -1109\n254 490 -340\n255 272 2320\n255 298 -6885\n255 440 -8229\n255 495 2356\n256 290 -4019\n256 345 -5305\n256 375 6639\n256 438 -794\n257 274 730\n257 320 -2710\n257 339 4157\n257 353 7433\n257 393 -3212\n257 448 -9484\n258 278 -3756\n258 314 -2667\n258 340 -7890\n258 474 -4979\n259 285 3037\n259 317 -4276\n259 330 -782\n259 385 8469\n259 420 2164\n259 443 755\n260 267 -9134\n260 365 -4664\n260 415 4024\n260 479 -7629\n260 496 -5938\n262 388 -855\n263 447 6606\n263 484 9396\n264 270 -3693\n264 351 -5652\n264 371 -6151\n264 451 3117\n264 493 6685\n265 424 -165\n265 496 3908\n266 372 6772\n266 411 -6081\n266 441 6677\n267 317 4793\n267 350 -1054\n267 352 -2063\n267 408 -7695\n267 464 -7760\n268 277 1239\n268 298 8735\n268 338 8235\n268 412 -1794\n268 450 6463\n268 487 2888\n269 477 9993\n270 311 -14\n270 325 -6345\n270 483 8353\n271 290 9280\n271 439 -5855\n272 482 -3664\n272 496 -7845\n273 278 9765\n273 291 5124\n273 314 4107\n273 478 -1777\n274 299 3577\n274 337 -3927\n274 339 -2127\n274 344 6229\n274 468 6070\n275 349 3353\n275 394 8581\n275 418 7429\n275 425 9139\n276 347 7978\n276 431 6269\n276 432 -7970\n276 450 5965\n276 476 -9556\n277 279 5868\n277 298 -1464\n277 326 -2266\n277 453 -5936\n277 462 -1412\n278 321 7572\n278 344 8058\n279 351 -3464\n279 442 -1719\n280 378 544\n280 409 -292\n281 291 -7273\n282 312 375\n282 349 -9869\n283 294 -6687\n283 318 9299\n283 398 -7542\n283 468 6833\n283 469 -9907\n284 318 7298\n284 354 -9097\n284 385 9302\n285 366 -9502\n285 473 5517\n286 360 -5149\n286 379 9500\n286 414 5381\n286 426 2255\n286 428 7164\n286 500 -6235\n287 378 -4225\n287 459 2745\n287 498 -1815\n288 372 6372\n289 297 -5802\n289 383 7223\n289 439 1304\n290 322 593\n290 412 7623\n290 465 2827\n290 467 -4613\n291 343 4818\n291 420 4993\n291 437 -8494\n292 412 2192\n292 463 -5174\n293 343 -8657\n294 327 5312\n294 346 -2660\n294 428 924\n294 449 -7189\n295 337 -3608\n295 426 -105\n295 437 7082\n295 498 537\n296 454 3345\n296 459 3449\n296 491 -7492\n297 382 8458\n297 493 6739\n297 498 5345\n298 361 6214\n298 367 5118\n298 405 7802\n298 418 -9505\n298 441 -5427\n298 494 -4071\n299 412 -6638\n299 479 -5738\n300 344 -8409\n300 495 -8315\n301 384 6586\n301 407 -1315\n301 499 -7760\n302 360 -3943\n304 384 4189\n305 312 7707\n305 315 5953\n305 322 -5192\n305 355 -4403\n305 418 -3646\n307 314 4842\n307 340 -8967\n307 354 -7654\n307 362 -4051\n308 389 -8415\n308 409 7497\n308 496 -4559\n309 346 -9056\n309 456 5089\n310 315 -8266\n310 341 -9066\n310 431 -7614\n310 454 -1644\n312 363 3816\n312 474 -8920\n313 374 1879\n313 470 -9447\n313 475 -902\n313 487 -320\n313 495 2173\n313 498 -3278\n314 373 8505\n314 455 -9700\n314 477 -6120\n314 496 1787\n314 500 4895\n315 365 7391\n315 366 -6131\n315 411 4342\n315 477 -2638\n316 462 3135\n316 476 -6467\n317 427 6162\n317 453 -9333\n317 479 9303\n318 486 -3055\n319 376 585\n320 330 -1721\n320 357 -4449\n320 375 6582\n320 464 9850\n321 357 -7452\n321 416 -8708\n322 377 -382\n322 401 -3823\n323 332 7997\n323 398 -9158\n323 476 327\n324 393 -3743\n325 420 -4767\n325 437 -2082\n325 471 2162\n325 480 -3105\n326 404 9588\n327 424 -1046\n327 453 -8709\n328 464 977\n329 407 -5566\n329 498 -9021\n330 344 5534\n330 463 -195\n330 473 7879\n332 352 -7936\n332 486 9142\n333 366 -3372\n333 450 77\n333 451 -5301\n333 481 -3148\n333 482 6547\n334 411 -5706\n334 480 1301\n334 484 6071\n334 491 -1241\n335 442 -4979\n336 339 5558\n336 399 -2245\n336 461 -8129\n337 383 -6903\n338 360 6010\n338 377 7453\n338 382 -8645\n339 369 2718\n339 395 5299\n339 404 9746\n340 350 8615\n340 386 6167\n340 407 2399\n340 484 -1929\n341 343 -5565\n341 420 5265\n341 458 -6180\n342 346 8831\n342 489 1939\n343 378 4970\n343 397 -7570\n343 424 2842\n343 452 -536\n343 488 -6842\n344 356 -7281\n344 453 -8302\n345 425 -5731\n346 454 -3527\n347 392 5563\n347 418 -2386\n347 466 3771\n347 468 -4049\n348 397 6497\n348 486 -2415\n349 352 -613\n349 398 3335\n350 378 6543\n350 434 7699\n350 465 9140\n350 482 -2291\n351 409 -1048\n351 426 3612\n351 471 409\n353 395 9151\n353 412 9296\n353 419 -735\n353 436 -5275\n353 453 -1087\n353 500 8370\n354 359 -4117\n354 386 -846\n354 410 1672\n355 406 -1579\n355 420 -8857\n355 497 -895\n356 466 -8140\n357 404 -2310\n357 450 1350\n358 382 3911\n358 386 3609\n358 395 -6761\n358 436 8427\n359 495 1554\n360 459 -6735\n360 489 -9515\n361 377 4408\n361 437 -1746\n361 488 -2367\n361 499 8199\n362 422 9597\n362 427 4182\n364 375 7988\n364 415 6754\n365 426 -6930\n365 481 -3070\n366 382 -6765\n366 432 -9909\n366 454 -9405\n367 380 -5349\n367 412 3542\n368 380 6629\n368 411 -1355\n368 421 1195\n368 465 6223\n368 470 -334\n368 474 -7991\n368 493 2282\n369 376 3704\n369 450 -2512\n370 420 -9950\n371 398 -9477\n371 432 -6670\n371 448 -200\n372 387 6424\n373 380 -3592\n373 470 -8502\n375 393 9105\n375 453 -2933\n375 492 -6444\n376 427 -7114\n376 470 -4493\n377 434 9582\n378 465 3894\n379 398 8878\n379 491 9760\n380 439 -1859\n381 407 9593\n381 484 -1667\n382 405 6975\n382 499 4725\n383 466 7807\n384 442 -9312\n384 480 5442\n384 485 -3665\n385 410 -2643\n385 422 2303\n386 438 6767\n388 481 3277\n389 411 -7853\n390 417 3903\n390 463 7696\n390 479 9257\n392 465 3120\n392 493 759\n394 398 6573\n394 494 7679\n395 479 1669\n395 495 -2332\n396 459 6338\n398 450 -9491\n398 476 -8221\n398 481 -9932\n399 424 -4886\n399 445 6302\n400 433 -6294\n401 412 -662\n401 464 9064\n401 480 -8775\n402 469 -1306\n403 498 1210\n406 420 -2125\n407 488 7000\n410 459 -1638\n410 467 -1424\n410 478 -1565\n410 493 -7145\n411 445 1797\n420 464 -3068\n420 492 -1060\n421 435 -8158\n422 469 -8414\n423 440 -2764\n423 493 1392\n424 472 6518\n425 498 -57\n427 451 4970\n428 433 -4289\n428 487 896\n429 453 4573\n430 443 -3248\n433 482 -5668\n433 494 9608\n433 499 7927\n434 488 -447\n438 479 3219\n441 466 -2111\n442 454 -7877\n442 488 -4811\n445 483 -1801\n452 462 8016\n452 489 -1217\n452 497 -8325\n454 489 -9298\n454 498 -4686\n456 474 1691\n457 500 2717\n459 478 2393\n460 492 -5705\n460 499 9321\n462 471 -2894\n463 473 -5410\n463 477 1205\n464 468 -2595\n464 475 -9291\n467 473 9837\n473 500 1052\n474 491 7245\n478 480 -4790\n496 500 -1519\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/kruskal/kruskal.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nKruskal's algorithm for finding minimal spanning tree (MST) of a graph.\n\nAladdin Persson \n 2019-02-16 Initial programming\n\n\"\"\"\n\nimport sys\n\nsys.path.append(\"../depth-first-search\")\nfrom DFS_stack_iterative import DFS\n\n\ndef load_graph(file=\"edges.txt\"):\n G = []\n\n try:\n f = open(file, \"r\")\n except IOError:\n raise (\"File does not exist!\")\n\n line_list = f.readlines()\n\n num_nodes, num_edges = map(int, line_list[0].split())\n\n for line in line_list[1:]:\n G.append(tuple(map(int, line.split()))[::-1])\n\n return sorted(G), num_nodes\n\n\ndef kruskal(G, num_nodes):\n MST = []\n tot_cost = 0\n temp_G = {key: [] for key in range(1, num_nodes + 1)}\n\n for each_set in G:\n temp_G[each_set[2]] += [each_set[1]]\n temp_G[each_set[1]] += [each_set[2]]\n\n visited, path = DFS(temp_G, each_set[2])\n\n if len(set(path)) == len(path):\n tot_cost += each_set[0]\n\n if each_set[2] not in MST:\n MST.append(each_set[2])\n\n if each_set[1] not in MST:\n MST.append(each_set[1])\n else:\n temp_G[each_set[2]].pop()\n temp_G[each_set[1]].pop()\n\n return MST, tot_cost\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"---- Computing minimal spanning tree using Kruskal's Algorithm ----\")\n print()\n\n G, num_nodes = load_graph()\n\n print(f\"Our loaded graph is: {G}\")\n MST, total_cost = kruskal(G)\n\n print(f\"Our minimum spanning tree is: {MST}\")\n print(f\"Total cost is: {total_cost}\")\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/kruskal/kruskal_unionfind.py", "content": "# Kruskal's algorithm for finding minimal spanning tree (MST) of a graph. Using Union find datastructure\n\n# Aladdin Persson \n# 2019-02-18 Initial programming\n\nfrom unionfind import unionfind\n\n\ndef load_graph(file=\"edges.txt\"):\n G = []\n\n try:\n f = open(file, \"r\")\n except IOError:\n raise (\"File does not exist!\")\n\n line_list = f.readlines()\n\n num_nodes, num_edges = map(int, line_list[0].split())\n\n for line in line_list[1:]:\n G.append(tuple(map(int, line.split()))[::-1])\n\n return sorted(G), num_nodes\n\n\ndef kruskal(G, num_nodes):\n uf = unionfind(num_nodes)\n tot_cost, MST = 0, []\n\n for each_edge in G:\n cost, to_node, from_node = each_edge[0], each_edge[1], each_edge[2]\n\n if not uf.issame(from_node - 1, to_node - 1):\n tot_cost += cost\n uf.unite(from_node - 1, to_node - 1)\n MST.append((from_node, to_node, cost))\n\n return MST, tot_cost\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"---- Computing minimal spanning tree using Kruskal's Algorithm ----\")\n print()\n\n G, num_nodes = load_graph()\n\n print(f\"Our loaded graph is: {G}\")\n print()\n\n MST, total_cost = kruskal(G)\n\n print(f\"Our minimum spanning tree is: {MST}\")\n print(f\"Total cost is: {total_cost}\")\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/kruskal/testedges.txt", "content": "7 8\n1 2 20\n1 3 10\n2 4 50\n3 5 25\n3 6 70\n5 6 100\n5 7 150\n6 5 100" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/nearest-neighbor-tsp/NearestNeighborTSP.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nAuthor: Philip Andreadis\ne-mail: philip_andreadis@hotmail.com\n\n This script implements a simple heuristic solver for the Traveling Salesman Problem.\n It is not guaranteed that an optimal solution will be found.\n\n Format of input text file must be as follows:\n 1st line - number of nodes\n each next line is an edge and its respective weight\n\n The program is executed via command line with the graph in the txt format as input.\n\n\"\"\"\n\nimport time\nimport sys\n\n\n\n\"\"\"\nThis function reads the text file and returns a 2d list which represents \nthe adjacency matrix of the given graph\n\"\"\"\ndef parseGraph(path):\n # Read number of vertices and create adjacency matrix\n f = open(path, \"r\")\n n = int(f.readline())\n adjMatrix = [[-1 for i in range(n)] for j in range(n)]\n #Fill adjacency matrix with the correct edges\n for line in f:\n edge = line.split(\" \")\n edge = list(map(int, edge))\n adjMatrix[edge[0]][edge[1]] = edge[2]\n adjMatrix[edge[1]][edge[0]] = edge[2]\n for i in range(len(adjMatrix)):\n adjMatrix[i][i] = 0\n return adjMatrix\n\n\n\n\"\"\"\nReturns all the neighboring nodes of a node sorted based on the distance between them.\n\"\"\"\ndef rankNeighbors(node,adj):\n sortednn = {}\n nList = []\n for i in range(len(adj[node])):\n if adj[node][i]>0:\n sortednn[i] = adj[node][i]\n sortednn = {k: v for k, v in sorted(sortednn.items(), key=lambda item: item[1])}\n nList = list(sortednn.keys())\n return nList\n\n\n\"\"\"\nFunction implementing the logic of nearest neighbor TSP.\nGenerate two lists a and b, placing the starting node in list a and the rest in list b.\nWhile b is not empty append to a the closest neighboring node of the last node in a and remove it from b.\nRepeat until a full path has been added to a and b is empty.\nReturns list a representing the shortest path of the graph.\n\"\"\"\ndef nnTSP(adj):\n nodes = list(range(0, len(adj)))\n #print(nodes)\n weight = 0\n global length\n # Starting node is 0\n a = []\n a.append(nodes[0])\n b = nodes[1:]\n while b:\n # Take last placed node in a\n last = a[-1]\n # Find its nearest neighbor\n sortedNeighbors = rankNeighbors(last,adj)\n # If node being checked has no valid neighbors and the path is not complete a dead end is reached\n if (not sortedNeighbors) and len(a)\n 2019-02-16 Initial programming\n 2020-03-29 Changed few lines to be able to handle empty graphs, etc, and changed how MST is computed (now correctly)\n\"\"\"\n\nimport heapq\n\n\ndef load_graph(file=\"edges.txt\"):\n try:\n f = open(file, \"r\")\n except IOError:\n raise (\"File does not exist!\")\n\n line_list = f.readlines()\n\n num_nodes, num_edges = line_list[0].split()\n\n # We want to have edge cost first because the min heap will be based on edge cost\n # concretely that's why we do [::-1], a bit confusing maybe\n G = {\n line: [\n tuple(map(int, tup.split()))[::-1]\n for tup in line_list[1:]\n if (int(tup.split()[0]) == line or int(tup.split()[1]) == line)\n ]\n for line in range(1, int(num_nodes) + 1)\n }\n\n f.close()\n return G\n\n\n# Takes as input G which will have {node1: [(cost, to_node, node1), ...], node2:[(...)] }\ndef prims_algo(G, start=1):\n if len(G) == 0:\n return [], 0\n\n unvisited_nodes = [i for i in range(1, len(G) + 1)]\n visited_nodes = []\n tot_cost = 0\n\n unvisited_nodes.remove(start)\n visited_nodes.append(start)\n MST = []\n\n heap = G[start]\n heapq.heapify(heap)\n\n while unvisited_nodes:\n if len(heap) == 0:\n # there is no MST because graph is disconnected then return MST of subgraph\n return MST, tot_cost\n\n (cost, n2, n1) = heapq.heappop(heap)\n new_node = None\n\n if n1 in unvisited_nodes and n2 in visited_nodes:\n new_node = n1\n MST.append((n2, n1, cost))\n\n elif n1 in visited_nodes and n2 in unvisited_nodes:\n new_node = n2\n MST.append((n1, n2, cost))\n\n if new_node != None:\n unvisited_nodes.remove(new_node)\n visited_nodes.append(new_node)\n tot_cost += cost\n\n for each in G[new_node]:\n heapq.heappush(heap, each)\n\n return MST, tot_cost\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"---- Computing minimal spanning tree using Prims Algorithm ---- \\n\")\n\n G = load_graph()\n MST, tot_cost = prims_algo(G)\n\n # print(f'The minimum spanning tree is: {MST}')\n print(f\"Total cost of minimum spanning tree is {tot_cost}\")\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/graphtheory/prims/prim_naive.py", "content": "# Prims algorithm for finding minimal spanning tree (MST) of a graph\n\n# With this straightforward implementation: O(m * n) where m = # edges, n = # vertices\n\n# Aladdin Persson \n# 2019-02-15 Initial programming\n\n# Improvement: Want to implement using heap datastructure\n\n\ndef load_graph(path=\"edges.txt\"):\n edge_list = []\n\n with open(path) as f:\n lines = f.readlines()\n num_nodes, num_edges = [int(i) for i in lines[0].split()]\n\n for line in lines[1:]:\n node1, node2, edge_cost = [int(i) for i in line.split()]\n edge_list.append((node1, node2, edge_cost))\n\n return edge_list, num_nodes, num_edges\n\n\ndef prims_algo(edge_list, num_nodes):\n X = []\n V = [i for i in range(1, num_nodes + 1)]\n E = []\n total_cost = 0\n start = 1\n\n X.append(start)\n V.remove(start)\n\n while len(V) != 0:\n lowest_cost = float(\"inf\")\n nodeX = None\n nodeV = None\n\n for edge in edge_list:\n if edge[0] in X and edge[1] in V:\n if edge[2] < lowest_cost:\n nodeX = edge[0]\n nodeV = edge[1]\n lowest_cost = edge[2]\n\n elif edge[1] in X and edge[0] in V:\n if edge[2] < lowest_cost:\n nodeX = edge[1]\n nodeV = edge[0]\n lowest_cost = edge[2]\n\n if nodeX != None:\n X.append(nodeV)\n V.remove(nodeV)\n E.append((nodeX, nodeV, lowest_cost))\n total_cost += lowest_cost\n\n return E, total_cost\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(\"Computing minimal spanning tree using Prims Algorithm\")\n\n edge_list, num_nodes, num_edges = load_graph()\n\n E, tot_cost = prims_algo(edge_list, num_nodes)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/math/euclid_gcd/euclid_gcd.py", "content": "# \"Euclidean algorithm is one of the oldest algorithms in common use\".\n# The purpose is to find the greatest common divisor between two numbers a,b.\n\n# Example: gcd(21, 7) = 7\n\n# Programmed by Aladdin Persson\n# 2019-02-19 Initial programming\n\n\ndef gcd_recursive(a, b):\n if b == 0:\n return a\n else:\n return gcd_recursive(b, a % b)\n\n\ndef gcd_iterative(a, b):\n while b != 0:\n a, b = b, a % b\n\n return a\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n print(gcd_iterative(65, 14))\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/math/extended_euclidean_algorithm/euclid_gcd.py", "content": "\"\"\"\n\n\n\"\"\"\n\nimport sys\n\nsys.setrecursionlimit(100000)\n\n\ndef extended_euclidean(a, b):\n if a == 0:\n return (b, 0, 1)\n\n else:\n gcd, x, y = extended_euclidean(b % a, a)\n return (gcd, y - (b // a) * x, x)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n # print(extended_euclidean(5,-2772))\n print(extended_euclidean(1635, 26))\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/math/intersection_of_two_sets/intersection_of_two_sets.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nPurpose is given two sets A,B find the intersection of them. I know there must be more efficients ways than what I,\nam doing here but havn't figured out how yet.\n\nComplexity: O(nlog(n)) + O(mlog(m)) + O(n+m) = O(max(n*log(n), m*log(m))\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n* 2019-03-13 Initial programming\n\n\"\"\"\n\n\ndef intersection(A, B):\n # n = length of A, m = length of B\n # O(nlog(n) + mlog(n)) cost for sorting\n A = sorted(A)\n B = sorted(B)\n\n i, j = 0, 0\n\n AB_intersection = []\n\n # complexity O(n+m)\n while i < len(A) and j < len(B):\n if A[i] < B[j]:\n i += 1\n\n elif B[j] < A[i]:\n j += 1\n\n elif A[i] == B[j]:\n AB_intersection.append(A[i])\n i += 1\n j += 1\n\n return AB_intersection\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n A = [1, 3, 5, 8, 12]\n B = [2, 3, 5, 10, 12]\n\n intersection_AB = intersection(A, B)\n print(intersection_AB)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/math/karatsuba/karatsuba.py", "content": "# Purpose is to implement karatsuba multiplication, a way of computing\n# x * y which is faster than the normal method taught at school which has a time complexity of O(n^2) which\n# is very slow. This method produces a way which is much faster approx. O(n^(log2(3)))\n\n# import random to check if implementation is correct\nimport random\n\n\ndef karatsuba(x, y):\n # handle negative numbers multiplication\n if x < 0:\n return -1 * karatsuba(-x, y)\n if y < 0:\n return -1 * karatsuba(x, -y)\n\n # Base case (two numbers from 1-9 multiplication)\n if len(str(x)) == 1 or len(str(y)) == 1:\n return x * y\n\n n = max(len(str(x)), len(str(y)))\n\n # split about middle (can be done in multiple ways, found on github, thought was rly clever)\n a = x // 10 ** (n // 2)\n b = x % 10 ** (n // 2)\n c = y // 10 ** (n // 2)\n d = y % 10 ** (n // 2)\n\n # Compute the terms using recursion\n ac = karatsuba(a, c)\n bd = karatsuba(b, d)\n ad_bc = karatsuba(a + b, c + d) - ac - bd\n\n # calculate x * y\n product = ac * (10 ** (2 * (n // 2))) + ad_bc * (10 ** (n // 2)) + bd\n\n # return x * y\n return product\n\n\n# Following checks if implementation is correct\n# if __name__ == '__main__':\n# for _ in range(500):\n# a = random.randint(-100000, 100000)\n# b = random.randint(-100000, 100000)\n# karatsuba_result = karatsuba(a, b)\n# correct_result = a * b\n#\n# if karatsuba_result != correct_result:\n# print('mismatch for %s and %s' % (a, b))\n# print(f'Correct result was {correct_result}')\n# print(f'Karatsuba method got it to {karatsuba_result}')\n# break\n\n\n# For Programming Assignment 1\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n x = 3141592653589793238462643383279502884197169399375105820974944592\n y = 2718281828459045235360287471352662497757247093699959574966967627\n\n print(karatsuba(x, y))\n print(x * y)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/math/pollard_p1/pollard_p1.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nPurpose is given a number write it only as a factorization of primes.\n\nTime complexity:\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n* 2019-08-22 Initial programming\n\n\"\"\"\n\nfrom math import gcd\n\n\ndef pollard_p1(n):\n r = 2\n\n for i in range(2, 100):\n r = r ** i % n\n\n if gcd(r - 1, n) != 1:\n print(\"One factor found was: \" + str(gcd(r - 1, n)))\n print(\"Number of iterations was: \" + str(i))\n return gcd(r - 1, n)\n\n print(\"No factorization was found\")\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n pollard_p1(703425623)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/math/prime_factorization/primefactorization.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nPurpose is given a number write it only as a factorization of primes.\n\nTime complexity: O(sqrt(n)) PSEUDO-POLYNOMIAL, actually exponential!\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n* 2019-03-18 Initial programming\n* 2019-08-19 Noticed a bug when using. Should be correct now, but I need to implement\n more robust tests to be certain that this is a correct implementation.\n\n\"\"\"\n\n\ndef primefactorization(n):\n original_value = n\n values = []\n\n for i in range(2, int(n ** 0.5) + 1):\n # Will not pass this if statement if i is not a prime number.\n # (This is because all numbers have a prime factorization)\n if n % i == 0:\n\n while n % i == 0:\n n /= i\n values.append(i)\n\n if len(values) != 0:\n values.append(\n int(n)\n ) # if we have found one factor <= sqrt(n), then there will be another factor.\n print(f\"Prime factorization of {original_value} is: {values}\")\n else:\n print(\n f\"There is no prime factorization because the number {original_value} is a prime\"\n )\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n # primefactorization(2**2**6 + 1)\n primefactorization(123)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/math/sieve_of_eratosthenes/sieve_eratosthenes.py", "content": "# Purpose of this is to find primes from [2,n]\n\n# Programmed by Aladdin Persson \n# 2019-02-27 Initial programming\n\n\ndef eratosthenes(n):\n primes, sieve = [], [True] * (n + 1)\n sieve[0], sieve[1] = \"Zero\", \"One\"\n\n for num in range(2, n + 1):\n if sieve[num]:\n primes.append(num)\n\n # \"Optimized\" loop here because we dont have to go up 1,2,3,4 in this\n # we can jump num instead\n for i in range(num * num, n + 1, num):\n sieve[i] = False\n\n return primes\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n n = 10 ** 6\n primes = eratosthenes(n)\n print(primes)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/math/union_of_two_sets/union_of_two_sets.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nPurpose is given two sets A,B find the union of them. I know there must be more efficients ways than what I,\nam doing here but havn't figured out how yet.\n\nComplexity: O(nlog(n)) + O(mlog(m)) + O(n+m) = O(max(n*log(n), m*log(m))\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n* 2019-03-13 Initial programming\n\n\"\"\"\n\n\ndef union(A, B):\n # n = length of A, m = length of B\n # O(nlog(n) + mlog(n)) cost for sorting\n A = sorted(A)\n B = sorted(B)\n\n i, j = 0, 0\n\n AB_union = []\n\n # complexity O(n+m)\n while i < len(A) and j < len(B):\n if A[i] < B[j]:\n AB_union.append(A[i])\n i += 1\n\n elif B[j] < A[i]:\n AB_union.append(B[j])\n j += 1\n\n elif A[i] == B[j]:\n AB_union.append(A[i])\n i += 1\n j += 1\n\n AB_union.extend(A[i:])\n AB_union.extend(B[j:])\n\n return AB_union\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n A = [1, 3, 5, 8, 12]\n B = [2, 3, 5, 10, 12]\n\n AB_union = union(A, B)\n print(AB_union)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/numerical_methods/bisection.py", "content": "\"\"\"\n# Purpose of the bisection method is to find an interval where there exists a root\n\n# Programmed by Aladdin Persson\n# 2019-10-07 Initial programming\n\n\"\"\"\n\n\ndef function(x):\n # return (x**2 - 2)\n return x ** 2 + 2 * x - 1\n\n\ndef bisection(a0, b0, eps, delta, maxit):\n # Initialize search bracket s.t a <= b\n alpha = min(a0, b0)\n beta = max(a0, b0)\n a = []\n b = []\n fa = function(alpha)\n fb = function(beta)\n\n if function(alpha) * function(beta) > 0:\n print(\"Needs to have one f(a) > 0 and f(b) < 0\")\n exit()\n\n for j in range(maxit):\n a.append(alpha)\n b.append(beta)\n\n # Carefully compute the midpoint in an effort to avoid numerical roundoff errors\n midpoint = alpha + (beta - alpha) / 2\n fc = function(midpoint)\n\n # Check for small residual\n if abs(fc) <= eps:\n print(\"Very small function value -> we're close enough to a root\")\n return alpha, beta\n\n # check for small bracket\n if abs(beta - alpha) <= delta:\n print(\"Interval is good enough --> We're close to root\")\n return alpha, beta\n\n # Now we know we need to run more iterations\n if fa * fc < 0:\n beta = midpoint\n fb = fc\n else:\n alpha = midpoint\n fa = fc\n\n return alpha, beta\n\n\ndef main():\n a = 0\n b = 1\n # print(function(a))\n # print(function(b))\n alpha, beta = bisection(a, b, eps=1e-8, delta=1e-8, maxit=3)\n print(\"Bracket is (\" + str(alpha) + \", \" + str(beta) + \")\")\n\n\nmain()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/numerical_methods/fixpoint.py", "content": "\"\"\"\n# Purpose of the fixpoint method is to solve equations of the form x = g(x)\n# Note that many equations can be rewritten in this form, to solve for example for roots.\n\n# Programmed by Aladdin Persson\n# 2019-10-07 Initial programming\n\n\"\"\"\n# Rewrite x^2 = 2\ndef function(x):\n return (x + (2 / x)) / 2\n\n\ndef fixpoint(x0, tol):\n x = x0\n y = function(x)\n\n while abs(x - y) > tol:\n x = y\n y = function(x)\n\n return y\n\n\ndef main():\n x0 = 2\n val = fixpoint(x0, tol=1e-8)\n print(val)\n\n\nmain()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/other/Huffman/Huffman.py", "content": "import heapq\nfrom bitarray import bitarray\n\n\nclass Node(object):\n def __init__(self, ch, freq, left=None, right=None):\n self.ch = ch\n self.freq = freq\n self.left = left\n self.right = right\n\n def __lt__(self, other):\n return self.freq < other.freq\n\n\ndef make_frequency_dict(file=\"huffman.txt\"):\n freq = {}\n text = \"\"\n\n with open(file) as f:\n for line in f:\n text += line\n\n for char in line:\n if not char in freq:\n freq[char] = 0\n freq[char] += 1\n\n return freq, text\n\n\ndef make_heap(freq):\n heap = []\n for char in freq:\n node = Node(char, freq[char])\n heapq.heappush(heap, node)\n\n return heap\n\n\ndef build_tree(heap):\n # Create our binary tree\n\n while len(heap) > 1:\n nodeL = heapq.heappop(heap)\n nodeR = heapq.heappop(heap)\n tot_freq = nodeL.freq + nodeR.freq\n\n heapq.heappush(heap, Node(\"\", tot_freq, nodeL, nodeR))\n\n return heap\n\n\ndef create_mapping(root, map={}, binarytext=\"\"):\n # Create a mapping from each character to a binary string\n\n if root == None:\n return\n\n if root.left == None and root.right == None:\n # if we are a leaf\n map[root.ch] = binarytext\n\n left = create_mapping(root.left, map, binarytext + \"0\")\n right = create_mapping(root.right, map, binarytext + \"1\")\n\n return map\n\n\ndef decode(binarystring, root):\n decoded_msg = \"\"\n curr_node = root\n\n i = 0\n\n while i <= len(binarystring):\n if curr_node.right == None and curr_node.left == None:\n decoded_msg += str(curr_node.ch)\n curr_node = root\n\n if i == len(binarystring):\n i += 1\n\n # If 1 walk right\n elif binarystring[i] == \"1\":\n curr_node = curr_node.right\n i += 1\n # If 0 walk left\n elif binarystring[i] == \"0\":\n curr_node = curr_node.left\n i += 1\n\n return decoded_msg\n\n\ndef main():\n freq, text = make_frequency_dict(file=\"Huffman.txt\")\n # print(f\"Our message that we wish to decompress using Huffman is: \\n{text}\")\n\n heap = make_heap(freq)\n tree = build_tree(heap)\n mapping = create_mapping(tree[0])\n\n print(f\"Our mapping is: \\n{mapping}\")\n\n # Get encoded message\n encoded = \"\"\n\n for letter in text:\n encoded += mapping[letter]\n\n print(f\"Our encoded message is: \\n{encoded}\")\n\n out = bitarray(encoded)\n\n with open(\"compressed_file.bin\", \"wb\") as f:\n out.tofile(f)\n\n # original_text = decode(encoded, tree[0])\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n main()\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/other/Huffman/huffman.txt", "content": "The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes\nby Sir Arthur Conan Doyle\n(#15 in our series by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle)\n\nCopyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the\ncopyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing\nthis or any other Project Gutenberg eBook.\n\nThis header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project\nGutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the\nheader without written permission.\n\nPlease read the \"legal small print,\" and other information about the\neBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is\nimportant information about your specific rights and restrictions in\nhow the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a\ndonation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved.\n\n\n**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts**\n\n**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971**\n\n*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!*****\n\n\nTitle: The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes\n\nAuthor: Sir Arthur Conan Doyle\n\nRelease Date: March, 1999 [EBook #1661]\n[Most recently updated: November 29, 2002]\n\nEdition: 12\n\nLanguage: English\n\nCharacter set encoding: ASCII\n\n*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE ADVENTURES OF SHERLOCK HOLMES ***\n\n\n\n\n(Additional editing by Jose Menendez)\n\n\n\nTHE ADVENTURES OF\nSHERLOCK HOLMES\n\nBY\n\nSIR ARTHUR CONAN DOYLE\n\nCONTENTS\n\nI.\tA Scandal in Bohemia\nII.\tThe Red-Headed League\nIII.\tA Case of Identity\nIV.\tThe Boscombe Valley Mystery\nV.\tThe Five Orange Pips\nVI.\tThe Man with the Twisted Lip\nVII.\tThe Adventure of the Blue Carbuncle\nVIII.\tThe Adventure of the Speckled Band\nIX.\tThe Adventure of the Engineer's Thumb\nX.\tThe Adventure of the Noble Bachelor\nXI.\tThe Adventure of the Beryl Coronet\nXII.\tThe Adventure of the Copper Beeches\n\n\nADVENTURE I. A SCANDAL IN BOHEMIA\n\nI.\n\n\nTo Sherlock Holmes she is always the woman. I have seldom heard him mention her under any other name. In his eyes she eclipses and predominates the whole of her sex. It was not that he felt any emotion akin to love for Irene Adler. All emotions, and that one particularly, were abhorrent to his cold, precise but admirably balanced mind. He was, I take it, the most perfect reasoning and observing machine that the world has seen, but as a lover he would have placed himself in a false position. He never spoke of the softer passions, save with a gibe and a sneer. They were admirable things for the observer--excellent for drawing the veil from men's motives and actions. But for the trained reasoner to admit such intrusions into his own delicate and finely adjusted temperament was to introduce a distracting factor which might throw a doubt upon all his mental results. Grit in a sensitive instrument, or a crack in one of his own high-power lenses, would not be more disturbing than a strong emotion in a nature such as his. And yet there was but one woman to him, and that woman was the late Irene Adler, of dubious and questionable memory.\n\nI had seen little of Holmes lately. My marriage had drifted us away from each other. My own complete happiness, and the home-centred interests which rise up around the man who first finds himself master of his own establishment, were sufficient to absorb all my attention, while Holmes, who loathed every form of society with his whole Bohemian soul, remained in our lodgings in Baker Street, buried among his old books, and alternating from week to week between cocaine and ambition, the drowsiness of the drug, and the fierce energy of his own keen nature. He was still, as ever, deeply attracted by the study of crime, and occupied his immense faculties and extraordinary powers of observation in following out those clues, and clearing up those mysteries which had been abandoned as hopeless by the official police. From time to time I heard some vague account of his doings: of his summons to Odessa in the case of the Trepoff murder, of his clearing up of the singular tragedy of the Atkinson brothers at Trincomalee, and finally of the mission which he had accomplished so delicately and successfully for the reigning family of Holland. Beyond these signs of his activity, however, which I merely shared with all the readers of the daily press, I knew little of my former friend and companion.\n\nOne night--it was on the twentieth of March, 1888--I was returning from a journey to a patient (for I had now returned to civil practice), when my way led me through Baker Street. As I passed the well-remembered door, which must always be associated in my mind with my wooing, and with the dark incidents of the Study in Scarlet, I was seized with a keen desire to see Holmes again, and to know how he was employing his extraordinary powers. His rooms were brilliantly lit, and, even as I looked up, I saw his tall, spare figure pass twice in a dark silhouette against the blind. He was pacing the room swiftly, eagerly, with his head sunk upon his chest and his hands clasped behind him. To me, who knew his every mood and habit, his attitude and manner told their own story. He was at work again. He had risen out of his drug-created dreams and was hot upon the scent of some new problem. I rang the bell and was shown up to the chamber which had formerly been in part my own.\n\nHis manner was not effusive. It seldom was; but he was glad, I think, to see me. With hardly a word spoken, but with a kindly eye, he waved me to an armchair, threw across his case of cigars, and indicated a spirit case and a gasogene in the corner. Then he stood before the fire and looked me over in his singular introspective fashion.\n\n\"Wedlock suits you,\" he remarked. \"I think, Watson, that you have put on seven and a half pounds since I saw you.\"\n\n\"Seven!\" I answered.\n\n\"Indeed, I should have thought a little more. Just a trifle more, I fancy, Watson. And in practice again, I observe. You did not tell me that you intended to go into harness.\"\n\n\"Then, how do you know?\"\n\n\"I see it, I deduce it. How do I know that you have been getting yourself very wet lately, and that you have a most clumsy and careless servant girl?\"\n\n\"My dear Holmes,\" said I, \"this is too much. You would certainly have been burned, had you lived a few centuries ago. It is true that I had a country walk on Thursday and came home in a dreadful mess, but as I have changed my clothes I can't imagine how you deduce it. As to Mary Jane, she is incorrigible, and my wife has given her notice, but there, again, I fail to see how you work it out.\"\n\nHe chuckled to himself and rubbed his long, nervous hands together.\n\n\"It is simplicity itself,\" said he; \"my eyes tell me that on the inside of your left shoe, just where the firelight strikes it, the leather is scored by six almost parallel cuts. Obviously they have been caused by someone who has very carelessly scraped round the edges of the sole in order to remove crusted mud from it. Hence, you see, my double deduction that you had been out in vile weather, and that you had a particularly malignant boot-slitting specimen of the London slavey. As to your practice, if a gentleman walks into my rooms smelling of iodoform, with a black mark of nitrate of silver upon his right forefinger, and a bulge on the right side of his top-hat to show where he has secreted his stethoscope, I must be dull, indeed, if I do not pronounce him to be an active member of the medical profession.\"\n\nI could not help laughing at the ease with which he explained his process of deduction. \"When I hear you give your reasons,\" I remarked, \"the thing always appears to me to be so ridiculously simple that I could easily do it myself, though at each successive instance of your reasoning I am baffled until you explain your process. And yet I believe that my eyes are as good as yours.\"\n\n\"Quite so,\" he answered, lighting a cigarette, and throwing himself down into an armchair. \"You see, but you do not observe. The distinction is clear. For example, you have frequently seen the steps which lead up from the hall to this room.\"\n\n\"Frequently.\"\n\n\"How often?\"\n\n\"Well, some hundreds of times.\"\n\n\"Then how many are there?\"\n\n\"How many? I don't know.\"\n\n\"Quite so! You have not observed. And yet you have seen. That is just my point. Now, I know that there are seventeen steps, because I have both seen and observed. By the way, since you are interested in these little problems, and since you are good enough to chronicle one or two of my trifling experiences, you may be interested in this.\" He threw over a sheet of thick, pink-tinted notepaper which had been lying open upon the table. \"It came by the last post,\" said he. \"Read it aloud.\"\n\nThe note was undated, and without either signature or address.\n\n\"There will call upon you to-night, at a quarter to eight o'clock,\" it said, \"a gentleman who desires to consult you upon a matter of the very deepest moment. Your recent services to one of the royal houses of Europe have shown that you are one who may safely be trusted with matters which are of an importance which can hardly be exaggerated. This account of you we have from all quarters received. Be in your chamber then at that hour, and do not take it amiss if your visitor wear a mask.\"\n\n\"This is indeed a mystery,\" I remarked. \"What do you imagine that it means?\"\n\n\"I have no data yet. It is a capital mistake to theorise before one has data. Insensibly one begins to twist facts to suit theories, instead of theories to suit facts. But the note itself. What do you deduce from it?\"\n\nI carefully examined the writing, and the paper upon which it was written.\n\n\"The man who wrote it was presumably well to do,\" I remarked, endeavouring to imitate my companion's processes. \"Such paper could not be bought under half a crown a packet. It is peculiarly strong and stiff.\"\n\n\"Peculiar--that is the very word,\" said Holmes. \"It is not an English paper at all. Hold it up to the light.\"\n\nI did so, and saw a large \"E\" with a small \"g,\" a \"P,\" and a large \"G\" with a small \"t\" woven into the texture of the paper.\n\n\"What do you make of that?\" asked Holmes.\n\n\"The name of the maker, no doubt; or his monogram, rather.\"\n\n\"Not at all. The 'G' with the small 't' stands for 'Gesellschaft,' which is the German for 'Company.' It is a customary contraction like our 'Co.' 'P,' of course, stands for 'Papier.' Now for the 'Eg.' Let us glance at our Continental Gazetteer.\" He took down a heavy brown volume from his shelves. \"Eglow, Eglonitz--here we are, Egria. It is in a German-speaking country--in Bohemia, not far from Carlsbad. 'Remarkable as being the scene of the death of Wallenstein, and for its numerous glass-factories and paper-mills.' Ha, ha, my boy, what do you make of that?\" His eyes sparkled, and he sent up a great blue triumphant cloud from his cigarette.\n\n\"The paper was made in Bohemia,\" I said.\n\n\"Precisely. And the man who wrote the note is a German. Do you note the peculiar construction of the sentence--'This account of you we have from all quarters received.' A Frenchman or Russian could not have written that. It is the German who is so uncourteous to his verbs. It only remains, therefore, to discover what is wanted by this German who writes upon Bohemian paper and prefers wearing a mask to showing his face. And here he comes, if I am not mistaken, to resolve all our doubts.\"\n\nAs he spoke there was the sharp sound of horses' hoofs and grating wheels against the curb, followed by a sharp pull at the bell. Holmes whistled.\n\n\"A pair, by the sound,\" said he. \"Yes,\" he continued, glancing out of the window. \"A nice little brougham and a pair of beauties. A hundred and fifty guineas apiece. There's money in this case, Watson, if there is nothing else.\"\n\n\"I think that I had better go, Holmes.\"\n\n\"Not a bit, Doctor. Stay where you are. I am lost without my Boswell. And this promises to be interesting. It would be a pity to miss it.\"\n\n\"But your client--\"\n\n\"Never mind him. I may want your help, and so may he. Here he comes. Sit down in that armchair, Doctor, and give us your best attention.\"\n\nA slow and heavy step, which had been heard upon the stairs and in the passage, paused immediately outside the door. Then there was a loud and authoritative tap.\n\n\"Come in!\" said Holmes.\n\nA man entered who could hardly have been less than six feet six inches in height, with the chest and limbs of a Hercules. His dress was rich with a richness which would, in England, be looked upon as akin to bad taste. Heavy bands of astrakhan were slashed across the sleeves and fronts of his double-breasted coat, while the deep blue cloak which was thrown over his shoulders was lined with flame-coloured silk and secured at the neck with a brooch which consisted of a single flaming beryl. Boots which extended halfway up his calves, and which were trimmed at the tops with rich brown fur, completed the impression of barbaric opulence which was suggested by his whole appearance. He carried a broad-brimmed hat in his hand, while he wore across the upper part of his face, extending down past the cheekbones, a black vizard mask, which he had apparently adjusted that very moment, for his hand was still raised to it as he entered. From the lower part of the face he appeared to be a man of strong character, with a thick, hanging lip, and a long, straight chin suggestive of resolution pushed to the length of obstinacy.\n\n\"You had my note?\" he asked with a deep harsh voice and a strongly marked German accent. \"I told you that I would call.\" He looked from one to the other of us, as if uncertain which to address.\n\n\"Pray take a seat,\" said Holmes. \"This is my friend and colleague, Dr. Watson, who is occasionally good enough to help me in my cases. Whom have I the honour to address?\"\n\n\"You may address me as the Count Von Kramm, a Bohemian nobleman. I understand that this gentleman, your friend, is a man of honour and discretion, whom I may trust with a matter of the most extreme importance. If not, I should much prefer to communicate with you alone.\"\n\nI rose to go, but Holmes caught me by the wrist and pushed me back into my chair. \"It is both, or none,\" said he. \"You may say before this gentleman anything which you may say to me.\"\n\nThe Count shrugged his broad shoulders. \"Then I must begin,\" said he, \"by binding you both to absolute secrecy for two years; at the end of that time the matter will be of no importance. At present it is not too much to say that it is of such weight it may have an influence upon European history.\"\n\n\"I promise,\" said Holmes.\n\n\"And I.\"\n\n\"You will excuse this mask,\" continued our strange visitor. \"The august person who employs me wishes his agent to be unknown to you, and I may confess at once that the title by which I have just called myself is not exactly my own.\"\n\n\"I was aware of it,\" said Holmes dryly.\n\n\"The circumstances are of great delicacy, and every precaution has to be taken to quench what might grow to be an immense scandal and seriously compromise one of the reigning families of Europe. To speak plainly, the matter implicates the great House of Ormstein, hereditary kings of Bohemia.\"\n\n\"I was also aware of that,\" murmured Holmes, settling himself down in his armchair and closing his eyes.\n\nOur visitor glanced with some apparent surprise at the languid, lounging figure of the man who had been no doubt depicted to him as the most incisive reasoner and most energetic agent in Europe. Holmes slowly reopened his eyes and looked impatiently at his gigantic client.\n\n\"If your Majesty would condescend to state your case,\" he remarked, \"I should be better able to advise you.\"\n\nThe man sprang from his chair and paced up and down the room in uncontrollable agitation. Then, with a gesture of desperation, he tore the mask from his face and hurled it upon the ground. \"You are right,\" he cried; \"I am the King. Why should I attempt to conceal it?\"\n\n\"Why, indeed?\" murmured Holmes. \"Your Majesty had not spoken before I was aware that I was addressing Wilhelm Gottsreich Sigismond von Ormstein, Grand Duke of Cassel-Felstein, and hereditary King of Bohemia.\"\n\n\"But you can understand,\" said our strange visitor, sitting down once more and passing his hand over his high white forehead, \"you can understand that I am not accustomed to doing such business in my own person. Yet the matter was so delicate that I could not confide it to an agent without putting myself in his power. I have come incognito from Prague for the purpose of consulting you.\"\n\n\"Then, pray consult,\" said Holmes, shutting his eyes once more.\n\n\"The facts are briefly these: Some five years ago, during a lengthy visit to Warsaw, I made the acquaintance of the well-known adventuress, Irene Adler. The name is no doubt familiar to you.\"\n\n\"Kindly look her up in my index, Doctor,\" murmured Holmes without opening his eyes. For many years he had adopted a system of docketing all paragraphs concerning men and things, so that it was difficult to name a subject or a person on which he could not at once furnish information. In this case I found her biography sandwiched in between that of a Hebrew rabbi and that of a staff-commander who had written a monograph upon the deep-sea fishes.\n\n\"Let me see!\" said Holmes. \"Hum! Born in New Jersey in the year 1858. Contralto--hum! La Scala, hum! Prima donna Imperial Opera of Warsaw--yes! Retired from operatic stage--ha! Living in London--quite so! Your Majesty, as I understand, became entangled with this young person, wrote her some compromising letters, and is now desirous of getting those letters back.\"\n\n\"Precisely so. But how--\"\n\n\"Was there a secret marriage?\"\n\n\"None.\"\n\n\"No legal papers or certificates?\"\n\n\"None.\"\n\n\"Then I fail to follow your Majesty. If this young person should produce her letters for blackmailing or other purposes, how is she to prove their authenticity?\"\n\n\"There is the writing.\"\n\n\"Pooh, pooh! Forgery.\"\n\n\"My private note-paper.\"\n\n\"Stolen.\"\n\n\"My own seal.\"\n\n\"Imitated.\"\n\n\"My photograph.\"\n\n\"Bought.\"\n\n\"We were both in the photograph.\"\n\n\"Oh, dear! That is very bad! Your Majesty has indeed committed an indiscretion.\"\n\n\"I was mad--insane.\"\n\n\"You have compromised yourself seriously.\"\n\n\"I was only Crown Prince then. I was young. I am but thirty now.\"\n\n\"It must be recovered.\"\n\n\"We have tried and failed.\"\n\n\"Your Majesty must pay. It must be bought.\"\n\n\"She will not sell.\"\n\n\"Stolen, then.\"\n\n\"Five attempts have been made. Twice burglars in my pay ransacked her house. Once we diverted her luggage when she travelled. Twice she has been waylaid. There has been no result.\"\n\n\"No sign of it?\"\n\n\"Absolutely none.\"\n\nHolmes laughed. \"It is quite a pretty little problem,\" said he.\n\n\"But a very serious one to me,\" returned the King reproachfully.\n\n\"Very, indeed. And what does she propose to do with the photograph?\"\n\n\"To ruin me.\"\n\n\"But how?\"\n\n\"I am about to be married.\"\n\n\"So I have heard.\"\n\n\"To Clotilde Lothman von Saxe-Meningen, second daughter of the King of Scandinavia. You may know the strict principles of her family. She is herself the very soul of delicacy. A shadow of a doubt as to my conduct would bring the matter to an end.\"\n\n\"And Irene Adler?\"\n\n\"Threatens to send them the photograph. And she will do it. I know that she will do it. You do not know her, but she has a soul of steel. She has the face of the most beautiful of women, and the mind of the most resolute of men. Rather than I should marry another woman, there are no lengths to which she would not go--none.\"\n\n\"You are sure that she has not sent it yet?\"\n\n\"I am sure.\"\n\n\"And why?\"\n\n\"Because she has said that she would send it on the day when the betrothal was publicly proclaimed. That will be next Monday.\"\n\n\"Oh, then we have three days yet,\" said Holmes with a yawn. \"That is very fortunate, as I have one or two matters of importance to look into just at present. Your Majesty will, of course, stay in London for the present?\"\n\n\"Certainly. You will find me at the Langham under the name of the Count Von Kramm.\"\n\n\"Then I shall drop you a line to let you know how we progress.\"\n\n\"Pray do so. I shall be all anxiety.\"\n\n\"Then, as to money?\"\n\n\"You have carte blanche.\"\n\n\"Absolutely?\"\n\n\"I tell you that I would give one of the provinces of my kingdom to have that photograph.\"\n\n\"And for present expenses?\"\n\nThe King took a heavy chamois leather bag from under his cloak and laid it on the table.\n\n\"There are three hundred pounds in gold and seven hundred in notes,\" he said.\n\nHolmes scribbled a receipt upon a sheet of his note-book and handed it to him.\n\n\"And Mademoiselle's address?\" he asked.\n\n\"Is Briony Lodge, Serpentine Avenue, St. John's Wood.\"\n\nHolmes took a note of it. \"One other question,\" said he. \"Was the photograph a cabinet?\"\n\n\"It was.\"\n\n\"Then, good-night, your Majesty, and I trust that we shall soon have some good news for you. And good-night, Watson,\" he added, as the wheels of the royal brougham rolled down the street. \"If you will be good enough to call to-morrow afternoon at three o'clock I should like to chat this little matter over with you.\"\n\nII.\n\n\nAt three o'clock precisely I was at Baker Street, but Holmes had not yet returned. The landlady informed me that he had left the house shortly after eight o'clock in the morning. I sat down beside the fire, however, with the intention of awaiting him, however long he might be. I was already deeply interested in his inquiry, for, though it was surrounded by none of the grim and strange features which were associated with the two crimes which I have already recorded, still, the nature of the case and the exalted station of his client gave it a character of its own. Indeed, apart from the nature of the investigation which my friend had on hand, there was something in his masterly grasp of a situation, and his keen, incisive reasoning, which made it a pleasure to me to study his system of work, and to follow the quick, subtle methods by which he disentangled the most inextricable mysteries. So accustomed was I to his invariable success that the very possibility of his failing had ceased to enter into my head.\n\nIt was close upon four before the door opened, and a drunken-looking groom, ill-kempt and side-whiskered, with an inflamed face and disreputable clothes, walked into the room. Accustomed as I was to my friend's amazing powers in the use of disguises, I had to look three times before I was certain that it was indeed he. With a nod he vanished into the bedroom, whence he emerged in five minutes tweed-suited and respectable, as of old. Putting his hands into his pockets, he stretched out his legs in front of the fire and laughed heartily for some minutes.\n\n\"Well, really!\" he cried, and then he choked and laughed again until he was obliged to lie back, limp and helpless, in the chair.\n\n\"What is it?\"\n\n\"It's quite too funny. I am sure you could never guess how I employed my morning, or what I ended by doing.\"\n\n\"I can't imagine. I suppose that you have been watching the habits, and perhaps the house, of Miss Irene Adler.\"\n\n\"Quite so; but the sequel was rather unusual. I will tell you, however. I left the house a little after eight o'clock this morning in the character of a groom out of work. There is a wonderful sympathy and freemasonry among horsey men. Be one of them, and you will know all that there is to know. I soon found Briony Lodge. It is a bijou villa, with a garden at the back, but built out in front right up to the road, two stories. Chubb lock to the door. Large sitting-room on the right side, well furnished, with long windows almost to the floor, and those preposterous English window fasteners which a child could open. Behind there was nothing remarkable, save that the passage window could be reached from the top of the coach-house. I walked round it and examined it closely from every point of view, but without noting anything else of interest.\n\n\"I then lounged down the street and found, as I expected, that there was a mews in a lane which runs down by one wall of the garden. I lent the ostlers a hand in rubbing down their horses, and received in exchange twopence, a glass of half-and-half, two fills of shag tobacco, and as much information as I could desire about Miss Adler, to say nothing of half a dozen other people in the neighbourhood in whom I was not in the least interested, but whose biographies I was compelled to listen to.\"\n\n\"And what of Irene Adler?\" I asked.\n\n\"Oh, she has turned all the men's heads down in that part. She is the daintiest thing under a bonnet on this planet. So say the Serpentine-mews, to a man. She lives quietly, sings at concerts, drives out at five every day, and returns at seven sharp for dinner. Seldom goes out at other times, except when she sings. Has only one male visitor, but a good deal of him. He is dark, handsome, and dashing, never calls less than once a day, and often twice. He is a Mr. Godfrey Norton, of the Inner Temple. See the advantages of a cabman as a confidant. They had driven him home a dozen times from Serpentine-mews, and knew all about him. When I had listened to all they had to tell, I began to walk up and down near Briony Lodge once more, and to think over my plan of campaign.\n\n\"This Godfrey Norton was evidently an important factor in the matter. He was a lawyer. That sounded ominous. What was the relation between them, and what the object of his repeated visits? Was she his client, his friend, or his mistress? If the former, she had probably transferred the photograph to his keeping. If the latter, it was less likely. On the issue of this question depended whether I should continue my work at Briony Lodge, or turn my attention to the gentleman's chambers in the Temple. It was a delicate point, and it widened the field of my inquiry. I fear that I bore you with these details, but I have to let you see my little difficulties, if you are to understand the situation.\"\n\n\"I am following you closely,\" I answered.\n\n\"I was still balancing the matter in my mind when a hansom cab drove up to Briony Lodge, and a gentleman sprang out. He was a remarkably handsome man, dark, aquiline, and moustached--evidently the man of whom I had heard. He appeared to be in a great hurry, shouted to the cabman to wait, and brushed past the maid who opened the door with the air of a man who was thoroughly at home.\n\n\"He was in the house about half an hour, and I could catch glimpses of him in the windows of the sitting-room, pacing up and down, talking excitedly, and waving his arms. Of her I could see nothing. Presently he emerged, looking even more flurried than before. As he stepped up to the cab, he pulled a gold watch from his pocket and looked at it earnestly, 'Drive like the devil,' he shouted, 'first to Gross & Hankey's in Regent Street, and then to the Church of St. Monica in the Edgeware Road. Half a guinea if you do it in twenty minutes!'\n\n\"Away they went, and I was just wondering whether I should not do well to follow them when up the lane came a neat little landau, the coachman with his coat only half-buttoned, and his tie under his ear, while all the tags of his harness were sticking out of the buckles. It hadn't pulled up before she shot out of the hall door and into it. I only caught a glimpse of her at the moment, but she was a lovely woman, with a face that a man might die for.\n\n\" 'The Church of St. Monica, John,' she cried, 'and half a sovereign if you reach it in twenty minutes.'\n\n\"This was quite too good to lose, Watson. I was just balancing whether I should run for it, or whether I should perch behind her landau when a cab came through the street. The driver looked twice at such a shabby fare, but I jumped in before he could object. 'The Church of St. Monica,' said I, 'and half a sovereign if you reach it in twenty minutes.' It was twenty-five minutes to twelve, and of course it was clear enough what was in the wind.\n\n\"My cabby drove fast. I don't think I ever drove faster, but the others were there before us. The cab and the landau with their steaming horses were in front of the door when I arrived. I paid the man and hurried into the church. There was not a soul there save the two whom I had followed and a surpliced clergyman, who seemed to be expostulating with them. They were all three standing in a knot in front of the altar. I lounged up the side aisle like any other idler who has dropped into a church. Suddenly, to my surprise, the three at the altar faced round to me, and Godfrey Norton came running as hard as he could towards me.\n\n\" 'Thank God,' he cried. 'You'll do. Come! Come!'\n\n\" 'What then?' I asked.\n\n\" 'Come, man, come, only three minutes, or it won't be legal.'\n\n\"I was half-dragged up to the altar, and before I knew where I was I found myself mumbling responses which were whispered in my ear, and vouching for things of which I knew nothing, and generally assisting in the secure tying up of Irene Adler, spinster, to Godfrey Norton, bachelor. It was all done in an instant, and there was the gentleman thanking me on the one side and the lady on the other, while the clergyman beamed on me in front. It was the most preposterous position in which I ever found myself in my life, and it was the thought of it that started me laughing just now. It seems that there had been some informality about their license, that the clergyman absolutely refused to marry them without a witness of some sort, and that my lucky appearance saved the bridegroom from having to sally out into the streets in search of a best man. The bride gave me a sovereign, and I mean to wear it on my watch chain in memory of the occasion.\"\n\n\"This is a very unexpected turn of affairs,\" said I; \"and what then?\"\n\n\"Well, I found my plans very seriously menaced. It looked as if the pair might take an immediate departure, and so necessitate very prompt and energetic measures on my part. At the church door, however, they separated, he driving back to the Temple, and she to her own house. 'I shall drive out in the park at five as usual,' she said as she left him. I heard no more. They drove away in different directions, and I went off to make my own arrangements.\"\n\n\"Which are?\"\n\n\"Some cold beef and a glass of beer,\" he answered, ringing the bell. \"I have been too busy to think of food, and I am likely to be busier still this evening. By the way, Doctor, I shall want your co-operation.\"\n\n\"I shall be delighted.\"\n\n\"You don't mind breaking the law?\"\n\n\"Not in the least.\"\n\n\"Nor running a chance of arrest?\"\n\n\"Not in a good cause.\"\n\n\"Oh, the cause is excellent!\"\n\n\"Then I am your man.\"\n\n\"I was sure that I might rely on you.\"\n\n\"But what is it you wish?\"\n\n\"When Mrs. Turner has brought in the tray I will make it clear to you. Now,\" he said as he turned hungrily on the simple fare that our landlady had provided, \"I must discuss it while I eat, for I have not much time. It is nearly five now. In two hours we must be on the scene of action. Miss Irene, or Madame, rather, returns from her drive at seven. We must be at Briony Lodge to meet her.\"\n\n\"And what then?\"\n\n\"You must leave that to me. I have already arranged what is to occur. There is only one point on which I must insist. You must not interfere, come what may. You understand?\"\n\n\"I am to be neutral?\"\n\n\"To do nothing whatever. There will probably be some small unpleasantness. Do not join in it. It will end in my being conveyed into the house. Four or five minutes afterwards the sitting-room window will open. You are to station yourself close to that open window.\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"You are to watch me, for I will be visible to you.\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"And when I raise my hand--so--you will throw into the room what I give you to throw, and will, at the same time, raise the cry of fire. You quite follow me?\"\n\n\"Entirely.\"\n\n\"It is nothing very formidable,\" he said, taking a long cigar-shaped roll from his pocket. \"It is an ordinary plumber's smoke-rocket, fitted with a cap at either end to make it self-lighting. Your task is confined to that. When you raise your cry of fire, it will be taken up by quite a number of people. You may then walk to the end of the street, and I will rejoin you in ten minutes. I hope that I have made myself clear?\"\n\n\"I am to remain neutral, to get near the window, to watch you, and at the signal to throw in this object, then to raise the cry of fire, and to wait you at the corner of the street.\"\n\n\"Precisely.\"\n\n\"Then you may entirely rely on me.\"\n\n\"That is excellent. I think, perhaps, it is almost time that I prepare for the new role I have to play.\"\n\nHe disappeared into his bedroom and returned in a few minutes in the character of an amiable and simple-minded Nonconformist clergyman. His broad black hat, his baggy trousers, his white tie, his sympathetic smile, and general look of peering and benevolent curiosity were such as Mr. John Hare alone could have equalled. It was not merely that Holmes changed his costume. His expression, his manner, his very soul seemed to vary with every fresh part that he assumed. The stage lost a fine actor, even as science lost an acute reasoner, when he became a specialist in crime.\n\nIt was a quarter past six when we left Baker Street, and it still wanted ten minutes to the hour when we found ourselves in Serpentine Avenue. It was already dusk, and the lamps were just being lighted as we paced up and down in front of Briony Lodge, waiting for the coming of its occupant. The house was just such as I had pictured it from Sherlock Holmes' succinct description, but the locality appeared to be less private than I expected. On the contrary, for a small street in a quiet neighbourhood, it was remarkably animated. There was a group of shabbily dressed men smoking and laughing in a corner, a scissors-grinder with his wheel, two guardsmen who were flirting with a nurse-girl, and several well-dressed young men who were lounging up and down with cigars in their mouths.\n\n\"You see,\" remarked Holmes, as we paced to and fro in front of the house, \"this marriage rather simplifies matters. The photograph becomes a double-edged weapon now. The chances are that she would be as averse to its being seen by Mr. Godfrey Norton, as our client is to its coming to the eyes of his princess. Now the question is, Where are we to find the photograph?\"\n\n\"Where, indeed?\"\n\n\"It is most unlikely that she carries it about with her. It is cabinet size. Too large for easy concealment about a woman's dress. She knows that the King is capable of having her waylaid and searched. Two attempts of the sort have already been made. We may take it, then, that she does not carry it about with her.\"\n\n\"Where, then?\"\n\n\"Her banker or her lawyer. There is that double possibility. But I am inclined to think neither. Women are naturally secretive, and they like to do their own secreting. Why should she hand it over to anyone else? She could trust her own guardianship, but she could not tell what indirect or political influence might be brought to bear upon a business man. Besides, remember that she had resolved to use it within a few days. It must be where she can lay her hands upon it. It must be in her own house.\"\n\n\"But it has twice been burgled.\"\n\n\"Pshaw! They did not know how to look.\"\n\n\"But how will you look?\"\n\n\"I will not look.\"\n\n\"What then?\"\n\n\"I will get her to show me.\"\n\n\"But she will refuse.\"\n\n\"She will not be able to. But I hear the rumble of wheels. It is her carriage. Now carry out my orders to the letter.\"\n\nAs he spoke the gleam of the sidelights of a carriage came round the curve of the avenue. It was a smart little landau which rattled up to the door of Briony Lodge. As it pulled up, one of the loafing men at the corner dashed forward to open the door in the hope of earning a copper, but was elbowed away by another loafer, who had rushed up with the same intention. A fierce quarrel broke out, which was increased by the two guardsmen, who took sides with one of the loungers, and by the scissors-grinder, who was equally hot upon the other side. A blow was struck, and in an instant the lady, who had stepped from her carriage, was the centre of a little knot of flushed and struggling men, who struck savagely at each other with their fists and sticks. Holmes dashed into the crowd to protect the lady; but, just as he reached her, he gave a cry and dropped to the ground, with the blood running freely down his face. At his fall the guardsmen took to their heels in one direction and the loungers in the other, while a number of better dressed people, who had watched the scuffle without taking part in it, crowded in to help the lady and to attend to the injured man. Irene Adler, as I will still call her, had hurried up the steps; but she stood at the top with her superb figure outlined against the lights of the hall, looking back into the street.\n\n\"Is the poor gentleman much hurt?\" she asked.\n\n\"He is dead,\" cried several voices.\n\n\"No, no, there's life in him!\" shouted another. \"But he'll be gone before you can get him to hospital.\"\n\n\"He's a brave fellow,\" said a woman. \"They would have had the lady's purse and watch if it hadn't been for him. They were a gang, and a rough one, too. Ah, he's breathing now.\"\n\n\"He can't lie in the street. May we bring him in, marm?\"\n\n\"Surely. Bring him into the sitting-room. There is a comfortable sofa. This way, please!\"\n\nSlowly and solemnly he was borne into Briony Lodge and laid out in the principal room, while I still observed the proceedings from my post by the window. The lamps had been lit, but the blinds had not been drawn, so that I could see Holmes as he lay upon the couch. I do not know whether he was seized with compunction at that moment for the part he was playing, but I know that I never felt more heartily ashamed of myself in my life than when I saw the beautiful creature against whom I was conspiring, or the grace and kindliness with which she waited upon the injured man. And yet it would be the blackest treachery to Holmes to draw back now from the part which he had intrusted to me. I hardened my heart, and took the smoke-rocket from under my ulster. After all, I thought, we are not injuring her. We are but preventing her from injuring another.\n\nHolmes had sat up upon the couch, and I saw him motion like a man who is in need of air. A maid rushed across and threw open the window. At the same instant I saw him raise his hand and at the signal I tossed my rocket into the room with a cry of \"Fire!\" The word was no sooner out of my mouth than the whole crowd of spectators, well dressed and ill--gentlemen, ostlers, and servant maids--joined in a general shriek of \"Fire!\" Thick clouds of smoke curled through the room and out at the open window. I caught a glimpse of rushing figures, and a moment later the voice of Holmes from within assuring them that it was a false alarm. Slipping through the shouting crowd I made my way to the corner of the street, and in ten minutes was rejoiced to find my friend's arm in mine, and to get away from the scene of uproar. He walked swiftly and in silence for some few minutes until we had turned down one of the quiet streets which lead towards the Edgeware Road.\n\n\"You did it very nicely, Doctor,\" he remarked. \"Nothing could have been better. It is all right.\"\n\n\"You have the photograph?\"\n\n\"I know where it is.\"\n\n\"And how did you find out?\"\n\n\"She showed me, as I told you she would.\"\n\n\"I am still in the dark.\"\n\n\"I do not wish to make a mystery,\" said he, laughing. \"The matter was perfectly simple. You, of course, saw that everyone in the street was an accomplice. They were all engaged for the evening.\"\n\n\"I guessed as much.\"\n\n\"Then, when the row broke out, I had a little moist red paint in the palm of my hand. I rushed forward, fell down, clapped my hand to my face, and became a piteous spectacle. It is an old trick.\"\n\n\"That also I could fathom.\"\n\n\"Then they carried me in. She was bound to have me in. What else could she do? And into her sitting-room, which was the very room which I suspected. It lay between that and her bedroom, and I was determined to see which. They laid me on a couch, I motioned for air, they were compelled to open the window, and you had your chance.\"\n\n\"How did that help you?\"\n\n\"It was all-important. When a woman thinks that her house is on fire, her instinct is at once to rush to the thing which she values most. It is a perfectly overpowering impulse, and I have more than once taken advantage of it. In the case of the Darlington Substitution Scandal it was of use to me, and also in the Arnsworth Castle business. A married woman grabs at her baby; an unmarried one reaches for her jewel-box. Now it was clear to me that our lady of to-day had nothing in the house more precious to her than what we are in quest of. She would rush to secure it. The alarm of fire was admirably done. The smoke and shouting were enough to shake nerves of steel. She responded beautifully. The photograph is in a recess behind a sliding panel just above the right bell-pull. She was there in an instant, and I caught a glimpse of it as she half drew it out. When I cried out that it was a false alarm, she replaced it, glanced at the rocket, rushed from the room, and I have not seen her since. I rose, and, making my excuses, escaped from the house. I hesitated whether to attempt to secure the photograph at once; but the coachman had come in, and as he was watching me narrowly, it seemed safer to wait. A little over-precipitance may ruin all.\"\n\n\"And now?\" I asked.\n\n\"Our quest is practically finished. I shall call with the King to-morrow, and with you, if you care to come with us. We will be shown into the sitting-room to wait for the lady, but it is probable that when she comes she may find neither us nor the photograph. It might be a satisfaction to his Majesty to regain it with his own hands.\"\n\n\"And when will you call?\"\n\n\"At eight in the morning. She will not be up, so that we shall have a clear field. Besides, we must be prompt, for this marriage may mean a complete change in her life and habits. I must wire to the King without delay.\"\n\nWe had reached Baker Street and had stopped at the door. He was searching his pockets for the key when someone passing said:\n\n\"Good-night, Mister Sherlock Holmes.\"\n\nThere were several people on the pavement at the time, but the greeting appeared to come from a slim youth in an ulster who had hurried by.\n\n\"I've heard that voice before,\" said Holmes, staring down the dimly lit street. \"Now, I wonder who the deuce that could have been.\"\n\nIII.\n\n\nI slept at Baker Street that night, and we were engaged upon our toast and coffee in the morning when the King of Bohemia rushed into the room.\n\n\"You have really got it!\" he cried, grasping Sherlock Holmes by either shoulder and looking eagerly into his face.\n\n\"Not yet.\"\n\n\"But you have hopes?\"\n\n\"I have hopes.\"\n\n\"Then, come. I am all impatience to be gone.\"\n\n\"We must have a cab.\"\n\n\"No, my brougham is waiting.\"\n\n\"Then that will simplify matters.\" We descended and started off once more for Briony Lodge.\n\n\"Irene Adler is married,\" remarked Holmes.\n\n\"Married! When?\"\n\n\"Yesterday.\"\n\n\"But to whom?\"\n\n\"To an English lawyer named Norton.\"\n\n\"But she could not love him.\"\n\n\"I am in hopes that she does.\"\n\n\"And why in hopes?\"\n\n\"Because it would spare your Majesty all fear of future annoyance. If the lady loves her husband, she does not love your Majesty. If she does not love your Majesty, there is no reason why she should interfere with your Majesty's plan.\"\n\n\"It is true. And yet--! Well! I wish she had been of my own station! What a queen she would have made!\" He relapsed into a moody silence, which was not broken until we drew up in Serpentine Avenue.\n\nThe door of Briony Lodge was open, and an elderly woman stood upon the steps. She watched us with a sardonic eye as we stepped from the brougham.\n\n\"Mr. Sherlock Holmes, I believe?\" said she.\n\n\"I am Mr. Holmes,\" answered my companion, looking at her with a questioning and rather startled gaze.\n\n\"Indeed! My mistress told me that you were likely to call. She left this morning with her husband by the 5:15 train from Charing Cross for the Continent.\"\n\n\"What!\" Sherlock Holmes staggered back, white with chagrin and surprise. \"Do you mean that she has left England?\"\n\n\"Never to return.\"\n\n\"And the papers?\" asked the King hoarsely. \"All is lost.\"\n\n\"We shall see.\" He pushed past the servant and rushed into the drawing-room, followed by the King and myself. The furniture was scattered about in every direction, with dismantled shelves and open drawers, as if the lady had hurriedly ransacked them before her flight. Holmes rushed at the bell-pull, tore back a small sliding shutter, and, plunging in his hand, pulled out a photograph and a letter. The photograph was of Irene Adler herself in evening dress, the letter was superscribed to \"Sherlock Holmes, Esq. To be left till called for.\" My friend tore it open, and we all three read it together. It was dated at midnight of the preceding night and ran in this way:\n\n\"MY DEAR MR. SHERLOCK HOLMES,--You really did it very well. You took me in completely. Until after the alarm of fire, I had not a suspicion. But then, when I found how I had betrayed myself, I began to think. I had been warned against you months ago. I had been told that, if the King employed an agent, it would certainly be you. And your address had been given me. Yet, with all this, you made me reveal what you wanted to know. Even after I became suspicious, I found it hard to think evil of such a dear, kind old clergyman. But, you know, I have been trained as an actress myself. Male costume is nothing new to me. I often take advantage of the freedom which it gives. I sent John, the coachman, to watch you, ran upstairs, got into my walking clothes, as I call them, and came down just as you departed.\n\n\"Well, I followed you to your door, and so made sure that I was really an object of interest to the celebrated Mr. Sherlock Holmes. Then I, rather imprudently, wished you good-night, and started for the Temple to see my husband.\n\n\"We both thought the best resource was flight, when pursued by so formidable an antagonist; so you will find the nest empty when you call to-morrow. As to the photograph, your client may rest in peace. I love and am loved by a better man than he. The King may do what he will without hindrance from one whom he has cruelly wronged. I keep it only to safeguard myself, and to preserve a weapon which will always secure me from any steps which he might take in the future. I leave a photograph which he might care to possess; and I remain, dear Mr. Sherlock Holmes,\n\n\n\"Very truly yours, \n\"IRENE NORTON, nee ADLER.\"\n\n\"What a woman--oh, what a woman!\" cried the King of Bohemia, when we had all three read this epistle. \"Did I not tell you how quick and resolute she was? Would she not have made an admirable queen? Is it not a pity that she was not on my level?\"\n\n\"From what I have seen of the lady, she seems, indeed, to be on a very different level to your Majesty,\" said Holmes coldly. \"I am sorry that I have not been able to bring your Majesty's business to a more successful conclusion.\"\n\n\"On the contrary, my dear sir,\" cried the King; \"nothing could be more successful. I know that her word is inviolate. The photograph is now as safe as if it were in the fire.\"\n\n\"I am glad to hear your Majesty say so.\"\n\n\"I am immensely indebted to you. Pray tell me in what way I can reward you. This ring--\" He slipped an emerald snake ring from his finger and held it out upon the palm of his hand.\n\n\"Your Majesty has something which I should value even more highly,\" said Holmes.\n\n\"You have but to name it.\"\n\n\"This photograph!\"\n\nThe King stared at him in amazement.\n\n\"Irene's photograph!\" he cried. \"Certainly, if you wish it.\"\n\n\"I thank your Majesty. Then there is no more to be done in the matter. I have the honour to wish you a very good morning.\" He bowed, and, turning away without observing the hand which the King had stretched out to him, he set off in my company for his chambers.\n\nAnd that was how a great scandal threatened to affect the kingdom of Bohemia, and how the best plans of Mr. Sherlock Holmes were beaten by a woman's wit. He used to make merry over the cleverness of women, but I have not heard him do it of late. And when he speaks of Irene Adler, or when he refers to her photograph, it is always under the honourable title of the woman.\n\nADVENTURE II. THE RED-HEADED LEAGUE\n\n\nI had called upon my friend, Mr. Sherlock Holmes, one day in the autumn of last year and found him in deep conversation with a very stout, florid-faced, elderly gentleman with fiery red hair. With an apology for my intrusion, I was about to withdraw when Holmes pulled me abruptly into the room and closed the door behind me.\n\n\"You could not possibly have come at a better time, my dear Watson,\" he said cordially.\n\n\"I was afraid that you were engaged.\"\n\n\"So I am. Very much so.\"\n\n\"Then I can wait in the next room.\"\n\n\"Not at all. This gentleman, Mr. Wilson, has been my partner and helper in many of my most successful cases, and I have no doubt that he will be of the utmost use to me in yours also.\"\n\nThe stout gentleman half rose from his chair and gave a bob of greeting, with a quick little questioning glance from his small fat-encircled eyes.\n\n\"Try the settee,\" said Holmes, relapsing into his armchair and putting his fingertips together, as was his custom when in judicial moods. \"I know, my dear Watson, that you share my love of all that is bizarre and outside the conventions and humdrum routine of everyday life. You have shown your relish for it by the enthusiasm which has prompted you to chronicle, and, if you will excuse my saying so, somewhat to embellish so many of my own little adventures.\"\n\n\"Your cases have indeed been of the greatest interest to me,\" I observed.\n\n\"You will remember that I remarked the other day, just before we went into the very simple problem presented by Miss Mary Sutherland, that for strange effects and extraordinary combinations we must go to life itself, which is always far more daring than any effort of the imagination.\"\n\n\"A proposition which I took the liberty of doubting.\"\n\n\"You did, Doctor, but none the less you must come round to my view, for otherwise I shall keep on piling fact upon fact on you until your reason breaks down under them and acknowledges me to be right. Now, Mr. Jabez Wilson here has been good enough to call upon me this morning, and to begin a narrative which promises to be one of the most singular which I have listened to for some time. You have heard me remark that the strangest and most unique things are very often connected not with the larger but with the smaller crimes, and occasionally, indeed, where there is room for doubt whether any positive crime has been committed. As far as I have heard, it is impossible for me to say whether the present case is an instance of crime or not, but the course of events is certainly among the most singular that I have ever listened to. Perhaps, Mr. Wilson, you would have the great kindness to recommence your narrative. I ask you not merely because my friend Dr. Watson has not heard the opening part but also because the peculiar nature of the story makes me anxious to have every possible detail from your lips. As a rule, when I have heard some slight indication of the course of events, I am able to guide myself by the thousands of other similar cases which occur to my memory. In the present instance I am forced to admit that the facts are, to the best of my belief, unique.\"\n\nThe portly client puffed out his chest with an appearance of some little pride and pulled a dirty and wrinkled newspaper from the inside pocket of his greatcoat. As he glanced down the advertisement column, with his head thrust forward and the paper flattened out upon his knee, I took a good look at the man and endeavoured, after the fashion of my companion, to read the indications which might be presented by his dress or appearance.\n\nI did not gain very much, however, by my inspection. Our visitor bore every mark of being an average commonplace British tradesman, obese, pompous, and slow. He wore rather baggy grey shepherd's check trousers, a not over-clean black frock-coat, unbuttoned in the front, and a drab waistcoat with a heavy brassy Albert chain, and a square pierced bit of metal dangling down as an ornament. A frayed top-hat and a faded brown overcoat with a wrinkled velvet collar lay upon a chair beside him. Altogether, look as I would, there was nothing remarkable about the man save his blazing red head, and the expression of extreme chagrin and discontent upon his features.\n\nSherlock Holmes' quick eye took in my occupation, and he shook his head with a smile as he noticed my questioning glances. \"Beyond the obvious facts that he has at some time done manual labour, that he takes snuff, that he is a Freemason, that he has been in China, and that he has done a considerable amount of writing lately, I can deduce nothing else.\"\n\nMr. Jabez Wilson started up in his chair, with his forefinger upon the paper, but his eyes upon my companion.\n\n\"How, in the name of good-fortune, did you know all that, Mr. Holmes?\" he asked. \"How did you know, for example, that I did manual labour. It's as true as gospel, for I began as a ship's carpenter.\"\n\n\"Your hands, my dear sir. Your right hand is quite a size larger than your left. You have worked with it, and the muscles are more developed.\"\n\n\"Well, the snuff, then, and the Freemasonry?\"\n\n\"I won't insult your intelligence by telling you how I read that, especially as, rather against the strict rules of your order, you use an arc-and-compass breastpin.\"\n\n\"Ah, of course, I forgot that. But the writing?\"\n\n\"What else can be indicated by that right cuff so very shiny for five inches, and the left one with the smooth patch near the elbow where you rest it upon the desk?\"\n\n\"Well, but China?\"\n\n\"The fish that you have tattooed immediately above your right wrist could only have been done in China. I have made a small study of tattoo marks and have even contributed to the literature of the subject. That trick of staining the fishes' scales of a delicate pink is quite peculiar to China. When, in addition, I see a Chinese coin hanging from your watch-chain, the matter becomes even more simple.\"\n\nMr. Jabez Wilson laughed heavily. \"Well, I never!\" said he. \"I thought at first that you had done something clever, but I see that there was nothing in it after all.\"\n\n\"I begin to think, Watson,\" said Holmes, \"that I make a mistake in explaining. 'Omne ignotum pro magnifico,' you know, and my poor little reputation, such as it is, will suffer shipwreck if I am so candid. Can you not find the advertisement, Mr. Wilson?\"\n\n\"Yes, I have got it now,\" he answered with his thick red finger planted halfway down the column. \"Here it is. This is what began it all. You just read it for yourself, sir.\"\n\nI took the paper from him and read as follows:\n\n\"TO THE RED-HEADED LEAGUE: On account of the bequest of the late Ezekiah Hopkins, of Lebanon, Pennsylvania, U. S. A., there is now another vacancy open which entitles a member of the League to a salary of $4 a week for purely nominal services. All red-headed men who are sound in body and mind and above the age of twenty-one years, are eligible. Apply in person on Monday, at eleven o'clock, to Duncan Ross, at the offices of the League, 7 Pope's Court, Fleet Street.\"\n\n\"What on earth does this mean?\" I ejaculated after I had twice read over the extraordinary announcement.\n\nHolmes chuckled and wriggled in his chair, as was his habit when in high spirits. \"It is a little off the beaten track, isn't it?\" said he. \"And now, Mr. Wilson, off you go at scratch and tell us all about yourself, your household, and the effect which this advertisement had upon your fortunes. You will first make a note, Doctor, of the paper and the date.\"\n\n\"It is The Morning Chronicle of April 27, 1890. Just two months ago.\"\n\n\"Very good. Now, Mr. Wilson?\"\n\n\"Well, it is just as I have been telling you, Mr. Sherlock Holmes,\" said Jabez Wilson, mopping his forehead; \"I have a small pawnbroker's business at Coburg Square, near the City. It's not a very large affair, and of late years it has not done more than just give me a living. I used to be able to keep two assistants, but now I only keep one; and I would have a job to pay him but that he is willing to come for half wages so as to learn the business.\"\n\n\"What is the name of this obliging youth?\" asked Sherlock Holmes.\n\n\"His name is Vincent Spaulding, and he's not such a youth, either. It's hard to say his age. I should not wish a smarter assistant, Mr. Holmes; and I know very well that he could better himself and earn twice what I am able to give him. But, after all, if he is satisfied, why should I put ideas in his head?\"\n\n\"Why, indeed? You seem most fortunate in having an employe who comes under the full market price. It is not a common experience among employers in this age. I don't know that your assistant is not as remarkable as your advertisement.\"\n\n\"Oh, he has his faults, too,\" said Mr. Wilson. \"Never was such a fellow for photography. Snapping away with a camera when he ought to be improving his mind, and then diving down into the cellar like a rabbit into its hole to develop his pictures. That is his main fault, but on the whole he's a good worker. There's no vice in him.\"\n\n\"He is still with you, I presume?\"\n\n\"Yes, sir. He and a girl of fourteen, who does a bit of simple cooking and keeps the place clean--that's all I have in the house, for I am a widower and never had any family. We live very quietly, sir, the three of us; and we keep a roof over our heads and pay our debts, if we do nothing more.\n\n\"The first thing that put us out was that advertisement. Spaulding, he came down into the office just this day eight weeks, with this very paper in his hand, and he says:\n\n\" 'I wish to the Lord, Mr. Wilson, that I was a red-headed man.'\n\n\" 'Why that?' I asks.\n\n\" 'Why,' says he, 'here's another vacancy on the League of the Red-headed Men. It's worth quite a little fortune to any man who gets it, and I understand that there are more vacancies than there are men, so that the trustees are at their wits' end what to do with the money. If my hair would only change colour, here's a nice little crib all ready for me to step into.'\n\n\" 'Why, what is it, then?' I asked. You see, Mr. Holmes, I am a very stay-at-home man, and as my business came to me instead of my having to go to it, I was often weeks on end without putting my foot over the door-mat. In that way I didn't know much of what was going on outside, and I was always glad of a bit of news.\n\n\" 'Have you never heard of the League of the Red-headed Men?' he asked with his eyes open.\n\n\" 'Never.'\n\n\" 'Why, I wonder at that, for you are eligible yourself for one of the vacancies.'\n\n\" 'And what are they worth?' I asked.\n\n\" 'Oh, merely a couple of hundred a year, but the work is slight, and it need not interfere very much with one's other occupations.'\n\n\"Well, you can easily think that that made me prick up my ears, for the business has not been over good for some years, and an extra couple of hundred would have been very handy.\n\n\" 'Tell me all about it,' said I.\n\n\" 'Well,' said he, showing me the advertisement, 'you can see for yourself that the League has a vacancy, and there is the address where you should apply for particulars. As far as I can make out, the League was founded by an American millionaire, Ezekiah Hopkins, who was very peculiar in his ways. He was himself red-headed, and he had a great sympathy for all red-headed men; so, when he died, it was found that he had left his enormous fortune in the hands of trustees, with instructions to apply the interest to the providing of easy berths to men whose hair is of that colour. From all I hear it is splendid pay and very little to do.'\n\n\" 'But,' said I, 'there would be millions of red-headed men who would apply.'\n\n\" 'Not so many as you might think,' he answered. 'You see it is really confined to Londoners, and to grown men. This American had started from London when he was young, and he wanted to do the old town a good turn. Then, again, I have heard it is no use your applying if your hair is light red, or dark red, or anything but real bright, blazing, fiery red. Now, if you cared to apply, Mr. Wilson, you would just walk in; but perhaps it would hardly be worth your while to put yourself out of the way for the sake of a few hundred pounds.'\n\n\"Now, it is a fact, gentlemen, as you may see for yourselves, that my hair is of a very full and rich tint, so that it seemed to me that if there was to be any competition in the matter I stood as good a chance as any man that I had ever met. Vincent Spaulding seemed to know so much about it that I thought he might prove useful, so I just ordered him to put up the shutters for the day and to come right away with me. He was very willing to have a holiday, so we shut the business up and started off for the address that was given us in the advertisement.\n\n\"I never hope to see such a sight as that again, Mr. Holmes. From north, south, east, and west every man who had a shade of red in his hair had tramped into the city to answer the advertisement. Fleet Street was choked with red-headed folk, and Pope's Court looked like a coster's orange barrow. I should not have thought there were so many in the whole country as were brought together by that single advertisement. Every shade of colour they were--straw, lemon, orange, brick, Irish-setter, liver, clay; but, as Spaulding said, there were not many who had the real vivid flame-coloured tint. When I saw how many were waiting, I would have given it up in despair; but Spaulding would not hear of it. How he did it I could not imagine, but he pushed and pulled and butted until he got me through the crowd, and right up to the steps which led to the office. There was a double stream upon the stair, some going up in hope, and some coming back dejected; but we wedged in as well as we could and soon found ourselves in the office.\"\n\n\"Your experience has been a most entertaining one,\" remarked Holmes as his client paused and refreshed his memory with a huge pinch of snuff. \"Pray continue your very interesting statement.\"\n\n\"There was nothing in the office but a couple of wooden chairs and a deal table, behind which sat a small man with a head that was even redder than mine. He said a few words to each candidate as he came up, and then he always managed to find some fault in them which would disqualify them. Getting a vacancy did not seem to be such a very easy matter, after all. However, when our turn came the little man was much more favourable to me than to any of the others, and he closed the door as we entered, so that he might have a private word with us.\n\n\" 'This is Mr. Jabez Wilson,' said my assistant, 'and he is willing to fill a vacancy in the League.'\n\n\" 'And he is admirably suited for it,' the other answered. 'He has every requirement. I cannot recall when I have seen anything so fine.' He took a step backward, cocked his head on one side, and gazed at my hair until I felt quite bashful. Then suddenly he plunged forward, wrung my hand, and congratulated me warmly on my success.\n\n\" 'It would be injustice to hesitate,' said he. 'You will, however, I am sure, excuse me for taking an obvious precaution.' With that he seized my hair in both his hands, and tugged until I yelled with the pain. 'There is water in your eyes,' said he as he released me. 'I perceive that all is as it should be. But we have to be careful, for we have twice been deceived by wigs and once by paint. I could tell you tales of cobbler's wax which would disgust you with human nature.' He stepped over to the window and shouted through it at the top of his voice that the vacancy was filled. A groan of disappointment came up from below, and the folk all trooped away in different directions until there was not a red-head to be seen except my own and that of the manager.\n\n\" 'My name,' said he, 'is Mr. Duncan Ross, and I am myself one of the pensioners upon the fund left by our noble benefactor. Are you a married man, Mr. Wilson? Have you a family?'\n\n\"I answered that I had not.\n\n\"His face fell immediately.\n\n\" 'Dear me!' he said gravely, 'that is very serious indeed! I am sorry to hear you say that. The fund was, of course, for the propagation and spread of the red-heads as well as for their maintenance. It is exceedingly unfortunate that you should be a bachelor.'\n\n\"My face lengthened at this, Mr. Holmes, for I thought that I was not to have the vacancy after all; but after thinking it over for a few minutes he said that it would be all right.\n\n\" 'In the case of another,' said he, 'the objection might be fatal, but we must stretch a point in favour of a man with such a head of hair as yours. When shall you be able to enter upon your new duties?'\n\n\" 'Well, it is a little awkward, for I have a business already,' said I.\n\n\" 'Oh, never mind about that, Mr. Wilson!' said Vincent Spaulding. 'I should be able to look after that for you.'\n\n\" 'What would be the hours?' I asked.\n\n\" 'Ten to two.'\n\n\"Now a pawnbroker's business is mostly done of an evening, Mr. Holmes, especially Thursday and Friday evening, which is just before pay-day; so it would suit me very well to earn a little in the mornings. Besides, I knew that my assistant was a good man, and that he would see to anything that turned up.\n\n\" 'That would suit me very well,' said I. 'And the pay?'\n\n\" 'Is $4 a week.'\n\n\" 'And the work?'\n\n\" 'Is purely nominal.'\n\n\" 'What do you call purely nominal?'\n\n\" 'Well, you have to be in the office, or at least in the building, the whole time. If you leave, you forfeit your whole position forever. The will is very clear upon that point. You don't comply with the conditions if you budge from the office during that time.'\n\n\" 'It's only four hours a day, and I should not think of leaving,' said I.\n\n\" 'No excuse will avail,' said Mr. Duncan Ross; 'neither sickness nor business nor anything else. There you must stay, or you lose your billet.'\n\n\" 'And the work?'\n\n\" 'Is to copy out the Encyclopaedia Britannica. There is the first volume of it in that press. You must find your own ink, pens, and blotting-paper, but we provide this table and chair. Will you be ready to-morrow?'\n\n\" 'Certainly,' I answered.\n\n\" 'Then, good-bye, Mr. Jabez Wilson, and let me congratulate you once more on the important position which you have been fortunate enough to gain.' He bowed me out of the room and I went home with my assistant, hardly knowing what to say or do, I was so pleased at my own good fortune.\n\n\"Well, I thought over the matter all day, and by evening I was in low spirits again; for I had quite persuaded myself that the whole affair must be some great hoax or fraud, though what its object might be I could not imagine. It seemed altogether past belief that anyone could make such a will, or that they would pay such a sum for doing anything so simple as copying out the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Vincent Spaulding did what he could to cheer me up, but by bedtime I had reasoned myself out of the whole thing. However, in the morning I determined to have a look at it anyhow, so I bought a penny bottle of ink, and with a quill-pen, and seven sheets of foolscap paper, I started off for Pope's Court.\n\n\"Well, to my surprise and delight, everything was as right as possible. The table was set out ready for me, and Mr. Duncan Ross was there to see that I got fairly to work. He started me off upon the letter A, and then he left me; but he would drop in from time to time to see that all was right with me. At two o'clock he bade me good-day, complimented me upon the amount that I had written, and locked the door of the office after me.\n\n\"This went on day after day, Mr. Holmes, and on Saturday the manager came in and planked down four golden sovereigns for my week's work. It was the same next week, and the same the week after. Every morning I was there at ten, and every afternoon I left at two. By degrees Mr. Duncan Ross took to coming in only once of a morning, and then, after a time, he did not come in at all. Still, of course, I never dared to leave the room for an instant, for I was not sure when he might come, and the billet was such a good one, and suited me so well, that I would not risk the loss of it.\n\n\"Eight weeks passed away like this, and I had written about Abbots and Archery and Armour and Architecture and Attica, and hoped with diligence that I might get on to the B's before very long. It cost me something in foolscap, and I had pretty nearly filled a shelf with my writings. And then suddenly the whole business came to an end.\"\n\n\"To an end?\"\n\n\"Yes, sir. And no later than this morning. I went to my work as usual at ten o'clock, but the door was shut and locked, with a little square of cardboard hammered on to the middle of the panel with a tack. Here it is, and you can read for yourself.\"\n\nHe held up a piece of white cardboard about the size of a sheet of note-paper. It read in this fashion:\n\n\nTHE RED-HEADED LEAGUE\n\nIS\n\nDISSOLVED.\n\nOctober 9, 1890.\n\n\nSherlock Holmes and I surveyed this curt announcement and the rueful face behind it, until the comical side of the affair so completely overtopped every other consideration that we both burst out into a roar of laughter.\n\n\"I cannot see that there is anything very funny,\" cried our client, flushing up to the roots of his flaming head. \"If you can do nothing better than laugh at me, I can go elsewhere.\"\n\n\"No, no,\" cried Holmes, shoving him back into the chair from which he had half risen. \"I really wouldn't miss your case for the world. It is most refreshingly unusual. But there is, if you will excuse my saying so, something just a little funny about it. Pray what steps did you take when you found the card upon the door?\"\n\n\"I was staggered, sir. I did not know what to do. Then I called at the offices round, but none of them seemed to know anything about it. Finally, I went to the landlord, who is an accountant living on the ground floor, and I asked him if he could tell me what had become of the Red-headed League. He said that he had never heard of any such body. Then I asked him who Mr. Duncan Ross was. He answered that the name was new to him.\n\n\" 'Well,' said I, 'the gentleman at No. 4.'\n\n\" 'What, the red-headed man?'\n\n\" 'Yes.'\n\n\" 'Oh,' said he, 'his name was William Morris. He was a solicitor and was using my room as a temporary convenience until his new premises were ready. He moved out yesterday.'\n\n\" 'Where could I find him?'\n\n\" 'Oh, at his new offices. He did tell me the address. Yes, 17 King Edward Street, near St. Paul's.'\n\n\"I started off, Mr. Holmes, but when I got to that address it was a manufactory of artificial knee-caps, and no one in it had ever heard of either Mr. William Morris or Mr. Duncan Ross.\"\n\n\"And what did you do then?\" asked Holmes.\n\n\"I went home to Saxe-Coburg Square, and I took the advice of my assistant. But he could not help me in any way. He could only say that if I waited I should hear by post. But that was not quite good enough, Mr. Holmes. I did not wish to lose such a place without a struggle, so, as I had heard that you were good enough to give advice to poor folk who were in need of it, I came right away to you.\"\n\n\"And you did very wisely,\" said Holmes. \"Your case is an exceedingly remarkable one, and I shall be happy to look into it. From what you have told me I think that it is possible that graver issues hang from it than might at first sight appear.\"\n\n\"Grave enough!\" said Mr. Jabez Wilson. \"Why, I have lost four pound a week.\"\n\n\"As far as you are personally concerned,\" remarked Holmes, \"I do not see that you have any grievance against this extraordinary league. On the contrary, you are, as I understand, richer by some $30, to say nothing of the minute knowledge which you have gained on every subject which comes under the letter A. You have lost nothing by them.\"\n\n\"No, sir. But I want to find out about them, and who they are, and what their object was in playing this prank--if it was a prank--upon me. It was a pretty expensive joke for them, for it cost them two and thirty pounds.\"\n\n\"We shall endeavour to clear up these points for you. And, first, one or two questions, Mr. Wilson. This assistant of yours who first called your attention to the advertisement--how long had he been with you?\"\n\n\"About a month then.\"\n\n\"How did he come?\"\n\n\"In answer to an advertisement.\"\n\n\"Was he the only applicant?\"\n\n\"No, I had a dozen.\"\n\n\"Why did you pick him?\"\n\n\"Because he was handy and would come cheap.\"\n\n\"At half wages, in fact.\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"What is he like, this Vincent Spaulding?\"\n\n\"Small, stout-built, very quick in his ways, no hair on his face, though he's not short of thirty. Has a white splash of acid upon his forehead.\"\n\nHolmes sat up in his chair in considerable excitement. \"I thought as much,\" said he. \"Have you ever observed that his ears are pierced for earrings?\"\n\n\"Yes, sir. He told me that a gipsy had done it for him when he was a lad.\"\n\n\"Hum!\" said Holmes, sinking back in deep thought. \"He is still with you?\"\n\n\"Oh, yes, sir; I have only just left him.\"\n\n\"And has your business been attended to in your absence?\"\n\n\"Nothing to complain of, sir. There's never very much to do of a morning.\"\n\n\"That will do, Mr. Wilson. I shall be happy to give you an opinion upon the subject in the course of a day or two. To-day is Saturday, and I hope that by Monday we may come to a conclusion.\"\n\n\"Well, Watson,\" said Holmes when our visitor had left us, \"what do you make of it all?\"\n\n\"I make nothing of it,\" I answered frankly. \"It is a most mysterious business.\"\n\n\"As a rule,\" said Holmes, \"the more bizarre a thing is the less mysterious it proves to be. It is your commonplace, featureless crimes which are really puzzling, just as a commonplace face is the most difficult to identify. But I must be prompt over this matter.\"\n\n\"What are you going to do, then?\" I asked.\n\n\"To smoke,\" he answered. \"It is quite a three pipe problem, and I beg that you won't speak to me for fifty minutes.\" He curled himself up in his chair, with his thin knees drawn up to his hawk-like nose, and there he sat with his eyes closed and his black clay pipe thrusting out like the bill of some strange bird. I had come to the conclusion that he had dropped asleep, and indeed was nodding myself, when he suddenly sprang out of his chair with the gesture of a man who has made up his mind and put his pipe down upon the mantelpiece.\n\n\"Sarasate plays at the St. James's Hall this afternoon,\" he remarked. \"What do you think, Watson? Could your patients spare you for a few hours?\"\n\n\"I have nothing to do to-day. My practice is never very absorbing.\"\n\n\"Then put on your hat and come. I am going through the City first, and we can have some lunch on the way. I observe that there is a good deal of German music on the programme, which is rather more to my taste than Italian or French. It is introspective, and I want to introspect. Come along!\"\n\nWe travelled by the Underground as far as Aldersgate; and a short walk took us to Saxe-Coburg Square, the scene of the singular story which we had listened to in the morning. It was a poky, little, shabby-genteel place, where four lines of dingy two-storied brick houses looked out into a small railed-in enclosure, where a lawn of weedy grass and a few clumps of faded laurel bushes made a hard fight against a smoke-laden and uncongenial atmosphere. Three gilt balls and a brown board with \"JABEZ WILSON\" in white letters, upon a corner house, announced the place where our red-headed client carried on his business. Sherlock Holmes stopped in front of it with his head on one side and looked it all over, with his eyes shining brightly between puckered lids. Then he walked slowly up the street, and then down again to the corner, still looking keenly at the houses. Finally he returned to the pawnbroker's, and, having thumped vigorously upon the pavement with his stick two or three times, he went up to the door and knocked. It was instantly opened by a bright-looking, clean-shaven young fellow, who asked him to step in.\n\n\"Thank you,\" said Holmes, \"I only wished to ask you how you would go from here to the Strand.\"\n\n\"Third right, fourth left,\" answered the assistant promptly, closing the door.\n\n\"Smart fellow, that,\" observed Holmes as we walked away. \"He is, in my judgment, the fourth smartest man in London, and for daring I am not sure that he has not a claim to be third. I have known something of him before.\"\n\n\"Evidently,\" said I, \"Mr. Wilson's assistant counts for a good deal in this mystery of the Red-headed League. I am sure that you inquired your way merely in order that you might see him.\"\n\n\"Not him.\"\n\n\"What then?\"\n\n\"The knees of his trousers.\"\n\n\"And what did you see?\"\n\n\"What I expected to see.\"\n\n\"Why did you beat the pavement?\"\n\n\"My dear doctor, this is a time for observation, not for talk. We are spies in an enemy's country. We know something of Saxe-Coburg Square. Let us now explore the parts which lie behind it.\"\n\nThe road in which we found ourselves as we turned round the corner from the retired Saxe-Coburg Square presented as great a contrast to it as the front of a picture does to the back. It was one of the main arteries which conveyed the traffic of the City to the north and west. The roadway was blocked with the immense stream of commerce flowing in a double tide inward and outward, while the footpaths were black with the hurrying swarm of pedestrians. It was difficult to realise as we looked at the line of fine shops and stately business premises that they really abutted on the other side upon the faded and stagnant square which we had just quitted.\n\n\"Let me see,\" said Holmes, standing at the corner and glancing along the line, \"I should like just to remember the order of the houses here. It is a hobby of mine to have an exact knowledge of London. There is Mortimer's, the tobacconist, the little newspaper shop, the Coburg branch of the City and Suburban Bank, the Vegetarian Restaurant, and McFarlane's carriage-building depot. That carries us right on to the other block. And now, Doctor, we've done our work, so it's time we had some play. A sandwich and a cup of coffee, and then off to violin-land, where all is sweetness and delicacy and harmony, and there are no red-headed clients to vex us with their conundrums.\"\n\nMy friend was an enthusiastic musician, being himself not only a very capable performer but a composer of no ordinary merit. All the afternoon he sat in the stalls wrapped in the most perfect happiness, gently waving his long, thin fingers in time to the music, while his gently smiling face and his languid, dreamy eyes were as unlike those of Holmes the sleuth-hound, Holmes the relentless, keen-witted, ready-handed criminal agent, as it was possible to conceive. In his singular character the dual nature alternately asserted itself, and his extreme exactness and astuteness represented, as I have often thought, the reaction against the poetic and contemplative mood which occasionally predominated in him. The swing of his nature took him from extreme languor to devouring energy; and, as I knew well, he was never so truly formidable as when, for days on end, he had been lounging in his armchair amid his improvisations and his black-letter editions. Then it was that the lust of the chase would suddenly come upon him, and that his brilliant reasoning power would rise to the level of intuition, until those who were unacquainted with his methods would look askance at him as on a man whose knowledge was not that of other mortals. When I saw him that afternoon so enwrapped in the music at St. James's Hall I felt that an evil time might be coming upon those whom he had set himself to hunt down.\n\n\"You want to go home, no doubt, Doctor,\" he remarked as we emerged.\n\n\"Yes, it would be as well.\"\n\n\"And I have some business to do which will take some hours. This business at Coburg Square is serious.\"\n\n\"Why serious?\"\n\n\"A considerable crime is in contemplation. I have every reason to believe that we shall be in time to stop it. But to-day being Saturday rather complicates matters. I shall want your help to-night.\"\n\n\"At what time?\"\n\n\"Ten will be early enough.\"\n\n\"I shall be at Baker Street at ten.\"\n\n\"Very well. And, I say, Doctor, there may be some little danger, so kindly put your army revolver in your pocket.\" He waved his hand, turned on his heel, and disappeared in an instant among the crowd.\n\nI trust that I am not more dense than my neighbours, but I was always oppressed with a sense of my own stupidity in my dealings with Sherlock Holmes. Here I had heard what he had heard, I had seen what he had seen, and yet from his words it was evident that he saw clearly not only what had happened but what was about to happen, while to me the whole business was still confused and grotesque. As I drove home to my house in Kensington I thought over it all, from the extraordinary story of the red-headed copier of the Encyclopaedia down to the visit to Saxe-Coburg Square, and the ominous words with which he had parted from me. What was this nocturnal expedition, and why should I go armed? Where were we going, and what were we to do? I had the hint from Holmes that this smooth-faced pawnbroker's assistant was a formidable man--a man who might play a deep game. I tried to puzzle it out, but gave it up in despair and set the matter aside until night should bring an explanation.\n\nIt was a quarter-past nine when I started from home and made my way across the Park, and so through Oxford Street to Baker Street. Two hansoms were standing at the door, and as I entered the passage I heard the sound of voices from above. On entering his room, I found Holmes in animated conversation with two men, one of whom I recognised as Peter Jones, the official police agent, while the other was a long, thin, sad-faced man, with a very shiny hat and oppressively respectable frock-coat.\n\n\"Ha! Our party is complete,\" said Holmes, buttoning up his pea-jacket and taking his heavy hunting crop from the rack. \"Watson, I think you know Mr. Jones, of Scotland Yard? Let me introduce you to Mr. Merryweather, who is to be our companion in to-night's adventure.\"\n\n\"We're hunting in couples again, Doctor, you see,\" said Jones in his consequential way. \"Our friend here is a wonderful man for starting a chase. All he wants is an old dog to help him to do the running down.\"\n\n\"I hope a wild goose may not prove to be the end of our chase,\" observed Mr. Merryweather gloomily.\n\n\"You may place considerable confidence in Mr. Holmes, sir,\" said the police agent loftily. \"He has his own little methods, which are, if he won't mind my saying so, just a little too theoretical and fantastic, but he has the makings of a detective in him. It is not too much to say that once or twice, as in that business of the Sholto murder and the Agra treasure, he has been more nearly correct than the official force.\"\n\n\"Oh, if you say so, Mr. Jones, it is all right,\" said the stranger with deference. \"Still, I confess that I miss my rubber. It is the first Saturday night for seven-and-twenty years that I have not had my rubber.\"\n\n\"I think you will find,\" said Sherlock Holmes, \"that you will play for a higher stake to-night than you have ever done yet, and that the play will be more exciting. For you, Mr. Merryweather, the stake will be some $30,000; and for you, Jones, it will be the man upon whom you wish to lay your hands.\"\n\n\"John Clay, the murderer, thief, smasher, and forger. He's a young man, Mr. Merryweather, but he is at the head of his profession, and I would rather have my bracelets on him than on any criminal in London. He's a remarkable man, is young John Clay. His grandfather was a royal duke, and he himself has been to Eton and Oxford. His brain is as cunning as his fingers, and though we meet signs of him at every turn, we never know where to find the man himself. He'll crack a crib in Scotland one week, and be raising money to build an orphanage in Cornwall the next. I've been on his track for years and have never set eyes on him yet.\"\n\n\"I hope that I may have the pleasure of introducing you to-night. I've had one or two little turns also with Mr. John Clay, and I agree with you that he is at the head of his profession. It is past ten, however, and quite time that we started. If you two will take the first hansom, Watson and I will follow in the second.\"\n\nSherlock Holmes was not very communicative during the long drive and lay back in the cab humming the tunes which he had heard in the afternoon. We rattled through an endless labyrinth of gas-lit streets until we emerged into Farrington Street.\n\n\"We are close there now,\" my friend remarked. \"This fellow Merryweather is a bank director, and personally interested in the matter. I thought it as well to have Jones with us also. He is not a bad fellow, though an absolute imbecile in his profession. He has one positive virtue. He is as brave as a bulldog and as tenacious as a lobster if he gets his claws upon anyone. Here we are, and they are waiting for us.\"\n\nWe had reached the same crowded thoroughfare in which we had found ourselves in the morning. Our cabs were dismissed, and, following the guidance of Mr. Merryweather, we passed down a narrow passage and through a side door, which he opened for us. Within there was a small corridor, which ended in a very massive iron gate. This also was opened, and led down a flight of winding stone steps, which terminated at another formidable gate. Mr. Merryweather stopped to light a lantern, and then conducted us down a dark, earth-smelling passage, and so, after opening a third door, into a huge vault or cellar, which was piled all round with crates and massive boxes.\n\n\"You are not very vulnerable from above,\" Holmes remarked as he held up the lantern and gazed about him.\n\n\"Nor from below,\" said Mr. Merryweather, striking his stick upon the flags which lined the floor. \"Why, dear me, it sounds quite hollow!\" he remarked, looking up in surprise.\n\n\"I must really ask you to be a little more quiet!\" said Holmes severely. \"You have already imperilled the whole success of our expedition. Might I beg that you would have the goodness to sit down upon one of those boxes, and not to interfere?\"\n\nThe solemn Mr. Merryweather perched himself upon a crate, with a very injured expression upon his face, while Holmes fell upon his knees upon the floor and, with the lantern and a magnifying lens, began to examine minutely the cracks between the stones. A few seconds sufficed to satisfy him, for he sprang to his feet again and put his glass in his pocket.\n\n\"We have at least an hour before us,\" he remarked, \"for they can hardly take any steps until the good pawnbroker is safely in bed. Then they will not lose a minute, for the sooner they do their work the longer time they will have for their escape. We are at present, Doctor--as no doubt you have divined--in the cellar of the City branch of one of the principal London banks. Mr. Merryweather is the chairman of directors, and he will explain to you that there are reasons why the more daring criminals of London should take a considerable interest in this cellar at present.\"\n\n\"It is our French gold,\" whispered the director. \"We have had several warnings that an attempt might be made upon it.\"\n\n\"Your French gold?\"\n\n\"Yes. We had occasion some months ago to strengthen our resources and borrowed for that purpose 30,000 napoleons from the Bank of France. It has become known that we have never had occasion to unpack the money, and that it is still lying in our cellar. The crate upon which I sit contains 2,000 napoleons packed between layers of lead foil. Our reserve of bullion is much larger at present than is usually kept in a single branch office, and the directors have had misgivings upon the subject.\"\n\n\"Which were very well justified,\" observed Holmes. \"And now it is time that we arranged our little plans. I expect that within an hour matters will come to a head. In the meantime Mr. Merryweather, we must put the screen over that dark lantern.\"\n\n\"And sit in the dark?\"\n\n\"I am afraid so. I had brought a pack of cards in my pocket, and I thought that, as we were a partie carree, you might have your rubber after all. But I see that the enemy's preparations have gone so far that we cannot risk the presence of a light. And, first of all, we must choose our positions. These are daring men, and though we shall take them at a disadvantage, they may do us some harm unless we are careful. I shall stand behind this crate, and do you conceal yourselves behind those. Then, when I flash a light upon them, close in swiftly. If they fire, Watson, have no compunction about shooting them down.\"\n\nI placed my revolver, cocked, upon the top of the wooden case behind which I crouched. Holmes shot the slide across the front of his lantern and left us in pitch darkness--such an absolute darkness as I have never before experienced. The smell of hot metal remained to assure us that the light was still there, ready to flash out at a moment's notice. To me, with my nerves worked up to a pitch of expectancy, there was something depressing and subduing in the sudden gloom, and in the cold dank air of the vault.\n\n\"They have but one retreat,\" whispered Holmes. \"That is back through the house into Saxe-Coburg Square. I hope that you have done what I asked you, Jones?\"\n\n\"I have an inspector and two officers waiting at the front door.\"\n\n\"Then we have stopped all the holes. And now we must be silent and wait.\"\n\nWhat a time it seemed! From comparing notes afterwards it was but an hour and a quarter, yet it appeared to me that the night must have almost gone, and the dawn be breaking above us. My limbs were weary and stiff, for I feared to change my position; yet my nerves were worked up to the highest pitch of tension, and my hearing was so acute that I could not only hear the gentle breathing of my companions, but I could distinguish the deeper, heavier in-breath of the bulky Jones from the thin, sighing note of the bank director. From my position I could look over the case in the direction of the floor. Suddenly my eyes caught the glint of a light.\n\nAt first it was but a lurid spark upon the stone pavement. Then it lengthened out until it became a yellow line, and then, without any warning or sound, a gash seemed to open and a hand appeared, a white, almost womanly hand, which felt about in the centre of the little area of light. For a minute or more the hand, with its writhing fingers, protruded out of the floor. Then it was withdrawn as suddenly as it appeared, and all was dark again save the single lurid spark which marked a chink between the stones.\n\nIts disappearance, however, was but momentary. With a rending, tearing sound, one of the broad, white stones turned over upon its side and left a square, gaping hole, through which streamed the light of a lantern. Over the edge there peeped a clean-cut, boyish face, which looked keenly about it, and then, with a hand on either side of the aperture, drew itself shoulder-high and waist-high, until one knee rested upon the edge. In another instant he stood at the side of the hole and was hauling after him a companion, lithe and small like himself, with a pale face and a shock of very red hair.\n\n\"It's all clear,\" he whispered. \"Have you the chisel and the bags? Great Scott! Jump, Archie, jump, and I'll swing for it!\"\n\nSherlock Holmes had sprung out and seized the intruder by the collar. The other dived down the hole, and I heard the sound of rending cloth as Jones clutched at his skirts. The light flashed upon the barrel of a revolver, but Holmes' hunting crop came down on the man's wrist, and the pistol clinked upon the stone floor.\n\n\"It's no use, John Clay,\" said Holmes blandly. \"You have no chance at all.\"\n\n\"So I see,\" the other answered with the utmost coolness. \"I fancy that my pal is all right, though I see you have got his coat-tails.\"\n\n\"There are three men waiting for him at the door,\" said Holmes.\n\n\"Oh, indeed! You seem to have done the thing very completely. I must compliment you.\"\n\n\"And I you,\" Holmes answered. \"Your red-headed idea was very new and effective.\"\n\n\"You'll see your pal again presently,\" said Jones. \"He's quicker at climbing down holes than I am. Just hold out while I fix the derbies.\"\n\n\"I beg that you will not touch me with your filthy hands,\" remarked our prisoner as the handcuffs clattered upon his wrists. \"You may not be aware that I have royal blood in my veins. Have the goodness, also, when you address me always to say 'sir' and 'please.' \"\n\n\"All right,\" said Jones with a stare and a snigger. \"Well, would you please, sir, march upstairs, where we can get a cab to carry your Highness to the police-station?\"\n\n\"That is better,\" said John Clay serenely. He made a sweeping bow to the three of us and walked quietly off in the custody of the detective.\n\n\"Really, Mr. Holmes,\" said Mr. Merryweather as we followed them from the cellar, \"I do not know how the bank can thank you or repay you. There is no doubt that you have detected and defeated in the most complete manner one of the most determined attempts at bank robbery that have ever come within my experience.\"\n\n\"I have had one or two little scores of my own to settle with Mr. John Clay,\" said Holmes. \"I have been at some small expense over this matter, which I shall expect the bank to refund, but beyond that I am amply repaid by having had an experience which is in many ways unique, and by hearing the very remarkable narrative of the Red-headed League.\"\n\n\"You see, Watson,\" he explained in the early hours of the morning as we sat over a glass of whisky and soda in Baker Street, \"it was perfectly obvious from the first that the only possible object of this rather fantastic business of the advertisement of the League, and the copying of the Encyclopaedia, must be to get this not over-bright pawnbroker out of the way for a number of hours every day. It was a curious way of managing it, but, really, it would be difficult to suggest a better. The method was no doubt suggested to Clay's ingenious mind by the colour of his accomplice's hair. The $4 a week was a lure which must draw him, and what was it to them, who were playing for thousands? They put in the advertisement, one rogue has the temporary office, the other rogue incites the man to apply for it, and together they manage to secure his absence every morning in the week. From the time that I heard of the assistant having come for half wages, it was obvious to me that he had some strong motive for securing the situation.\"\n\n\"But how could you guess what the motive was?\"\n\n\"Had there been women in the house, I should have suspected a mere vulgar intrigue. That, however, was out of the question. The man's business was a small one, and there was nothing in his house which could account for such elaborate preparations, and such an expenditure as they were at. It must, then, be something out of the house. What could it be? I thought of the assistant's fondness for photography, and his trick of vanishing into the cellar. The cellar! There was the end of this tangled clue. Then I made inquiries as to this mysterious assistant and found that I had to deal with one of the coolest and most daring criminals in London. He was doing something in the cellar--something which took many hours a day for months on end. What could it be, once more? I could think of nothing save that he was running a tunnel to some other building.\n\n\"So far I had got when we went to visit the scene of action. I surprised you by beating upon the pavement with my stick. I was ascertaining whether the cellar stretched out in front or behind. It was not in front. Then I rang the bell, and, as I hoped, the assistant answered it. We have had some skirmishes, but we had never set eyes upon each other before. I hardly looked at his face. His knees were what I wished to see. You must yourself have remarked how worn, wrinkled, and stained they were. They spoke of those hours of burrowing. The only remaining point was what they were burrowing for. I walked round the corner, saw the City and Suburban Bank abutted on our friend's premises, and felt that I had solved my problem. When you drove home after the concert I called upon Scotland Yard and upon the chairman of the bank directors, with the result that you have seen.\"\n\n\"And how could you tell that they would make their attempt to-night?\" I asked.\n\n\"Well, when they closed their League offices that was a sign that they cared no longer about Mr. Jabez Wilson's presence--in other words, that they had completed their tunnel. But it was essential that they should use it soon, as it might be discovered, or the bullion might be removed. Saturday would suit them better than any other day, as it would give them two days for their escape. For all these reasons I expected them to come to-night.\"\n\n\"You reasoned it out beautifully,\" I exclaimed in unfeigned admiration. \"It is so long a chain, and yet every link rings true.\"\n\n\"It saved me from ennui,\" he answered, yawning. \"Alas! I already feel it closing in upon me. My life is spent in one long effort to escape from the commonplaces of existence. These little problems help me to do so.\"\n\n\"And you are a benefactor of the race,\" said I.\n\nHe shrugged his shoulders. \"Well, perhaps, after all, it is of some little use,\" he remarked. \" 'L'homme c'est rien--l'oeuvre c'est tout,' as Gustave Flaubert wrote to George Sand.\"\n\nADVENTURE III. A CASE OF IDENTITY\n\n\n\"My dear fellow,\" said Sherlock Holmes as we sat on either side of the fire in his lodgings at Baker Street, \"life is infinitely stranger than anything which the mind of man could invent. We would not dare to conceive the things which are really mere commonplaces of existence. If we could fly out of that window hand in hand, hover over this great city, gently remove the roofs, and peep in at the queer things which are going on, the strange coincidences, the plannings, the cross-purposes, the wonderful chains of events, working through generations, and leading to the most outre results, it would make all fiction with its conventionalities and foreseen conclusions most stale and unprofitable.\"\n\n\"And yet I am not convinced of it,\" I answered. \"The cases which come to light in the papers are, as a rule, bald enough, and vulgar enough. We have in our police reports realism pushed to its extreme limits, and yet the result is, it must be confessed, neither fascinating nor artistic.\"\n\n\"A certain selection and discretion must be used in producing a realistic effect,\" remarked Holmes. \"This is wanting in the police report, where more stress is laid, perhaps, upon the platitudes of the magistrate than upon the details, which to an observer contain the vital essence of the whole matter. Depend upon it, there is nothing so unnatural as the commonplace.\"\n\nI smiled and shook my head. \"I can quite understand your thinking so.\" I said. \"Of course, in your position of unofficial adviser and helper to everybody who is absolutely puzzled, throughout three continents, you are brought in contact with all that is strange and bizarre. But here\"--I picked up the morning paper from the ground--\"let us put it to a practical test. Here is the first heading upon which I come. 'A husband's cruelty to his wife.' There is half a column of print, but I know without reading it that it is all perfectly familiar to me. There is, of course, the other woman, the drink, the push, the blow, the bruise, the sympathetic sister or landlady. The crudest of writers could invent nothing more crude.\"\n\n\"Indeed, your example is an unfortunate one for your argument,\" said Holmes, taking the paper and glancing his eye down it. \"This is the Dundas separation case, and, as it happens, I was engaged in clearing up some small points in connection with it. The husband was a teetotaler, there was no other woman, and the conduct complained of was that he had drifted into the habit of winding up every meal by taking out his false teeth and hurling them at his wife, which, you will allow, is not an action likely to occur to the imagination of the average story-teller. Take a pinch of snuff, Doctor, and acknowledge that I have scored over you in your example.\"\n\nHe held out his snuffbox of old gold, with a great amethyst in the centre of the lid. Its splendour was in such contrast to his homely ways and simple life that I could not help commenting upon it.\n\n\"Ah,\" said he, \"I forgot that I had not seen you for some weeks. It is a little souvenir from the King of Bohemia in return for my assistance in the case of the Irene Adler papers.\"\n\n\"And the ring?\" I asked, glancing at a remarkable brilliant which sparkled upon his finger.\n\n\"It was from the reigning family of Holland, though the matter in which I served them was of such delicacy that I cannot confide it even to you, who have been good enough to chronicle one or two of my little problems.\"\n\n\"And have you any on hand just now?\" I asked with interest.\n\n\"Some ten or twelve, but none which present any feature of interest. They are important, you understand, without being interesting. Indeed, I have found that it is usually in unimportant matters that there is a field for the observation, and for the quick analysis of cause and effect which gives the charm to an investigation. The larger crimes are apt to be the simpler, for the bigger the crime the more obvious, as a rule, is the motive. In these cases, save for one rather intricate matter which has been referred to me from Marseilles, there is nothing which presents any features of interest. It is possible, however, that I may have something better before very many minutes are over, for this is one of my clients, or I am much mistaken.\"\n\nHe had risen from his chair and was standing between the parted blinds gazing down into the dull neutral-tinted London street. Looking over his shoulder, I saw that on the pavement opposite there stood a large woman with a heavy fur boa round her neck, and a large curling red feather in a broad-brimmed hat which was tilted in a coquettish Duchess of Devonshire fashion over her ear. From under this great panoply she peeped up in a nervous, hesitating fashion at our windows, while her body oscillated backward and forward, and her fingers fidgeted with her glove buttons. Suddenly, with a plunge, as of the swimmer who leaves the bank, she hurried across the road, and we heard the sharp clang of the bell.\n\n\"I have seen those symptoms before,\" said Holmes, throwing his cigarette into the fire. \"Oscillation upon the pavement always means an affaire de coeur. She would like advice, but is not sure that the matter is not too delicate for communication. And yet even here we may discriminate. When a woman has been seriously wronged by a man she no longer oscillates, and the usual symptom is a broken bell wire. Here we may take it that there is a love matter, but that the maiden is not so much angry as perplexed, or grieved. But here she comes in person to resolve our doubts.\"\n\nAs he spoke there was a tap at the door, and the boy in buttons entered to announce Miss Mary Sutherland, while the lady herself loomed behind his small black figure like a full-sailed merchant-man behind a tiny pilot boat. Sherlock Holmes welcomed her with the easy courtesy for which he was remarkable, and, having closed the door and bowed her into an armchair, he looked her over in the minute and yet abstracted fashion which was peculiar to him.\n\n\"Do you not find,\" he said, \"that with your short sight it is a little trying to do so much typewriting?\"\n\n\"I did at first,\" she answered, \"but now I know where the letters are without looking.\" Then, suddenly realising the full purport of his words, she gave a violent start and looked up, with fear and astonishment upon her broad, good-humoured face. \"You've heard about me, Mr. Holmes,\" she cried, \"else how could you know all that?\"\n\n\"Never mind,\" said Holmes, laughing; \"it is my business to know things. Perhaps I have trained myself to see what others overlook. If not, why should you come to consult me?\"\n\n\"I came to you, sir, because I heard of you from Mrs. Etherege, whose husband you found so easy when the police and everyone had given him up for dead. Oh, Mr. Holmes, I wish you would do as much for me. I'm not rich, but still I have a hundred a year in my own right, besides the little that I make by the machine, and I would give it all to know what has become of Mr. Hosmer Angel.\"\n\n\"Why did you come away to consult me in such a hurry?\" asked Sherlock Holmes, with his finger-tips together and his eyes to the ceiling.\n\nAgain a startled look came over the somewhat vacuous face of Miss Mary Sutherland. \"Yes, I did bang out of the house,\" she said, \"for it made me angry to see the easy way in which Mr. Windibank--that is, my father--took it all. He would not go to the police, and he would not go to you, and so at last, as he would do nothing and kept on saying that there was no harm done, it made me mad, and I just on with my things and came right away to you.\"\n\n\"Your father,\" said Holmes, \"your stepfather, surely, since the name is different.\"\n\n\"Yes, my stepfather. I call him father, though it sounds funny, too, for he is only five years and two months older than myself.\"\n\n\"And your mother is alive?\"\n\n\"Oh, yes, mother is alive and well. I wasn't best pleased, Mr. Holmes, when she married again so soon after father's death, and a man who was nearly fifteen years younger than herself. Father was a plumber in the Tottenham Court Road, and he left a tidy business behind him, which mother carried on with Mr. Hardy, the foreman; but when Mr. Windibank came he made her sell the business, for he was very superior, being a traveller in wines. They got $4700 for the goodwill and interest, which wasn't near as much as father could have got if he had been alive.\"\n\nI had expected to see Sherlock Holmes impatient under this rambling and inconsequential narrative, but, on the contrary, he had listened with the greatest concentration of attention.\n\n\"Your own little income,\" he asked, \"does it come out of the business?\"\n\n\"Oh, no, sir. It is quite separate and was left me by my uncle Ned in Auckland. It is in New Zealand stock, paying 4 1/4 per cent. Two thousand five hundred pounds was the amount, but I can only touch the interest.\"\n\n\"You interest me extremely,\" said Holmes. \"And since you draw so large a sum as a hundred a year, with what you earn into the bargain, you no doubt travel a little and indulge yourself in every way. I believe that a single lady can get on very nicely upon an income of about $60.\"\n\n\"I could do with much less than that, Mr. Holmes, but you understand that as long as I live at home I don't wish to be a burden to them, and so they have the use of the money just while I am staying with them. Of course, that is only just for the time. Mr. Windibank draws my interest every quarter and pays it over to mother, and I find that I can do pretty well with what I earn at typewriting. It brings me twopence a sheet, and I can often do from fifteen to twenty sheets in a day.\"\n\n\"You have made your position very clear to me,\" said Holmes. \"This is my friend, Dr. Watson, before whom you can speak as freely as before myself. Kindly tell us now all about your connection with Mr. Hosmer Angel.\"\n\nA flush stole over Miss Sutherland's face, and she picked nervously at the fringe of her jacket. \"I met him first at the gasfitters' ball,\" she said. \"They used to send father tickets when he was alive, and then afterwards they remembered us, and sent them to mother. Mr. Windibank did not wish us to go. He never did wish us to go anywhere. He would get quite mad if I wanted so much as to join a Sunday-school treat. But this time I was set on going, and I would go; for what right had he to prevent? He said the folk were not fit for us to know, when all father's friends were to be there. And he said that I had nothing fit to wear, when I had my purple plush that I had never so much as taken out of the drawer. At last, when nothing else would do, he went off to France upon the business of the firm, but we went, mother and I, with Mr. Hardy, who used to be our foreman, and it was there I met Mr. Hosmer Angel.\"\n\n\"I suppose,\" said Holmes, \"that when Mr. Windibank came back from France he was very annoyed at your having gone to the ball.\"\n\n\"Oh, well, he was very good about it. He laughed, I remember, and shrugged his shoulders, and said there was no use denying anything to a woman, for she would have her way.\"\n\n\"I see. Then at the gasfitters' ball you met, as I understand, a gentleman called Mr. Hosmer Angel.\"\n\n\"Yes, sir. I met him that night, and he called next day to ask if we had got home all safe, and after that we met him--that is to say, Mr. Holmes, I met him twice for walks, but after that father came back again, and Mr. Hosmer Angel could not come to the house any more.\"\n\n\"No?\"\n\n\"Well, you know father didn't like anything of the sort. He wouldn't have any visitors if he could help it, and he used to say that a woman should be happy in her own family circle. But then, as I used to say to mother, a woman wants her own circle to begin with, and I had not got mine yet.\"\n\n\"But how about Mr. Hosmer Angel? Did he make no attempt to see you?\"\n\n\"Well, father was going off to France again in a week, and Hosmer wrote and said that it would be safer and better not to see each other until he had gone. We could write in the meantime, and he used to write every day. I took the letters in in the morning, so there was no need for father to know.\"\n\n\"Were you engaged to the gentleman at this time?\"\n\n\"Oh, yes, Mr. Holmes. We were engaged after the first walk that we took. Hosmer--Mr. Angel--was a cashier in an office in Leadenhall Street--and--\"\n\n\"What office?\"\n\n\"That's the worst of it, Mr. Holmes, I don't know.\"\n\n\"Where did he live, then?\"\n\n\"He slept on the premises.\"\n\n\"And you don't know his address?\"\n\n\"No--except that it was Leadenhall Street.\"\n\n\"Where did you address your letters, then?\"\n\n\"To the Leadenhall Street Post Office, to be left till called for. He said that if they were sent to the office he would be chaffed by all the other clerks about having letters from a lady, so I offered to typewrite them, like he did his, but he wouldn't have that, for he said that when I wrote them they seemed to come from me, but when they were typewritten he always felt that the machine had come between us. That will just show you how fond he was of me, Mr. Holmes, and the little things that he would think of.\"\n\n\"It was most suggestive,\" said Holmes. \"It has long been an axiom of mine that the little things are infinitely the most important. Can you remember any other little things about Mr. Hosmer Angel?\"\n\n\"He was a very shy man, Mr. Holmes. He would rather walk with me in the evening than in the daylight, for he said that he hated to be conspicuous. Very retiring and gentlemanly he was. Even his voice was gentle. He'd had the quinsy and swollen glands when he was young, he told me, and it had left him with a weak throat, and a hesitating, whispering fashion of speech. He was always well dressed, very neat and plain, but his eyes were weak, just as mine are, and he wore tinted glasses against the glare.\"\n\n\"Well, and what happened when Mr. Windibank, your stepfather, returned to France?\"\n\n\"Mr. Hosmer Angel came to the house again and proposed that we should marry before father came back. He was in dreadful earnest and made me swear, with my hands on the Testament, that whatever happened I would always be true to him. Mother said he was quite right to make me swear, and that it was a sign of his passion. Mother was all in his favour from the first and was even fonder of him than I was. Then, when they talked of marrying within the week, I began to ask about father; but they both said never to mind about father, but just to tell him afterwards, and mother said she would make it all right with him. I didn't quite like that, Mr. Holmes. It seemed funny that I should ask his leave, as he was only a few years older than me; but I didn't want to do anything on the sly, so I wrote to father at Bordeaux, where the company has its French offices, but the letter came back to me on the very morning of the wedding.\"\n\n\"It missed him, then?\"\n\n\"Yes, sir; for he had started to England just before it arrived.\"\n\n\"Ha! that was unfortunate. Your wedding was arranged, then, for the Friday. Was it to be in church?\"\n\n\"Yes, sir, but very quietly. It was to be at St. Saviour's, near King's Cross, and we were to have breakfast afterwards at the St. Pancras Hotel. Hosmer came for us in a hansom, but as there were two of us he put us both into it and stepped himself into a four-wheeler, which happened to be the only other cab in the street. We got to the church first, and when the four-wheeler drove up we waited for him to step out, but he never did, and when the cabman got down from the box and looked there was no one there! The cabman said that he could not imagine what had become of him, for he had seen him get in with his own eyes. That was last Friday, Mr. Holmes, and I have never seen or heard anything since then to throw any light upon what became of him.\"\n\n\"It seems to me that you have been very shamefully treated,\" said Holmes.\n\n\"Oh, no, sir! He was too good and kind to leave me so. Why, all the morning he was saying to me that, whatever happened, I was to be true; and that even if something quite unforeseen occurred to separate us, I was always to remember that I was pledged to him, and that he would claim his pledge sooner or later. It seemed strange talk for a wedding-morning, but what has happened since gives a meaning to it.\"\n\n\"Most certainly it does. Your own opinion is, then, that some unforeseen catastrophe has occurred to him?\"\n\n\"Yes, sir. I believe that he foresaw some danger, or else he would not have talked so. And then I think that what he foresaw happened.\"\n\n\"But you have no notion as to what it could have been?\"\n\n\"None.\"\n\n\"One more question. How did your mother take the matter?\"\n\n\"She was angry, and said that I was never to speak of the matter again.\"\n\n\"And your father? Did you tell him?\"\n\n\"Yes; and he seemed to think, with me, that something had happened, and that I should hear of Hosmer again. As he said, what interest could anyone have in bringing me to the doors of the church, and then leaving me? Now, if he had borrowed my money, or if he had married me and got my money settled on him, there might be some reason, but Hosmer was very independent about money and never would look at a shilling of mine. And yet, what could have happened? And why could he not write? Oh, it drives me half-mad to think of it, and I can't sleep a wink at night.\" She pulled a little handkerchief out of her muff and began to sob heavily into it.\n\n\"I shall glance into the case for you,\" said Holmes, rising, \"and I have no doubt that we shall reach some definite result. Let the weight of the matter rest upon me now, and do not let your mind dwell upon it further. Above all, try to let Mr. Hosmer Angel vanish from your memory, as he has done from your life.\"\n\n\"Then you don't think I'll see him again?\"\n\n\"I fear not.\"\n\n\"Then what has happened to him?\"\n\n\"You will leave that question in my hands. I should like an accurate description of him and any letters of his which you can spare.\"\n\n\"I advertised for him in last Saturday's Chronicle,\" said she. \"Here is the slip and here are four letters from him.\"\n\n\"Thank you. And your address?\"\n\n\"No. 31 Lyon Place, Camberwell.\"\n\n\"Mr. Angel's address you never had, I understand. Where is your father's place of business?\"\n\n\"He travels for Westhouse & Marbank, the great claret importers of Fenchurch Street.\"\n\n\"Thank you. You have made your statement very clearly. You will leave the papers here, and remember the advice which I have given you. Let the whole incident be a sealed book, and do not allow it to affect your life.\"\n\n\"You are very kind, Mr. Holmes, but I cannot do that. I shall be true to Hosmer. He shall find me ready when he comes back.\"\n\nFor all the preposterous hat and the vacuous face, there was something noble in the simple faith of our visitor which compelled our respect. She laid her little bundle of papers upon the table and went her way, with a promise to come again whenever she might be summoned.\n\nSherlock Holmes sat silent for a few minutes with his fingertips still pressed together, his legs stretched out in front of him, and his gaze directed upward to the ceiling. Then he took down from the rack the old and oily clay pipe, which was to him as a counsellor, and, having lit it, he leaned back in his chair, with the thick blue cloud-wreaths spinning up from him, and a look of infinite languor in his face.\n\n\"Quite an interesting study, that maiden,\" he observed. \"I found her more interesting than her little problem, which, by the way, is rather a trite one. You will find parallel cases, if you consult my index, in Andover in '77, and there was something of the sort at The Hague last year. Old as is the idea, however, there were one or two details which were new to me. But the maiden herself was most instructive.\"\n\n\"You appeared to read a good deal upon her which was quite invisible to me,\" I remarked.\n\n\"Not invisible but unnoticed, Watson. You did not know where to look, and so you missed all that was important. I can never bring you to realise the importance of sleeves, the suggestiveness of thumb-nails, or the great issues that may hang from a boot-lace. Now, what did you gather from that woman's appearance? Describe it.\"\n\n\"Well, she had a slate-coloured, broad-brimmed straw hat, with a feather of a brickish red. Her jacket was black, with black beads sewn upon it, and a fringe of little black jet ornaments. Her dress was brown, rather darker than coffee colour, with a little purple plush at the neck and sleeves. Her gloves were greyish and were worn through at the right forefinger. Her boots I didn't observe. She had small round, hanging gold earrings, and a general air of being fairly well-to-do in a vulgar, comfortable, easy-going way.\"\n\nSherlock Holmes clapped his hands softly together and chuckled.\n\n\" 'Pon my word, Watson, you are coming along wonderfully. You have really done very well indeed. It is true that you have missed everything of importance, but you have hit upon the method, and you have a quick eye for colour. Never trust to general impressions, my boy, but concentrate yourself upon details. My first glance is always at a woman's sleeve. In a man it is perhaps better first to take the knee of the trouser. As you observe, this woman had plush upon her sleeves, which is a most useful material for showing traces. The double line a little above the wrist, where the typewritist presses against the table, was beautifully defined. The sewing-machine, of the hand type, leaves a similar mark, but only on the left arm, and on the side of it farthest from the thumb, instead of being right across the broadest part, as this was. I then glanced at her face, and, observing the dint of a pince-nez at either side of her nose, I ventured a remark upon short sight and typewriting, which seemed to surprise her.\"\n\n\"It surprised me.\"\n\n\"But, surely, it was obvious. I was then much surprised and interested on glancing down to observe that, though the boots which she was wearing were not unlike each other, they were really odd ones; the one having a slightly decorated toe-cap, and the other a plain one. One was buttoned only in the two lower buttons out of five, and the other at the first, third, and fifth. Now, when you see that a young lady, otherwise neatly dressed, has come away from home with odd boots, half-buttoned, it is no great deduction to say that she came away in a hurry.\"\n\n\"And what else?\" I asked, keenly interested, as I always was, by my friend's incisive reasoning.\n\n\"I noted, in passing, that she had written a note before leaving home but after being fully dressed. You observed that her right glove was torn at the forefinger, but you did not apparently see that both glove and finger were stained with violet ink. She had written in a hurry and dipped her pen too deep. It must have been this morning, or the mark would not remain clear upon the finger. All this is amusing, though rather elementary, but I must go back to business, Watson. Would you mind reading me the advertised description of Mr. Hosmer Angel?\"\n\nI held the little printed slip to the light.\n\n\"Missing,\" it said, \"on the morning of the fourteenth, a gentleman named Hosmer Angel. About five ft. seven in. in height; strongly built, sallow complexion, black hair, a little bald in the centre, bushy, black side-whiskers and moustache; tinted glasses, slight infirmity of speech. Was dressed, when last seen, in black frock-coat faced with silk, black waistcoat, gold Albert chain, and grey Harris tweed trousers, with brown gaiters over elastic-sided boots. Known to have been employed in an office in Leadenhall Street. Anybody bringing--\"\n\n\"That will do,\" said Holmes. \"As to the letters,\" he continued, glancing over them, \"they are very commonplace. Absolutely no clue in them to Mr. Angel, save that he quotes Balzac once. There is one remarkable point, however, which will no doubt strike you.\"\n\n\"They are typewritten,\" I remarked.\n\n\"Not only that, but the signature is typewritten. Look at the neat little 'Hosmer Angel' at the bottom. There is a date, you see, but no superscription except Leadenhall Street, which is rather vague. The point about the signature is very suggestive--in fact, we may call it conclusive.\"\n\n\"Of what?\"\n\n\"My dear fellow, is it possible you do not see how strongly it bears upon the case?\"\n\n\"I cannot say that I do unless it were that he wished to be able to deny his signature if an action for breach of promise were instituted.\"\n\n\"No, that was not the point. However, I shall write two letters, which should settle the matter. One is to a firm in the City, the other is to the young lady's stepfather, Mr. Windibank, asking him whether he could meet us here at six o'clock to-morrow evening. It is just as well that we should do business with the male relatives. And now, Doctor, we can do nothing until the answers to those letters come, so we may put our little problem upon the shelf for the interim.\"\n\nI had had so many reasons to believe in my friend's subtle powers of reasoning and extraordinary energy in action that I felt that he must have some solid grounds for the assured and easy demeanour with which he treated the singular mystery which he had been called upon to fathom. Once only had I known him to fail, in the case of the King of Bohemia and of the Irene Adler photograph; but when I looked back to the weird business of the Sign of Four, and the extraordinary circumstances connected with the Study in Scarlet, I felt that it would be a strange tangle indeed which he could not unravel.\n\nI left him then, still puffing at his black clay pipe, with the conviction that when I came again on the next evening I would find that he held in his hands all the clues which would lead up to the identity of the disappearing bridegroom of Miss Mary Sutherland.\n\nA professional case of great gravity was engaging my own attention at the time, and the whole of next day I was busy at the bedside of the sufferer. It was not until close upon six o'clock that I found myself free and was able to spring into a hansom and drive to Baker Street, half afraid that I might be too late to assist at the denouement of the little mystery. I found Sherlock Holmes alone, however, half asleep, with his long, thin form curled up in the recesses of his armchair. A formidable array of bottles and test-tubes, with the pungent cleanly smell of hydrochloric acid, told me that he had spent his day in the chemical work which was so dear to him.\n\n\"Well, have you solved it?\" I asked as I entered.\n\n\"Yes. It was the bisulphate of baryta.\"\n\n\"No, no, the mystery!\" I cried.\n\n\"Oh, that! I thought of the salt that I have been working upon. There was never any mystery in the matter, though, as I said yesterday, some of the details are of interest. The only drawback is that there is no law, I fear, that can touch the scoundrel.\"\n\n\"Who was he, then, and what was his object in deserting Miss Sutherland?\"\n\nThe question was hardly out of my mouth, and Holmes had not yet opened his lips to reply, when we heard a heavy footfall in the passage and a tap at the door.\n\n\"This is the girl's stepfather, Mr. James Windibank,\" said Holmes. \"He has written to me to say that he would be here at six. Come in!\"\n\nThe man who entered was a sturdy, middle-sized fellow, some thirty years of age, clean-shaven, and sallow-skinned, with a bland, insinuating manner, and a pair of wonderfully sharp and penetrating grey eyes. He shot a questioning glance at each of us, placed his shiny top-hat upon the sideboard, and with a slight bow sidled down into the nearest chair.\n\n\"Good-evening, Mr. James Windibank,\" said Holmes. \"I think that this typewritten letter is from you, in which you made an appointment with me for six o'clock?\"\n\n\"Yes, sir. I am afraid that I am a little late, but I am not quite my own master, you know. I am sorry that Miss Sutherland has troubled you about this little matter, for I think it is far better not to wash linen of the sort in public. It was quite against my wishes that she came, but she is a very excitable, impulsive girl, as you may have noticed, and she is not easily controlled when she has made up her mind on a point. Of course, I did not mind you so much, as you are not connected with the official police, but it is not pleasant to have a family misfortune like this noised abroad. Besides, it is a useless expense, for how could you possibly find this Hosmer Angel?\"\n\n\"On the contrary,\" said Holmes quietly; \"I have every reason to believe that I will succeed in discovering Mr. Hosmer Angel.\"\n\nMr. Windibank gave a violent start and dropped his gloves. \"I am delighted to hear it,\" he said.\n\n\"It is a curious thing,\" remarked Holmes, \"that a typewriter has really quite as much individuality as a man's handwriting. Unless they are quite new, no two of them write exactly alike. Some letters get more worn than others, and some wear only on one side. Now, you remark in this note of yours, Mr. Windibank, that in every case there is some little slurring over of the 'e,' and a slight defect in the tail of the 'r.' There are fourteen other characteristics, but those are the more obvious.\"\n\n\"We do all our correspondence with this machine at the office, and no doubt it is a little worn,\" our visitor answered, glancing keenly at Holmes with his bright little eyes.\n\n\"And now I will show you what is really a very interesting study, Mr. Windibank,\" Holmes continued. \"I think of writing another little monograph some of these days on the typewriter and its relation to crime. It is a subject to which I have devoted some little attention. I have here four letters which purport to come from the missing man. They are all typewritten. In each case, not only are the 'e's' slurred and the 'r's' tailless, but you will observe, if you care to use my magnifying lens, that the fourteen other characteristics to which I have alluded are there as well.\"\n\nMr. Windibank sprang out of his chair and picked up his hat. \"I cannot waste time over this sort of fantastic talk, Mr. Holmes,\" he said. \"If you can catch the man, catch him, and let me know when you have done it.\"\n\n\"Certainly,\" said Holmes, stepping over and turning the key in the door. \"I let you know, then, that I have caught him!\"\n\n\"What! where?\" shouted Mr. Windibank, turning white to his lips and glancing about him like a rat in a trap.\n\n\"Oh, it won't do--really it won't,\" said Holmes suavely. \"There is no possible getting out of it, Mr. Windibank. It is quite too transparent, and it was a very bad compliment when you said that it was impossible for me to solve so simple a question. That's right! Sit down and let us talk it over.\"\n\nOur visitor collapsed into a chair, with a ghastly face and a glitter of moisture on his brow. \"It--it's not actionable,\" he stammered.\n\n\"I am very much afraid that it is not. But between ourselves, Windibank, it was as cruel and selfish and heartless a trick in a petty way as ever came before me. Now, let me just run over the course of events, and you will contradict me if I go wrong.\"\n\nThe man sat huddled up in his chair, with his head sunk upon his breast, like one who is utterly crushed. Holmes stuck his feet up on the corner of the mantelpiece and, leaning back with his hands in his pockets, began talking, rather to himself, as it seemed, than to us.\n\n\"The man married a woman very much older than himself for her money,\" said he, \"and he enjoyed the use of the money of the daughter as long as she lived with them. It was a considerable sum, for people in their position, and the loss of it would have made a serious difference. It was worth an effort to preserve it. The daughter was of a good, amiable disposition, but affectionate and warm-hearted in her ways, so that it was evident that with her fair personal advantages, and her little income, she would not be allowed to remain single long. Now her marriage would mean, of course, the loss of a hundred a year, so what does her stepfather do to prevent it? He takes the obvious course of keeping her at home and forbidding her to seek the company of people of her own age. But soon he found that that would not answer forever. She became restive, insisted upon her rights, and finally announced her positive intention of going to a certain ball. What does her clever stepfather do then? He conceives an idea more creditable to his head than to his heart. With the connivance and assistance of his wife he disguised himself, covered those keen eyes with tinted glasses, masked the face with a moustache and a pair of bushy whiskers, sunk that clear voice into an insinuating whisper, and doubly secure on account of the girl's short sight, he appears as Mr. Hosmer Angel, and keeps off other lovers by making love himself.\"\n\n\"It was only a joke at first,\" groaned our visitor. \"We never thought that she would have been so carried away.\"\n\n\"Very likely not. However that may be, the young lady was very decidedly carried away, and, having quite made up her mind that her stepfather was in France, the suspicion of treachery never for an instant entered her mind. She was flattered by the gentleman's attentions, and the effect was increased by the loudly expressed admiration of her mother. Then Mr. Angel began to call, for it was obvious that the matter should be pushed as far as it would go if a real effect were to be produced. There were meetings, and an engagement, which would finally secure the girl's affections from turning towards anyone else. But the deception could not be kept up forever. These pretended journeys to France were rather cumbrous. The thing to do was clearly to bring the business to an end in such a dramatic manner that it would leave a permanent impression upon the young lady's mind and prevent her from looking upon any other suitor for some time to come. Hence those vows of fidelity exacted upon a Testament, and hence also the allusions to a possibility of something happening on the very morning of the wedding. James Windibank wished Miss Sutherland to be so bound to Hosmer Angel, and so uncertain as to his fate, that for ten years to come, at any rate, she would not listen to another man. As far as the church door he brought her, and then, as he could go no farther, he conveniently vanished away by the old trick of stepping in at one door of a four-wheeler and out at the other. I think that was the chain of events, Mr. Windibank!\"\n\nOur visitor had recovered something of his assurance while Holmes had been talking, and he rose from his chair now with a cold sneer upon his pale face.\n\n\"It may be so, or it may not, Mr. Holmes,\" said he, \"but if you are so very sharp you ought to be sharp enough to know that it is you who are breaking the law now, and not me. I have done nothing actionable from the first, but as long as you keep that door locked you lay yourself open to an action for assault and illegal constraint.\"\n\n\"The law cannot, as you say, touch you,\" said Holmes, unlocking and throwing open the door, \"yet there never was a man who deserved punishment more. If the young lady has a brother or a friend, he ought to lay a whip across your shoulders. By Jove!\" he continued, flushing up at the sight of the bitter sneer upon the man's face, \"it is not part of my duties to my client, but here's a hunting crop handy, and I think I shall just treat myself to--\" He took two swift steps to the whip, but before he could grasp it there was a wild clatter of steps upon the stairs, the heavy hall door banged, and from the window we could see Mr. James Windibank running at the top of his speed down the road.\n\n\"There's a cold-blooded scoundrel!\" said Holmes, laughing, as he threw himself down into his chair once more. \"That fellow will rise from crime to crime until he does something very bad, and ends on a gallows. The case has, in some respects, been not entirely devoid of interest.\"\n\n\"I cannot now entirely see all the steps of your reasoning,\" I remarked.\n\n\"Well, of course it was obvious from the first that this Mr. Hosmer Angel must have some strong object for his curious conduct, and it was equally clear that the only man who really profited by the incident, as far as we could see, was the stepfather. Then the fact that the two men were never together, but that the one always appeared when the other was away, was suggestive. So were the tinted spectacles and the curious voice, which both hinted at a disguise, as did the bushy whiskers. My suspicions were all confirmed by his peculiar action in typewriting his signature, which, of course, inferred that his handwriting was so familiar to her that she would recognise even the smallest sample of it. You see all these isolated facts, together with many minor ones, all pointed in the same direction.\"\n\n\"And how did you verify them?\"\n\n\"Having once spotted my man, it was easy to get corroboration. I knew the firm for which this man worked. Having taken the printed description. I eliminated everything from it which could be the result of a disguise--the whiskers, the glasses, the voice, and I sent it to the firm, with a request that they would inform me whether it answered to the description of any of their travellers. I had already noticed the peculiarities of the typewriter, and I wrote to the man himself at his business address asking him if he would come here. As I expected, his reply was typewritten and revealed the same trivial but characteristic defects. The same post brought me a letter from Westhouse & Marbank, of Fenchurch Street, to say that the description tallied in every respect with that of their employe, James Windibank. Voila tout!\"\n\n\"And Miss Sutherland?\"\n\n\"If I tell her she will not believe me. You may remember the old Persian saying, 'There is danger for him who taketh the tiger cub, and danger also for whoso snatches a delusion from a woman.' There is as much sense in Hafiz as in Horace, and as much knowledge of the world.\"\n\nADVENTURE IV. THE BOSCOMBE VALLEY MYSTERY\n\n\nWe were seated at breakfast one morning, my wife and I, when the maid brought in a telegram. It was from Sherlock Holmes and ran in this way:\n\n\"Have you a couple of days to spare? Have just been wired for from the west of England in connection with Boscombe Valley tragedy. Shall be glad if you will come with me. Air and scenery perfect. Leave Paddington by the 11:15.\"\n\n\"What do you say, dear?\" said my wife, looking across at me. \"Will you go?\"\n\n\"I really don't know what to say. I have a fairly long list at present.\"\n\n\"Oh, Anstruther would do your work for you. You have been looking a little pale lately. I think that the change would do you good, and you are always so interested in Mr. Sherlock Holmes' cases.\"\n\n\"I should be ungrateful if I were not, seeing what I gained through one of them,\" I answered. \"But if I am to go, I must pack at once, for I have only half an hour.\"\n\nMy experience of camp life in Afghanistan had at least had the effect of making me a prompt and ready traveller. My wants were few and simple, so that in less than the time stated I was in a cab with my valise, rattling away to Paddington Station. Sherlock Holmes was pacing up and down the platform, his tall, gaunt figure made even gaunter and taller by his long grey travelling-cloak and close-fitting cloth cap.\n\n\"It is really very good of you to come, Watson,\" said he. \"It makes a considerable difference to me, having someone with me on whom I can thoroughly rely. Local aid is always either worthless or else biassed. If you will keep the two corner seats I shall get the tickets.\"\n\nWe had the carriage to ourselves save for an immense litter of papers which Holmes had brought with him. Among these he rummaged and read, with intervals of note-taking and of meditation, until we were past Reading. Then he suddenly rolled them all into a gigantic ball and tossed them up onto the rack.\n\n\"Have you heard anything of the case?\" he asked.\n\n\"Not a word. I have not seen a paper for some days.\"\n\n\"The London press has not had very full accounts. I have just been looking through all the recent papers in order to master the particulars. It seems, from what I gather, to be one of those simple cases which are so extremely difficult.\"\n\n\"That sounds a little paradoxical.\"\n\n\"But it is profoundly true. Singularity is almost invariably a clue. The more featureless and commonplace a crime is, the more difficult it is to bring it home. In this case, however, they have established a very serious case against the son of the murdered man.\"\n\n\"It is a murder, then?\"\n\n\"Well, it is conjectured to be so. I shall take nothing for granted until I have the opportunity of looking personally into it. I will explain the state of things to you, as far as I have been able to understand it, in a very few words.\n\n\"Boscombe Valley is a country district not very far from Ross, in Herefordshire. The largest landed proprietor in that part is a Mr. John Turner, who made his money in Australia and returned some years ago to the old country. One of the farms which he held, that of Hatherley, was let to Mr. Charles McCarthy, who was also an ex-Australian. The men had known each other in the colonies, so that it was not unnatural that when they came to settle down they should do so as near each other as possible. Turner was apparently the richer man, so McCarthy became his tenant but still remained, it seems, upon terms of perfect equality, as they were frequently together. McCarthy had one son, a lad of eighteen, and Turner had an only daughter of the same age, but neither of them had wives living. They appear to have avoided the society of the neighbouring English families and to have led retired lives, though both the McCarthys were fond of sport and were frequently seen at the race-meetings of the neighbourhood. McCarthy kept two servants--a man and a girl. Turner had a considerable household, some half-dozen at the least. That is as much as I have been able to gather about the families. Now for the facts.\n\n\"On June 3rd, that is, on Monday last, McCarthy left his house at Hatherley about three in the afternoon and walked down to the Boscombe Pool, which is a small lake formed by the spreading out of the stream which runs down the Boscombe Valley. He had been out with his serving-man in the morning at Ross, and he had told the man that he must hurry, as he had an appointment of importance to keep at three. From that appointment he never came back alive.\n\n\"From Hatherley Farmhouse to the Boscombe Pool is a quarter of a mile, and two people saw him as he passed over this ground. One was an old woman, whose name is not mentioned, and the other was William Crowder, a game-keeper in the employ of Mr. Turner. Both these witnesses depose that Mr. McCarthy was walking alone. The game-keeper adds that within a few minutes of his seeing Mr. McCarthy pass he had seen his son, Mr. James McCarthy, going the same way with a gun under his arm. To the best of his belief, the father was actually in sight at the time, and the son was following him. He thought no more of the matter until he heard in the evening of the tragedy that had occurred.\n\n\"The two McCarthys were seen after the time when William Crowder, the game-keeper, lost sight of them. The Boscombe Pool is thickly wooded round, with just a fringe of grass and of reeds round the edge. A girl of fourteen, Patience Moran, who is the daughter of the lodge-keeper of the Boscombe Valley estate, was in one of the woods picking flowers. She states that while she was there she saw, at the border of the wood and close by the lake, Mr. McCarthy and his son, and that they appeared to be having a violent quarrel. She heard Mr. McCarthy the elder using very strong language to his son, and she saw the latter raise up his hand as if to strike his father. She was so frightened by their violence that she ran away and told her mother when she reached home that she had left the two McCarthys quarrelling near Boscombe Pool, and that she was afraid that they were going to fight. She had hardly said the words when young Mr. McCarthy came running up to the lodge to say that he had found his father dead in the wood, and to ask for the help of the lodge-keeper. He was much excited, without either his gun or his hat, and his right hand and sleeve were observed to be stained with fresh blood. On following him they found the dead body stretched out upon the grass beside the pool. The head had been beaten in by repeated blows of some heavy and blunt weapon. The injuries were such as might very well have been inflicted by the butt-end of his son's gun, which was found lying on the grass within a few paces of the body. Under these circumstances the young man was instantly arrested, and a verdict of 'wilful murder' having been returned at the inquest on Tuesday, he was on Wednesday brought before the magistrates at Ross, who have referred the case to the next Assizes. Those are the main facts of the case as they came out before the coroner and the police-court.\"\n\n\"I could hardly imagine a more damning case,\" I remarked. \"If ever circumstantial evidence pointed to a criminal it does so here.\"\n\n\"Circumstantial evidence is a very tricky thing,\" answered Holmes thoughtfully. \"It may seem to point very straight to one thing, but if you shift your own point of view a little, you may find it pointing in an equally uncompromising manner to something entirely different. It must be confessed, however, that the case looks exceedingly grave against the young man, and it is very possible that he is indeed the culprit. There are several people in the neighbourhood, however, and among them Miss Turner, the daughter of the neighbouring landowner, who believe in his innocence, and who have retained Lestrade, whom you may recollect in connection with the Study in Scarlet, to work out the case in his interest. Lestrade, being rather puzzled, has referred the case to me, and hence it is that two middle-aged gentlemen are flying westward at fifty miles an hour instead of quietly digesting their breakfasts at home.\"\n\n\"I am afraid,\" said I, \"that the facts are so obvious that you will find little credit to be gained out of this case.\"\n\n\"There is nothing more deceptive than an obvious fact,\" he answered, laughing. \"Besides, we may chance to hit upon some other obvious facts which may have been by no means obvious to Mr. Lestrade. You know me too well to think that I am boasting when I say that I shall either confirm or destroy his theory by means which he is quite incapable of employing, or even of understanding. To take the first example to hand, I very clearly perceive that in your bedroom the window is upon the right-hand side, and yet I question whether Mr. Lestrade would have noted even so self-evident a thing as that.\"\n\n\"How on earth--\"\n\n\"My dear fellow, I know you well. I know the military neatness which characterises you. You shave every morning, and in this season you shave by the sunlight; but since your shaving is less and less complete as we get farther back on the left side, until it becomes positively slovenly as we get round the angle of the jaw, it is surely very clear that that side is less illuminated than the other. I could not imagine a man of your habits looking at himself in an equal light and being satisfied with such a result. I only quote this as a trivial example of observation and inference. Therein lies my metier, and it is just possible that it may be of some service in the investigation which lies before us. There are one or two minor points which were brought out in the inquest, and which are worth considering.\"\n\n\"What are they?\"\n\n\"It appears that his arrest did not take place at once, but after the return to Hatherley Farm. On the inspector of constabulary informing him that he was a prisoner, he remarked that he was not surprised to hear it, and that it was no more than his deserts. This observation of his had the natural effect of removing any traces of doubt which might have remained in the minds of the coroner's jury.\"\n\n\"It was a confession,\" I ejaculated.\n\n\"No, for it was followed by a protestation of innocence.\"\n\n\"Coming on the top of such a damning series of events, it was at least a most suspicious remark.\"\n\n\"On the contrary,\" said Holmes, \"it is the brightest rift which I can at present see in the clouds. However innocent he might be, he could not be such an absolute imbecile as not to see that the circumstances were very black against him. Had he appeared surprised at his own arrest, or feigned indignation at it, I should have looked upon it as highly suspicious, because such surprise or anger would not be natural under the circumstances, and yet might appear to be the best policy to a scheming man. His frank acceptance of the situation marks him as either an innocent man, or else as a man of considerable self-restraint and firmness. As to his remark about his deserts, it was also not unnatural if you consider that he stood beside the dead body of his father, and that there is no doubt that he had that very day so far forgotten his filial duty as to bandy words with him, and even, according to the little girl whose evidence is so important, to raise his hand as if to strike him. The self-reproach and contrition which are displayed in his remark appear to me to be the signs of a healthy mind rather than of a guilty one.\"\n\nI shook my head. \"Many men have been hanged on far slighter evidence,\" I remarked.\n\n\"So they have. And many men have been wrongfully hanged.\"\n\n\"What is the young man's own account of the matter?\"\n\n\"It is, I am afraid, not very encouraging to his supporters, though there are one or two points in it which are suggestive. You will find it here, and may read it for yourself.\"\n\nHe picked out from his bundle a copy of the local Herefordshire paper, and having turned down the sheet he pointed out the paragraph in which the unfortunate young man had given his own statement of what had occurred. I settled myself down in the corner of the carriage and read it very carefully. It ran in this way:\n\n\"Mr. James McCarthy, the only son of the deceased, was then called and gave evidence as follows: 'I had been away from home for three days at Bristol, and had only just returned upon the morning of last Monday, the 3rd. My father was absent from home at the time of my arrival, and I was informed by the maid that he had driven over to Ross with John Cobb, the groom. Shortly after my return I heard the wheels of his trap in the yard, and, looking out of my window, I saw him get out and walk rapidly out of the yard, though I was not aware in which direction he was going. I then took my gun and strolled out in the direction of the Boscombe Pool, with the intention of visiting the rabbit warren which is upon the other side. On my way I saw William Crowder, the game-keeper, as he had stated in his evidence; but he is mistaken in thinking that I was following my father. I had no idea that he was in front of me. When about a hundred yards from the pool I heard a cry of \"Cooee!\" which was a usual signal between my father and myself. I then hurried forward, and found him standing by the pool. He appeared to be much surprised at seeing me and asked me rather roughly what I was doing there. A conversation ensued which led to high words and almost to blows, for my father was a man of a very violent temper. Seeing that his passion was becoming ungovernable, I left him and returned towards Hatherley Farm. I had not gone more than 150 yards, however, when I heard a hideous outcry behind me, which caused me to run back again. I found my father expiring upon the ground, with his head terribly injured. I dropped my gun and held him in my arms, but he almost instantly expired. I knelt beside him for some minutes, and then made my way to Mr. Turner's lodge-keeper, his house being the nearest, to ask for assistance. I saw no one near my father when I returned, and I have no idea how he came by his injuries. He was not a popular man, being somewhat cold and forbidding in his manners, but he had, as far as I know, no active enemies. I know nothing further of the matter.'\n\n\"The Coroner: Did your father make any statement to you before he died?\n\n\"Witness: He mumbled a few words, but I could only catch some allusion to a rat.\n\n\"The Coroner: What did you understand by that?\n\n\"Witness: It conveyed no meaning to me. I thought that he was delirious.\n\n\"The Coroner: What was the point upon which you and your father had this final quarrel?\n\n\"Witness: I should prefer not to answer.\n\n\"The Coroner: I am afraid that I must press it.\n\n\"Witness: It is really impossible for me to tell you. I can assure you that it has nothing to do with the sad tragedy which followed.\n\n\"The Coroner: That is for the court to decide. I need not point out to you that your refusal to answer will prejudice your case considerably in any future proceedings which may arise.\n\n\"Witness: I must still refuse.\n\n\"The Coroner: I understand that the cry of 'Cooee' was a common signal between you and your father?\n\n\"Witness: It was.\n\n\"The Coroner: How was it, then, that he uttered it before he saw you, and before he even knew that you had returned from Bristol?\n\n\"Witness (with considerable confusion): I do not know.\n\n\"A Juryman: Did you see nothing which aroused your suspicions when you returned on hearing the cry and found your father fatally injured?\n\n\"Witness: Nothing definite.\n\n\"The Coroner: What do you mean?\n\n\"Witness: I was so disturbed and excited as I rushed out into the open, that I could think of nothing except of my father. Yet I have a vague impression that as I ran forward something lay upon the ground to the left of me. It seemed to me to be something grey in colour, a coat of some sort, or a plaid perhaps. When I rose from my father I looked round for it, but it was gone.\n\n\" 'Do you mean that it disappeared before you went for help?'\n\n\" 'Yes, it was gone.'\n\n\" 'You cannot say what it was?'\n\n\" 'No, I had a feeling something was there.'\n\n\" 'How far from the body?'\n\n\" 'A dozen yards or so.'\n\n\" 'And how far from the edge of the wood?'\n\n\" 'About the same.'\n\n\" 'Then if it was removed it was while you were within a dozen yards of it?'\n\n\" 'Yes, but with my back towards it.'\n\n\"This concluded the examination of the witness.\"\n\n\"I see,\" said I as I glanced down the column, \"that the coroner in his concluding remarks was rather severe upon young McCarthy. He calls attention, and with reason, to the discrepancy about his father having signalled to him before seeing him, also to his refusal to give details of his conversation with his father, and his singular account of his father's dying words. They are all, as he remarks, very much against the son.\"\n\nHolmes laughed softly to himself and stretched himself out upon the cushioned seat. \"Both you and the coroner have been at some pains,\" said he, \"to single out the very strongest points in the young man's favour. Don't you see that you alternately give him credit for having too much imagination and too little? Too little, if he could not invent a cause of quarrel which would give him the sympathy of the jury; too much, if he evolved from his own inner consciousness anything so outre as a dying reference to a rat, and the incident of the vanishing cloth. No, sir, I shall approach this case from the point of view that what this young man says is true, and we shall see whither that hypothesis will lead us. And now here is my pocket Petrarch, and not another word shall I say of this case until we are on the scene of action. We lunch at Swindon, and I see that we shall be there in twenty minutes.\"\n\nIt was nearly four o'clock when we at last, after passing through the beautiful Stroud Valley, and over the broad gleaming Severn, found ourselves at the pretty little country-town of Ross. A lean, ferret-like man, furtive and sly-looking, was waiting for us upon the platform. In spite of the light brown dustcoat and leather-leggings which he wore in deference to his rustic surroundings, I had no difficulty in recognising Lestrade, of Scotland Yard. With him we drove to the Hereford Arms where a room had already been engaged for us.\n\n\"I have ordered a carriage,\" said Lestrade as we sat over a cup of tea. \"I knew your energetic nature, and that you would not be happy until you had been on the scene of the crime.\"\n\n\"It was very nice and complimentary of you,\" Holmes answered. \"It is entirely a question of barometric pressure.\"\n\nLestrade looked startled. \"I do not quite follow,\" he said.\n\n\"How is the glass? Twenty-nine, I see. No wind, and not a cloud in the sky. I have a caseful of cigarettes here which need smoking, and the sofa is very much superior to the usual country hotel abomination. I do not think that it is probable that I shall use the carriage to-night.\"\n\nLestrade laughed indulgently. \"You have, no doubt, already formed your conclusions from the newspapers,\" he said. \"The case is as plain as a pikestaff, and the more one goes into it the plainer it becomes. Still, of course, one can't refuse a lady, and such a very positive one, too. She has heard of you, and would have your opinion, though I repeatedly told her that there was nothing which you could do which I had not already done. Why, bless my soul! here is her carriage at the door.\"\n\nHe had hardly spoken before there rushed into the room one of the most lovely young women that I have ever seen in my life. Her violet eyes shining, her lips parted, a pink flush upon her cheeks, all thought of her natural reserve lost in her overpowering excitement and concern.\n\n\"Oh, Mr. Sherlock Holmes!\" she cried, glancing from one to the other of us, and finally, with a woman's quick intuition, fastening upon my companion, \"I am so glad that you have come. I have driven down to tell you so. I know that James didn't do it. I know it, and I want you to start upon your work knowing it, too. Never let yourself doubt upon that point. We have known each other since we were little children, and I know his faults as no one else does; but he is too tender-hearted to hurt a fly. Such a charge is absurd to anyone who really knows him.\"\n\n\"I hope we may clear him, Miss Turner,\" said Sherlock Holmes. \"You may rely upon my doing all that I can.\"\n\n\"But you have read the evidence. You have formed some conclusion? Do you not see some loophole, some flaw? Do you not yourself think that he is innocent?\"\n\n\"I think that it is very probable.\"\n\n\"There, now!\" she cried, throwing back her head and looking defiantly at Lestrade. \"You hear! He gives me hopes.\"\n\nLestrade shrugged his shoulders. \"I am afraid that my colleague has been a little quick in forming his conclusions,\" he said.\n\n\"But he is right. Oh! I know that he is right. James never did it. And about his quarrel with his father, I am sure that the reason why he would not speak about it to the coroner was because I was concerned in it.\"\n\n\"In what way?\" asked Holmes.\n\n\"It is no time for me to hide anything. James and his father had many disagreements about me. Mr. McCarthy was very anxious that there should be a marriage between us. James and I have always loved each other as brother and sister; but of course he is young and has seen very little of life yet, and--and--well, he naturally did not wish to do anything like that yet. So there were quarrels, and this, I am sure, was one of them.\"\n\n\"And your father?\" asked Holmes. \"Was he in favour of such a union?\"\n\n\"No, he was averse to it also. No one but Mr. McCarthy was in favour of it.\" A quick blush passed over her fresh young face as Holmes shot one of his keen, questioning glances at her.\n\n\"Thank you for this information,\" said he. \"May I see your father if I call to-morrow?\"\n\n\"I am afraid the doctor won't allow it.\"\n\n\"The doctor?\"\n\n\"Yes, have you not heard? Poor father has never been strong for years back, but this has broken him down completely. He has taken to his bed, and Dr. Willows says that he is a wreck and that his nervous system is shattered. Mr. McCarthy was the only man alive who had known dad in the old days in Victoria.\"\n\n\"Ha! In Victoria! That is important.\"\n\n\"Yes, at the mines.\"\n\n\"Quite so; at the gold-mines, where, as I understand, Mr. Turner made his money.\"\n\n\"Yes, certainly.\"\n\n\"Thank you, Miss Turner. You have been of material assistance to me.\"\n\n\"You will tell me if you have any news to-morrow. No doubt you will go to the prison to see James. Oh, if you do, Mr. Holmes, do tell him that I know him to be innocent.\"\n\n\"I will, Miss Turner.\"\n\n\"I must go home now, for dad is very ill, and he misses me so if I leave him. Good-bye, and God help you in your undertaking.\" She hurried from the room as impulsively as she had entered, and we heard the wheels of her carriage rattle off down the street.\n\n\"I am ashamed of you, Holmes,\" said Lestrade with dignity after a few minutes' silence. \"Why should you raise up hopes which you are bound to disappoint? I am not over-tender of heart, but I call it cruel.\"\n\n\"I think that I see my way to clearing James McCarthy,\" said Holmes. \"Have you an order to see him in prison?\"\n\n\"Yes, but only for you and me.\"\n\n\"Then I shall reconsider my resolution about going out. We have still time to take a train to Hereford and see him to-night?\"\n\n\"Ample.\"\n\n\"Then let us do so. Watson, I fear that you will find it very slow, but I shall only be away a couple of hours.\"\n\nI walked down to the station with them, and then wandered through the streets of the little town, finally returning to the hotel, where I lay upon the sofa and tried to interest myself in a yellow-backed novel. The puny plot of the story was so thin, however, when compared to the deep mystery through which we were groping, and I found my attention wander so continually from the action to the fact, that I at last flung it across the room and gave myself up entirely to a consideration of the events of the day. Supposing that this unhappy young man's story were absolutely true, then what hellish thing, what absolutely unforeseen and extraordinary calamity could have occurred between the time when he parted from his father, and the moment when, drawn back by his screams, he rushed into the glade? It was something terrible and deadly. What could it be? Might not the nature of the injuries reveal something to my medical instincts? I rang the bell and called for the weekly county paper, which contained a verbatim account of the inquest. In the surgeon's deposition it was stated that the posterior third of the left parietal bone and the left half of the occipital bone had been shattered by a heavy blow from a blunt weapon. I marked the spot upon my own head. Clearly such a blow must have been struck from behind. That was to some extent in favour of the accused, as when seen quarrelling he was face to face with his father. Still, it did not go for very much, for the older man might have turned his back before the blow fell. Still, it might be worth while to call Holmes' attention to it. Then there was the peculiar dying reference to a rat. What could that mean? It could not be delirium. A man dying from a sudden blow does not commonly become delirious. No, it was more likely to be an attempt to explain how he met his fate. But what could it indicate? I cudgelled my brains to find some possible explanation. And then the incident of the grey cloth seen by young McCarthy. If that were true the murderer must have dropped some part of his dress, presumably his overcoat, in his flight, and must have had the hardihood to return and to carry it away at the instant when the son was kneeling with his back turned not a dozen paces off. What a tissue of mysteries and improbabilities the whole thing was! I did not wonder at Lestrade's opinion, and yet I had so much faith in Sherlock Holmes' insight that I could not lose hope as long as every fresh fact seemed to strengthen his conviction of young McCarthy's innocence.\n\nIt was late before Sherlock Holmes returned. He came back alone, for Lestrade was staying in lodgings in the town.\n\n\"The glass still keeps very high,\" he remarked as he sat down. \"It is of importance that it should not rain before we are able to go over the ground. On the other hand, a man should be at his very best and keenest for such nice work as that, and I did not wish to do it when fagged by a long journey. I have seen young McCarthy.\"\n\n\"And what did you learn from him?\"\n\n\"Nothing.\"\n\n\"Could he throw no light?\"\n\n\"None at all. I was inclined to think at one time that he knew who had done it and was screening him or her, but I am convinced now that he is as puzzled as everyone else. He is not a very quick-witted youth, though comely to look at and, I should think, sound at heart.\"\n\n\"I cannot admire his taste,\" I remarked, \"if it is indeed a fact that he was averse to a marriage with so charming a young lady as this Miss Turner.\"\n\n\"Ah, thereby hangs a rather painful tale. This fellow is madly, insanely, in love with her, but some two years ago, when he was only a lad, and before he really knew her, for she had been away five years at a boarding-school, what does the idiot do but get into the clutches of a barmaid in Bristol and marry her at a registry office? No one knows a word of the matter, but you can imagine how maddening it must be to him to be upbraided for not doing what he would give his very eyes to do, but what he knows to be absolutely impossible. It was sheer frenzy of this sort which made him throw his hands up into the air when his father, at their last interview, was goading him on to propose to Miss Turner. On the other hand, he had no means of supporting himself, and his father, who was by all accounts a very hard man, would have thrown him over utterly had he known the truth. It was with his barmaid wife that he had spent the last three days in Bristol, and his father did not know where he was. Mark that point. It is of importance. Good has come out of evil, however, for the barmaid, finding from the papers that he is in serious trouble and likely to be hanged, has thrown him over utterly and has written to him to say that she has a husband already in the Bermuda Dockyard, so that there is really no tie between them. I think that that bit of news has consoled young McCarthy for all that he has suffered.\"\n\n\"But if he is innocent, who has done it?\"\n\n\"Ah! who? I would call your attention very particularly to two points. One is that the murdered man had an appointment with someone at the pool, and that the someone could not have been his son, for his son was away, and he did not know when he would return. The second is that the murdered man was heard to cry 'Cooee!' before he knew that his son had returned. Those are the crucial points upon which the case depends. And now let us talk about George Meredith, if you please, and we shall leave all minor matters until to-morrow.\"\n\nThere was no rain, as Holmes had foretold, and the morning broke bright and cloudless. At nine o'clock Lestrade called for us with the carriage, and we set off for Hatherley Farm and the Boscombe Pool.\n\n\"There is serious news this morning,\" Lestrade observed. \"It is said that Mr. Turner, of the Hall, is so ill that his life is despaired of.\"\n\n\"An elderly man, I presume?\" said Holmes.\n\n\"About sixty; but his constitution has been shattered by his life abroad, and he has been in failing health for some time. This business has had a very bad effect upon him. He was an old friend of McCarthy's, and, I may add, a great benefactor to him, for I have learned that he gave him Hatherley Farm rent free.\"\n\n\"Indeed! That is interesting,\" said Holmes.\n\n\"Oh, yes! In a hundred other ways he has helped him. Everybody about here speaks of his kindness to him.\"\n\n\"Really! Does it not strike you as a little singular that this McCarthy, who appears to have had little of his own, and to have been under such obligations to Turner, should still talk of marrying his son to Turner's daughter, who is, presumably, heiress to the estate, and that in such a very cocksure manner, as if it were merely a case of a proposal and all else would follow? It is the more strange, since we know that Turner himself was averse to the idea. The daughter told us as much. Do you not deduce something from that?\"\n\n\"We have got to the deductions and the inferences,\" said Lestrade, winking at me. \"I find it hard enough to tackle facts, Holmes, without flying away after theories and fancies.\"\n\n\"You are right,\" said Holmes demurely; \"you do find it very hard to tackle the facts.\"\n\n\"Anyhow, I have grasped one fact which you seem to find it difficult to get hold of,\" replied Lestrade with some warmth.\n\n\"And that is--\"\n\n\"That McCarthy senior met his death from McCarthy junior and that all theories to the contrary are the merest moonshine.\"\n\n\"Well, moonshine is a brighter thing than fog,\" said Holmes, laughing. \"But I am very much mistaken if this is not Hatherley Farm upon the left.\"\n\n\"Yes, that is it.\" It was a widespread, comfortable-looking building, two-storied, slate-roofed, with great yellow blotches of lichen upon the grey walls. The drawn blinds and the smokeless chimneys, however, gave it a stricken look, as though the weight of this horror still lay heavy upon it. We called at the door, when the maid, at Holmes' request, showed us the boots which her master wore at the time of his death, and also a pair of the son's, though not the pair which he had then had. Having measured these very carefully from seven or eight different points, Holmes desired to be led to the court-yard, from which we all followed the winding track which led to Boscombe Pool.\n\nSherlock Holmes was transformed when he was hot upon such a scent as this. Men who had only known the quiet thinker and logician of Baker Street would have failed to recognise him. His face flushed and darkened. His brows were drawn into two hard black lines, while his eyes shone out from beneath them with a steely glitter. His face was bent downward, his shoulders bowed, his lips compressed, and the veins stood out like whipcord in his long, sinewy neck. His nostrils seemed to dilate with a purely animal lust for the chase, and his mind was so absolutely concentrated upon the matter before him that a question or remark fell unheeded upon his ears, or, at the most, only provoked a quick, impatient snarl in reply. Swiftly and silently he made his way along the track which ran through the meadows, and so by way of the woods to the Boscombe Pool. It was damp, marshy ground, as is all that district, and there were marks of many feet, both upon the path and amid the short grass which bounded it on either side. Sometimes Holmes would hurry on, sometimes stop dead, and once he made quite a little detour into the meadow. Lestrade and I walked behind him, the detective indifferent and contemptuous, while I watched my friend with the interest which sprang from the conviction that every one of his actions was directed towards a definite end.\n\nThe Boscombe Pool, which is a little reed-girt sheet of water some fifty yards across, is situated at the boundary between the Hatherley Farm and the private park of the wealthy Mr. Turner. Above the woods which lined it upon the farther side we could see the red, jutting pinnacles which marked the site of the rich landowner's dwelling. On the Hatherley side of the pool the woods grew very thick, and there was a narrow belt of sodden grass twenty paces across between the edge of the trees and the reeds which lined the lake. Lestrade showed us the exact spot at which the body had been found, and, indeed, so moist was the ground, that I could plainly see the traces which had been left by the fall of the stricken man. To Holmes, as I could see by his eager face and peering eyes, very many other things were to be read upon the trampled grass. He ran round, like a dog who is picking up a scent, and then turned upon my companion.\n\n\"What did you go into the pool for?\" he asked.\n\n\"I fished about with a rake. I thought there might be some weapon or other trace. But how on earth--\"\n\n\"Oh, tut, tut! I have no time! That left foot of yours with its inward twist is all over the place. A mole could trace it, and there it vanishes among the reeds. Oh, how simple it would all have been had I been here before they came like a herd of buffalo and wallowed all over it. Here is where the party with the lodge-keeper came, and they have covered all tracks for six or eight feet round the body. But here are three separate tracks of the same feet.\" He drew out a lens and lay down upon his waterproof to have a better view, talking all the time rather to himself than to us. \"These are young McCarthy's feet. Twice he was walking, and once he ran swiftly, so that the soles are deeply marked and the heels hardly visible. That bears out his story. He ran when he saw his father on the ground. Then here are the father's feet as he paced up and down. What is this, then? It is the butt-end of the gun as the son stood listening. And this? Ha, ha! What have we here? Tiptoes! tiptoes! Square, too, quite unusual boots! They come, they go, they come again--of course that was for the cloak. Now where did they come from?\" He ran up and down, sometimes losing, sometimes finding the track until we were well within the edge of the wood and under the shadow of a great beech, the largest tree in the neighbourhood. Holmes traced his way to the farther side of this and lay down once more upon his face with a little cry of satisfaction. For a long time he remained there, turning over the leaves and dried sticks, gathering up what seemed to me to be dust into an envelope and examining with his lens not only the ground but even the bark of the tree as far as he could reach. A jagged stone was lying among the moss, and this also he carefully examined and retained. Then he followed a pathway through the wood until he came to the highroad, where all traces were lost.\n\n\"It has been a case of considerable interest,\" he remarked, returning to his natural manner. \"I fancy that this grey house on the right must be the lodge. I think that I will go in and have a word with Moran, and perhaps write a little note. Having done that, we may drive back to our luncheon. You may walk to the cab, and I shall be with you presently.\"\n\nIt was about ten minutes before we regained our cab and drove back into Ross, Holmes still carrying with him the stone which he had picked up in the wood.\n\n\"This may interest you, Lestrade,\" he remarked, holding it out. \"The murder was done with it.\"\n\n\"I see no marks.\"\n\n\"There are none.\"\n\n\"How do you know, then?\"\n\n\"The grass was growing under it. It had only lain there a few days. There was no sign of a place whence it had been taken. It corresponds with the injuries. There is no sign of any other weapon.\"\n\n\"And the murderer?\"\n\n\"Is a tall man, left-handed, limps with the right leg, wears thick-soled shooting-boots and a grey cloak, smokes Indian cigars, uses a cigar-holder, and carries a blunt pen-knife in his pocket. There are several other indications, but these may be enough to aid us in our search.\"\n\nLestrade laughed. \"I am afraid that I am still a sceptic,\" he said. \"Theories are all very well, but we have to deal with a hard-headed British jury.\"\n\n\"Nous verrons,\" answered Holmes calmly. \"You work your own method, and I shall work mine. I shall be busy this afternoon, and shall probably return to London by the evening train.\"\n\n\"And leave your case unfinished?\"\n\n\"No, finished.\"\n\n\"But the mystery?\"\n\n\"It is solved.\"\n\n\"Who was the criminal, then?\"\n\n\"The gentleman I describe.\"\n\n\"But who is he?\"\n\n\"Surely it would not be difficult to find out. This is not such a populous neighbourhood.\"\n\nLestrade shrugged his shoulders. \"I am a practical man,\" he said, \"and I really cannot undertake to go about the country looking for a left-handed gentleman with a game leg. I should become the laughing-stock of Scotland Yard.\"\n\n\"All right,\" said Holmes quietly. \"I have given you the chance. Here are your lodgings. Good-bye. I shall drop you a line before I leave.\"\n\nHaving left Lestrade at his rooms, we drove to our hotel, where we found lunch upon the table. Holmes was silent and buried in thought with a pained expression upon his face, as one who finds himself in a perplexing position.\n\n\"Look here, Watson,\" he said when the cloth was cleared \"just sit down in this chair and let me preach to you for a little. I don't know quite what to do, and I should value your advice. Light a cigar and let me expound.\"\n\n\"Pray do so.\"\n\n\"Well, now, in considering this case there are two points about young McCarthy's narrative which struck us both instantly, although they impressed me in his favour and you against him. One was the fact that his father should, according to his account, cry 'Cooee!' before seeing him. The other was his singular dying reference to a rat. He mumbled several words, you understand, but that was all that caught the son's ear. Now from this double point our research must commence, and we will begin it by presuming that what the lad says is absolutely true.\"\n\n\"What of this 'Cooee!' then?\"\n\n\"Well, obviously it could not have been meant for the son. The son, as far as he knew, was in Bristol. It was mere chance that he was within earshot. The 'Cooee!' was meant to attract the attention of whoever it was that he had the appointment with. But 'Cooee' is a distinctly Australian cry, and one which is used between Australians. There is a strong presumption that the person whom McCarthy expected to meet him at Boscombe Pool was someone who had been in Australia.\"\n\n\"What of the rat, then?\"\n\nSherlock Holmes took a folded paper from his pocket and flattened it out on the table. \"This is a map of the Colony of Victoria,\" he said. \"I wired to Bristol for it last night.\" He put his hand over part of the map. \"What do you read?\"\n\n\"ARAT,\" I read.\n\n\"And now?\" He raised his hand.\n\n\"BALLARAT.\"\n\n\"Quite so. That was the word the man uttered, and of which his son only caught the last two syllables. He was trying to utter the name of his murderer. So and so, of Ballarat.\"\n\n\"It is wonderful!\" I exclaimed.\n\n\"It is obvious. And now, you see, I had narrowed the field down considerably. The possession of a grey garment was a third point which, granting the son's statement to be correct, was a certainty. We have come now out of mere vagueness to the definite conception of an Australian from Ballarat with a grey cloak.\"\n\n\"Certainly.\"\n\n\"And one who was at home in the district, for the pool can only be approached by the farm or by the estate, where strangers could hardly wander.\"\n\n\"Quite so.\"\n\n\"Then comes our expedition of to-day. By an examination of the ground I gained the trifling details which I gave to that imbecile Lestrade, as to the personality of the criminal.\"\n\n\"But how did you gain them?\"\n\n\"You know my method. It is founded upon the observation of trifles.\"\n\n\"His height I know that you might roughly judge from the length of his stride. His boots, too, might be told from their traces.\"\n\n\"Yes, they were peculiar boots.\"\n\n\"But his lameness?\"\n\n\"The impression of his right foot was always less distinct than his left. He put less weight upon it. Why? Because he limped--he was lame.\"\n\n\"But his left-handedness.\"\n\n\"You were yourself struck by the nature of the injury as recorded by the surgeon at the inquest. The blow was struck from immediately behind, and yet was upon the left side. Now, how can that be unless it were by a left-handed man? He had stood behind that tree during the interview between the father and son. He had even smoked there. I found the ash of a cigar, which my special knowledge of tobacco ashes enables me to pronounce as an Indian cigar. I have, as you know, devoted some attention to this, and written a little monograph on the ashes of 140 different varieties of pipe, cigar, and cigarette tobacco. Having found the ash, I then looked round and discovered the stump among the moss where he had tossed it. It was an Indian cigar, of the variety which are rolled in Rotterdam.\"\n\n\"And the cigar-holder?\"\n\n\"I could see that the end had not been in his mouth. Therefore he used a holder. The tip had been cut off, not bitten off, but the cut was not a clean one, so I deduced a blunt pen-knife.\"\n\n\"Holmes,\" I said, \"you have drawn a net round this man from which he cannot escape, and you have saved an innocent human life as truly as if you had cut the cord which was hanging him. I see the direction in which all this points. The culprit is--\"\n\n\"Mr. John Turner,\" cried the hotel waiter, opening the door of our sitting-room, and ushering in a visitor.\n\nThe man who entered was a strange and impressive figure. His slow, limping step and bowed shoulders gave the appearance of decrepitude, and yet his hard, deep-lined, craggy features, and his enormous limbs showed that he was possessed of unusual strength of body and of character. His tangled beard, grizzled hair, and outstanding, drooping eyebrows combined to give an air of dignity and power to his appearance, but his face was of an ashen white, while his lips and the corners of his nostrils were tinged with a shade of blue. It was clear to me at a glance that he was in the grip of some deadly and chronic disease.\n\n\"Pray sit down on the sofa,\" said Holmes gently. \"You had my note?\"\n\n\"Yes, the lodge-keeper brought it up. You said that you wished to see me here to avoid scandal.\"\n\n\"I thought people would talk if I went to the Hall.\"\n\n\"And why did you wish to see me?\" He looked across at my companion with despair in his weary eyes, as though his question was already answered.\n\n\"Yes,\" said Holmes, answering the look rather than the words. \"It is so. I know all about McCarthy.\"\n\nThe old man sank his face in his hands. \"God help me!\" he cried. \"But I would not have let the young man come to harm. I give you my word that I would have spoken out if it went against him at the Assizes.\"\n\n\"I am glad to hear you say so,\" said Holmes gravely.\n\n\"I would have spoken now had it not been for my dear girl. It would break her heart--it will break her heart when she hears that I am arrested.\"\n\n\"It may not come to that,\" said Holmes.\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"I am no official agent. I understand that it was your daughter who required my presence here, and I am acting in her interests. Young McCarthy must be got off, however.\"\n\n\"I am a dying man,\" said old Turner. \"I have had diabetes for years. My doctor says it is a question whether I shall live a month. Yet I would rather die under my own roof than in a gaol.\"\n\nHolmes rose and sat down at the table with his pen in his hand and a bundle of paper before him. \"Just tell us the truth,\" he said. \"I shall jot down the facts. You will sign it, and Watson here can witness it. Then I could produce your confession at the last extremity to save young McCarthy. I promise you that I shall not use it unless it is absolutely needed.\"\n\n\"It's as well,\" said the old man; \"it's a question whether I shall live to the Assizes, so it matters little to me, but I should wish to spare Alice the shock. And now I will make the thing clear to you; it has been a long time in the acting, but will not take me long to tell.\n\n\"You didn't know this dead man, McCarthy. He was a devil incarnate. I tell you that. God keep you out of the clutches of such a man as he. His grip has been upon me these twenty years, and he has blasted my life. I'll tell you first how I came to be in his power.\n\n\"It was in the early '60's at the diggings. I was a young chap then, hot-blooded and reckless, ready to turn my hand at anything; I got among bad companions, took to drink, had no luck with my claim, took to the bush, and in a word became what you would call over here a highway robber. There were six of us, and we had a wild, free life of it, sticking up a station from time to time, or stopping the wagons on the road to the diggings. Black Jack of Ballarat was the name I went under, and our party is still remembered in the colony as the Ballarat Gang.\n\n\"One day a gold convoy came down from Ballarat to Melbourne, and we lay in wait for it and attacked it. There were six troopers and six of us, so it was a close thing, but we emptied four of their saddles at the first volley. Three of our boys were killed, however, before we got the swag. I put my pistol to the head of the wagon-driver, who was this very man McCarthy. I wish to the Lord that I had shot him then, but I spared him, though I saw his wicked little eyes fixed on my face, as though to remember every feature. We got away with the gold, became wealthy men, and made our way over to England without being suspected. There I parted from my old pals and determined to settle down to a quiet and respectable life. I bought this estate, which chanced to be in the market, and I set myself to do a little good with my money, to make up for the way in which I had earned it. I married, too, and though my wife died young she left me my dear little Alice. Even when she was just a baby her wee hand seemed to lead me down the right path as nothing else had ever done. In a word, I turned over a new leaf and did my best to make up for the past. All was going well when McCarthy laid his grip upon me.\n\n\"I had gone up to town about an investment, and I met him in Regent Street with hardly a coat to his back or a boot to his foot.\n\n\" 'Here we are, Jack,' says he, touching me on the arm; 'we'll be as good as a family to you. There's two of us, me and my son, and you can have the keeping of us. If you don't--it's a fine, law-abiding country is England, and there's always a policeman within hail.'\n\n\"Well, down they came to the west country, there was no shaking them off, and there they have lived rent free on my best land ever since. There was no rest for me, no peace, no forgetfulness; turn where I would, there was his cunning, grinning face at my elbow. It grew worse as Alice grew up, for he soon saw I was more afraid of her knowing my past than of the police. Whatever he wanted he must have, and whatever it was I gave him without question, land, money, houses, until at last he asked a thing which I could not give. He asked for Alice.\n\n\"His son, you see, had grown up, and so had my girl, and as I was known to be in weak health, it seemed a fine stroke to him that his lad should step into the whole property. But there I was firm. I would not have his cursed stock mixed with mine; not that I had any dislike to the lad, but his blood was in him, and that was enough. I stood firm. McCarthy threatened. I braved him to do his worst. We were to meet at the pool midway between our houses to talk it over.\n\n\"When I went down there I found him talking with his son, so I smoked a cigar and waited behind a tree until he should be alone. But as I listened to his talk all that was black and bitter in me seemed to come uppermost. He was urging his son to marry my daughter with as little regard for what she might think as if she were a slut from off the streets. It drove me mad to think that I and all that I held most dear should be in the power of such a man as this. Could I not snap the bond? I was already a dying and a desperate man. Though clear of mind and fairly strong of limb, I knew that my own fate was sealed. But my memory and my girl! Both could be saved if I could but silence that foul tongue. I did it, Mr. Holmes. I would do it again. Deeply as I have sinned, I have led a life of martyrdom to atone for it. But that my girl should be entangled in the same meshes which held me was more than I could suffer. I struck him down with no more compunction than if he had been some foul and venomous beast. His cry brought back his son; but I had gained the cover of the wood, though I was forced to go back to fetch the cloak which I had dropped in my flight. That is the true story, gentlemen, of all that occurred.\"\n\n\"Well, it is not for me to judge you,\" said Holmes as the old man signed the statement which had been drawn out. \"I pray that we may never be exposed to such a temptation.\"\n\n\"I pray not, sir. And what do you intend to do?\"\n\n\"In view of your health, nothing. You are yourself aware that you will soon have to answer for your deed at a higher court than the Assizes. I will keep your confession, and if McCarthy is condemned I shall be forced to use it. If not, it shall never be seen by mortal eye; and your secret, whether you be alive or dead, shall be safe with us.\"\n\n\"Farewell, then,\" said the old man solemnly. \"Your own deathbeds, when they come, will be the easier for the thought of the peace which you have given to mine.\" Tottering and shaking in all his giant frame, he stumbled slowly from the room.\n\n\"God help us!\" said Holmes after a long silence. \"Why does fate play such tricks with poor, helpless worms? I never hear of such a case as this that I do not think of Baxter's words, and say, 'There, but for the grace of God, goes Sherlock Holmes.' \"\n\nJames McCarthy was acquitted at the Assizes on the strength of a number of objections which had been drawn out by Holmes and submitted to the defending counsel. Old Turner lived for seven months after our interview, but he is now dead; and there is every prospect that the son and daughter may come to live happily together in ignorance of the black cloud which rests upon their past.\n\nADVENTURE V. THE FIVE ORANGE PIPS\n\n\nWhen I glance over my notes and records of the Sherlock Holmes cases between the years '82 and '90, I am faced by so many which present strange and interesting features that it is no easy matter to know which to choose and which to leave. Some, however, have already gained publicity through the papers, and others have not offered a field for those peculiar qualities which my friend possessed in so high a degree, and which it is the object of these papers to illustrate. Some, too, have baffled his analytical skill, and would be, as narratives, beginnings without an ending, while others have been but partially cleared up, and have their explanations founded rather upon conjecture and surmise than on that absolute logical proof which was so dear to him. There is, however, one of these last which was so remarkable in its details and so startling in its results that I am tempted to give some account of it in spite of the fact that there are points in connection with it which never have been, and probably never will be, entirely cleared up.\n\nThe year '87 furnished us with a long series of cases of greater or less interest, of which I retain the records. Among my headings under this one twelve months I find an account of the adventure of the Paradol Chamber, of the Amateur Mendicant Society, who held a luxurious club in the lower vault of a furniture warehouse, of the facts connected with the loss of the British barque Sophy Anderson, of the singular adventures of the Grice Patersons in the island of Uffa, and finally of the Camberwell poisoning case. In the latter, as may be remembered, Sherlock Holmes was able, by winding up the dead man's watch, to prove that it had been wound up two hours before, and that therefore the deceased had gone to bed within that time--a deduction which was of the greatest importance in clearing up the case. All these I may sketch out at some future date, but none of them present such singular features as the strange train of circumstances which I have now taken up my pen to describe.\n\nIt was in the latter days of September, and the equinoctial gales had set in with exceptional violence. All day the wind had screamed and the rain had beaten against the windows, so that even here in the heart of great, hand-made London we were forced to raise our minds for the instant from the routine of life and to recognise the presence of those great elemental forces which shriek at mankind through the bars of his civilisation, like untamed beasts in a cage. As evening drew in, the storm grew higher and louder, and the wind cried and sobbed like a child in the chimney. Sherlock Holmes sat moodily at one side of the fireplace cross-indexing his records of crime, while I at the other was deep in one of Clark Russell's fine sea-stories until the howl of the gale from without seemed to blend with the text, and the splash of the rain to lengthen out into the long swash of the sea waves. My wife was on a visit to her mother's, and for a few days I was a dweller once more in my old quarters at Baker Street.\n\n\"Why,\" said I, glancing up at my companion, \"that was surely the bell. Who could come to-night? Some friend of yours, perhaps?\"\n\n\"Except yourself I have none,\" he answered. \"I do not encourage visitors.\"\n\n\"A client, then?\"\n\n\"If so, it is a serious case. Nothing less would bring a man out on such a day and at such an hour. But I take it that it is more likely to be some crony of the landlady's.\"\n\nSherlock Holmes was wrong in his conjecture, however, for there came a step in the passage and a tapping at the door. He stretched out his long arm to turn the lamp away from himself and towards the vacant chair upon which a newcomer must sit.\n\n\"Come in!\" said he.\n\nThe man who entered was young, some two-and-twenty at the outside, well-groomed and trimly clad, with something of refinement and delicacy in his bearing. The streaming umbrella which he held in his hand, and his long shining waterproof told of the fierce weather through which he had come. He looked about him anxiously in the glare of the lamp, and I could see that his face was pale and his eyes heavy, like those of a man who is weighed down with some great anxiety.\n\n\"I owe you an apology,\" he said, raising his golden pince-nez to his eyes. \"I trust that I am not intruding. I fear that I have brought some traces of the storm and rain into your snug chamber.\"\n\n\"Give me your coat and umbrella,\" said Holmes. \"They may rest here on the hook and will be dry presently. You have come up from the south-west, I see.\"\n\n\"Yes, from Horsham.\"\n\n\"That clay and chalk mixture which I see upon your toe caps is quite distinctive.\"\n\n\"I have come for advice.\"\n\n\"That is easily got.\"\n\n\"And help.\"\n\n\"That is not always so easy.\"\n\n\"I have heard of you, Mr. Holmes. I heard from Major Prendergast how you saved him in the Tankerville Club scandal.\"\n\n\"Ah, of course. He was wrongfully accused of cheating at cards.\"\n\n\"He said that you could solve anything.\"\n\n\"He said too much.\"\n\n\"That you are never beaten.\"\n\n\"I have been beaten four times--three times by men, and once by a woman.\"\n\n\"But what is that compared with the number of your successes?\"\n\n\"It is true that I have been generally successful.\"\n\n\"Then you may be so with me.\"\n\n\"I beg that you will draw your chair up to the fire and favour me with some details as to your case.\"\n\n\"It is no ordinary one.\"\n\n\"None of those which come to me are. I am the last court of appeal.\"\n\n\"And yet I question, sir, whether, in all your experience, you have ever listened to a more mysterious and inexplicable chain of events than those which have happened in my own family.\"\n\n\"You fill me with interest,\" said Holmes. \"Pray give us the essential facts from the commencement, and I can afterwards question you as to those details which seem to me to be most important.\"\n\nThe young man pulled his chair up and pushed his wet feet out towards the blaze.\n\n\"My name,\" said he, \"is John Openshaw, but my own affairs have, as far as I can understand, little to do with this awful business. It is a hereditary matter; so in order to give you an idea of the facts, I must go back to the commencement of the affair.\n\n\"You must know that my grandfather had two sons--my uncle Elias and my father Joseph. My father had a small factory at Coventry, which he enlarged at the time of the invention of bicycling. He was a patentee of the Openshaw unbreakable tire, and his business met with such success that he was able to sell it and to retire upon a handsome competence.\n\n\"My uncle Elias emigrated to America when he was a young man and became a planter in Florida, where he was reported to have done very well. At the time of the war he fought in Jackson's army, and afterwards under Hood, where he rose to be a colonel. When Lee laid down his arms my uncle returned to his plantation, where he remained for three or four years. About 1869 or 1870 he came back to Europe and took a small estate in Sussex, near Horsham. He had made a very considerable fortune in the States, and his reason for leaving them was his aversion to the negroes, and his dislike of the Republican policy in extending the franchise to them. He was a singular man, fierce and quick-tempered, very foul-mouthed when he was angry, and of a most retiring disposition. During all the years that he lived at Horsham, I doubt if ever he set foot in the town. He had a garden and two or three fields round his house, and there he would take his exercise, though very often for weeks on end he would never leave his room. He drank a great deal of brandy and smoked very heavily, but he would see no society and did not want any friends, not even his own brother.\n\n\"He didn't mind me; in fact, he took a fancy to me, for at the time when he saw me first I was a youngster of twelve or so. This would be in the year 1878, after he had been eight or nine years in England. He begged my father to let me live with him and he was very kind to me in his way. When he was sober he used to be fond of playing backgammon and draughts with me, and he would make me his representative both with the servants and with the tradespeople, so that by the time that I was sixteen I was quite master of the house. I kept all the keys and could go where I liked and do what I liked, so long as I did not disturb him in his privacy. There was one singular exception, however, for he had a single room, a lumber-room up among the attics, which was invariably locked, and which he would never permit either me or anyone else to enter. With a boy's curiosity I have peeped through the keyhole, but I was never able to see more than such a collection of old trunks and bundles as would be expected in such a room.\n\n\"One day--it was in March, 1883--a letter with a foreign stamp lay upon the table in front of the colonel's plate. It was not a common thing for him to receive letters, for his bills were all paid in ready money, and he had no friends of any sort. 'From India!' said he as he took it up, 'Pondicherry postmark! What can this be?' Opening it hurriedly, out there jumped five little dried orange pips, which pattered down upon his plate. I began to laugh at this, but the laugh was struck from my lips at the sight of his face. His lip had fallen, his eyes were protruding, his skin the colour of putty, and he glared at the envelope which he still held in his trembling hand, 'K. K. K.!' he shrieked, and then, 'My God, my God, my sins have overtaken me!'\n\n\" 'What is it, uncle?' I cried.\n\n\" 'Death,' said he, and rising from the table he retired to his room, leaving me palpitating with horror. I took up the envelope and saw scrawled in red ink upon the inner flap, just above the gum, the letter K three times repeated. There was nothing else save the five dried pips. What could be the reason of his overpowering terror? I left the breakfast-table, and as I ascended the stair I met him coming down with an old rusty key, which must have belonged to the attic, in one hand, and a small brass box, like a cashbox, in the other.\n\n\" 'They may do what they like, but I'll checkmate them still,' said he with an oath. 'Tell Mary that I shall want a fire in my room to-day, and send down to Fordham, the Horsham lawyer.'\n\n\"I did as he ordered, and when the lawyer arrived I was asked to step up to the room. The fire was burning brightly, and in the grate there was a mass of black, fluffy ashes, as of burned paper, while the brass box stood open and empty beside it. As I glanced at the box I noticed, with a start, that upon the lid was printed the treble K which I had read in the morning upon the envelope.\n\n\" 'I wish you, John,' said my uncle, 'to witness my will. I leave my estate, with all its advantages and all its disadvantages, to my brother, your father, whence it will, no doubt, descend to you. If you can enjoy it in peace, well and good! If you find you cannot, take my advice, my boy, and leave it to your deadliest enemy. I am sorry to give you such a two-edged thing, but I can't say what turn things are going to take. Kindly sign the paper where Mr. Fordham shows you.'\n\n\"I signed the paper as directed, and the lawyer took it away with him. The singular incident made, as you may think, the deepest impression upon me, and I pondered over it and turned it every way in my mind without being able to make anything of it. Yet I could not shake off the vague feeling of dread which it left behind, though the sensation grew less keen as the weeks passed and nothing happened to disturb the usual routine of our lives. I could see a change in my uncle, however. He drank more than ever, and he was less inclined for any sort of society. Most of his time he would spend in his room, with the door locked upon the inside, but sometimes he would emerge in a sort of drunken frenzy and would burst out of the house and tear about the garden with a revolver in his hand, screaming out that he was afraid of no man, and that he was not to be cooped up, like a sheep in a pen, by man or devil. When these hot fits were over, however, he would rush tumultuously in at the door and lock and bar it behind him, like a man who can brazen it out no longer against the terror which lies at the roots of his soul. At such times I have seen his face, even on a cold day, glisten with moisture, as though it were new raised from a basin.\n\n\"Well, to come to an end of the matter, Mr. Holmes, and not to abuse your patience, there came a night when he made one of those drunken sallies from which he never came back. We found him, when we went to search for him, face downward in a little green-scummed pool, which lay at the foot of the garden. There was no sign of any violence, and the water was but two feet deep, so that the jury, having regard to his known eccentricity, brought in a verdict of 'suicide.' But I, who knew how he winced from the very thought of death, had much ado to persuade myself that he had gone out of his way to meet it. The matter passed, however, and my father entered into possession of the estate, and of some $14,000, which lay to his credit at the bank.\"\n\n\"One moment,\" Holmes interposed, \"your statement is, I foresee, one of the most remarkable to which I have ever listened. Let me have the date of the reception by your uncle of the letter, and the date of his supposed suicide.\"\n\n\"The letter arrived on March 10, 1883. His death was seven weeks later, upon the night of May 2nd.\"\n\n\"Thank you. Pray proceed.\"\n\n\"When my father took over the Horsham property, he, at my request, made a careful examination of the attic, which had been always locked up. We found the brass box there, although its contents had been destroyed. On the inside of the cover was a paper label, with the initials of K. K. K. repeated upon it, and 'Letters, memoranda, receipts, and a register' written beneath. These, we presume, indicated the nature of the papers which had been destroyed by Colonel Openshaw. For the rest, there was nothing of much importance in the attic save a great many scattered papers and note-books bearing upon my uncle's life in America. Some of them were of the war time and showed that he had done his duty well and had borne the repute of a brave soldier. Others were of a date during the reconstruction of the Southern states, and were mostly concerned with politics, for he had evidently taken a strong part in opposing the carpet-bag politicians who had been sent down from the North.\n\n\"Well, it was the beginning of '84 when my father came to live at Horsham, and all went as well as possible with us until the January of '85. On the fourth day after the new year I heard my father give a sharp cry of surprise as we sat together at the breakfast-table. There he was, sitting with a newly opened envelope in one hand and five dried orange pips in the outstretched palm of the other one. He had always laughed at what he called my cock-and-bull story about the colonel, but he looked very scared and puzzled now that the same thing had come upon himself.\n\n\" 'Why, what on earth does this mean, John?' he stammered.\n\n\"My heart had turned to lead. 'It is K. K. K.,' said I.\n\n\"He looked inside the envelope. 'So it is,' he cried. 'Here are the very letters. But what is this written above them?'\n\n\" 'Put the papers on the sundial,' I read, peeping over his shoulder.\n\n\" 'What papers? What sundial?' he asked.\n\n\" 'The sundial in the garden. There is no other,' said I; 'but the papers must be those that are destroyed.'\n\n\" 'Pooh!' said he, gripping hard at his courage. 'We are in a civilised land here, and we can't have tomfoolery of this kind. Where does the thing come from?'\n\n\" 'From Dundee,' I answered, glancing at the postmark.\n\n\" 'Some preposterous practical joke,' said he. 'What have I to do with sundials and papers? I shall take no notice of such nonsense.'\n\n\" 'I should certainly speak to the police,' I said.\n\n\" 'And be laughed at for my pains. Nothing of the sort.'\n\n\" 'Then let me do so?'\n\n\" 'No, I forbid you. I won't have a fuss made about such nonsense.'\n\n\"It was in vain to argue with him, for he was a very obstinate man. I went about, however, with a heart which was full of forebodings.\n\n\"On the third day after the coming of the letter my father went from home to visit an old friend of his, Major Freebody, who is in command of one of the forts upon Portsdown Hill. I was glad that he should go, for it seemed to me that he was farther from danger when he was away from home. In that, however, I was in error. Upon the second day of his absence I received a telegram from the major, imploring me to come at once. My father had fallen over one of the deep chalk-pits which abound in the neighbourhood, and was lying senseless, with a shattered skull. I hurried to him, but he passed away without having ever recovered his consciousness. He had, as it appears, been returning from Fareham in the twilight, and as the country was unknown to him, and the chalk-pit unfenced, the jury had no hesitation in bringing in a verdict of 'death from accidental causes.' Carefully as I examined every fact connected with his death, I was unable to find anything which could suggest the idea of murder. There were no signs of violence, no footmarks, no robbery, no record of strangers having been seen upon the roads. And yet I need not tell you that my mind was far from at ease, and that I was well-nigh certain that some foul plot had been woven round him.\n\n\"In this sinister way I came into my inheritance. You will ask me why I did not dispose of it? I answer, because I was well convinced that our troubles were in some way dependent upon an incident in my uncle's life, and that the danger would be as pressing in one house as in another.\n\n\"It was in January, '85, that my poor father met his end, and two years and eight months have elapsed since then. During that time I have lived happily at Horsham, and I had begun to hope that this curse had passed away from the family, and that it had ended with the last generation. I had begun to take comfort too soon, however; yesterday morning the blow fell in the very shape in which it had come upon my father.\"\n\nThe young man took from his waistcoat a crumpled envelope, and turning to the table he shook out upon it five little dried orange pips.\n\n\"This is the envelope,\" he continued. \"The postmark is London--eastern division. Within are the very words which were upon my father's last message: 'K. K. K.'; and then 'Put the papers on the sundial.' \"\n\n\"What have you done?\" asked Holmes.\n\n\"Nothing.\"\n\n\"Nothing?\"\n\n\"To tell the truth\"--he sank his face into his thin, white hands--\"I have felt helpless. I have felt like one of those poor rabbits when the snake is writhing towards it. I seem to be in the grasp of some resistless, inexorable evil, which no foresight and no precautions can guard against.\"\n\n\"Tut! tut!\" cried Sherlock Holmes. \"You must act, man, or you are lost. Nothing but energy can save you. This is no time for despair.\"\n\n\"I have seen the police.\"\n\n\"Ah!\"\n\n\"But they listened to my story with a smile. I am convinced that the inspector has formed the opinion that the letters are all practical jokes, and that the deaths of my relations were really accidents, as the jury stated, and were not to be connected with the warnings.\"\n\nHolmes shook his clenched hands in the air. \"Incredible imbecility!\" he cried.\n\n\"They have, however, allowed me a policeman, who may remain in the house with me.\"\n\n\"Has he come with you to-night?\"\n\n\"No. His orders were to stay in the house.\"\n\nAgain Holmes raved in the air.\n\n\"Why did you come to me,\" he cried, \"and, above all, why did you not come at once?\"\n\n\"I did not know. It was only to-day that I spoke to Major Prendergast about my troubles and was advised by him to come to you.\"\n\n\"It is really two days since you had the letter. We should have acted before this. You have no further evidence, I suppose, than that which you have placed before us--no suggestive detail which might help us?\"\n\n\"There is one thing,\" said John Openshaw. He rummaged in his coat pocket, and, drawing out a piece of discoloured, blue-tinted paper, he laid it out upon the table. \"I have some remembrance,\" said he, \"that on the day when my uncle burned the papers I observed that the small, unburned margins which lay amid the ashes were of this particular colour. I found this single sheet upon the floor of his room, and I am inclined to think that it may be one of the papers which has, perhaps, fluttered out from among the others, and in that way has escaped destruction. Beyond the mention of pips, I do not see that it helps us much. I think myself that it is a page from some private diary. The writing is undoubtedly my uncle's.\"\n\nHolmes moved the lamp, and we both bent over the sheet of paper, which showed by its ragged edge that it had indeed been torn from a book. It was headed, \"March, 1869,\" and beneath were the following enigmatical notices:\n\n\"4th. Hudson came. Same old platform.\n\n\"7th. Set the pips on McCauley, Paramore, and\n\n John Swain, of St. Augustine.\n\n\"9th. McCauley cleared.\n\n\"10th. John Swain cleared.\n\n\"12th. Visited Paramore. All well.\"\n\n\"Thank you!\" said Holmes, folding up the paper and returning it to our visitor. \"And now you must on no account lose another instant. We cannot spare time even to discuss what you have told me. You must get home instantly and act.\"\n\n\"What shall I do?\"\n\n\"There is but one thing to do. It must be done at once. You must put this piece of paper which you have shown us into the brass box which you have described. You must also put in a note to say that all the other papers were burned by your uncle, and that this is the only one which remains. You must assert that in such words as will carry conviction with them. Having done this, you must at once put the box out upon the sundial, as directed. Do you understand?\"\n\n\"Entirely.\"\n\n\"Do not think of revenge, or anything of the sort, at present. I think that we may gain that by means of the law; but we have our web to weave, while theirs is already woven. The first consideration is to remove the pressing danger which threatens you. The second is to clear up the mystery and to punish the guilty parties.\"\n\n\"I thank you,\" said the young man, rising and pulling on his overcoat. \"You have given me fresh life and hope. I shall certainly do as you advise.\"\n\n\"Do not lose an instant. And, above all, take care of yourself in the meanwhile, for I do not think that there can be a doubt that you are threatened by a very real and imminent danger. How do you go back?\"\n\n\"By train from Waterloo.\"\n\n\"It is not yet nine. The streets will be crowded, so I trust that you may be in safety. And yet you cannot guard yourself too closely.\"\n\n\"I am armed.\"\n\n\"That is well. To-morrow I shall set to work upon your case.\"\n\n\"I shall see you at Horsham, then?\"\n\n\"No, your secret lies in London. It is there that I shall seek it.\"\n\n\"Then I shall call upon you in a day, or in two days, with news as to the box and the papers. I shall take your advice in every particular.\" He shook hands with us and took his leave. Outside the wind still screamed and the rain splashed and pattered against the windows. This strange, wild story seemed to have come to us from amid the mad elements--blown in upon us like a sheet of sea-weed in a gale--and now to have been reabsorbed by them once more.\n\nSherlock Holmes sat for some time in silence, with his head sunk forward and his eyes bent upon the red glow of the fire. Then he lit his pipe, and leaning back in his chair he watched the blue smoke-rings as they chased each other up to the ceiling.\n\n\"I think, Watson,\" he remarked at last, \"that of all our cases we have had none more fantastic than this.\"\n\n\"Save, perhaps, the Sign of Four.\"\n\n\"Well, yes. Save, perhaps, that. And yet this John Openshaw seems to me to be walking amid even greater perils than did the Sholtos.\"\n\n\"But have you,\" I asked, \"formed any definite conception as to what these perils are?\"\n\n\"There can be no question as to their nature,\" he answered.\n\n\"Then what are they? Who is this K. K. K., and why does he pursue this unhappy family?\"\n\nSherlock Holmes closed his eyes and placed his elbows upon the arms of his chair, with his finger-tips together. \"The ideal reasoner,\" he remarked, \"would, when he had once been shown a single fact in all its bearings, deduce from it not only all the chain of events which led up to it but also all the results which would follow from it. As Cuvier could correctly describe a whole animal by the contemplation of a single bone, so the observer who has thoroughly understood one link in a series of incidents should be able to accurately state all the other ones, both before and after. We have not yet grasped the results which the reason alone can attain to. Problems may be solved in the study which have baffled all those who have sought a solution by the aid of their senses. To carry the art, however, to its highest pitch, it is necessary that the reasoner should be able to utilise all the facts which have come to his knowledge; and this in itself implies, as you will readily see, a possession of all knowledge, which, even in these days of free education and encyclopaedias, is a somewhat rare accomplishment. It is not so impossible, however, that a man should possess all knowledge which is likely to be useful to him in his work, and this I have endeavoured in my case to do. If I remember rightly, you on one occasion, in the early days of our friendship, defined my limits in a very precise fashion.\"\n\n\"Yes,\" I answered, laughing. \"It was a singular document. Philosophy, astronomy, and politics were marked at zero, I remember. Botany variable, geology profound as regards the mud-stains from any region within fifty miles of town, chemistry eccentric, anatomy unsystematic, sensational literature and crime records unique, violin-player, boxer, swordsman, lawyer, and self-poisoner by cocaine and tobacco. Those, I think, were the main points of my analysis.\"\n\nHolmes grinned at the last item. \"Well,\" he said, \"I say now, as I said then, that a man should keep his little brain-attic stocked with all the furniture that he is likely to use, and the rest he can put away in the lumber-room of his library, where he can get it if he wants it. Now, for such a case as the one which has been submitted to us to-night, we need certainly to muster all our resources. Kindly hand me down the letter K of the American Encyclopaedia which stands upon the shelf beside you. Thank you. Now let us consider the situation and see what may be deduced from it. In the first place, we may start with a strong presumption that Colonel Openshaw had some very strong reason for leaving America. Men at his time of life do not change all their habits and exchange willingly the charming climate of Florida for the lonely life of an English provincial town. His extreme love of solitude in England suggests the idea that he was in fear of someone or something, so we may assume as a working hypothesis that it was fear of someone or something which drove him from America. As to what it was he feared, we can only deduce that by considering the formidable letters which were received by himself and his successors. Did you remark the postmarks of those letters?\"\n\n\"The first was from Pondicherry, the second from Dundee, and the third from London.\"\n\n\"From East London. What do you deduce from that?\"\n\n\"They are all seaports. That the writer was on board of a ship.\"\n\n\"Excellent. We have already a clue. There can be no doubt that the probability--the strong probability--is that the writer was on board of a ship. And now let us consider another point. In the case of Pondicherry, seven weeks elapsed between the threat and its fulfilment, in Dundee it was only some three or four days. Does that suggest anything?\"\n\n\"A greater distance to travel.\"\n\n\"But the letter had also a greater distance to come.\"\n\n\"Then I do not see the point.\"\n\n\"There is at least a presumption that the vessel in which the man or men are is a sailing-ship. It looks as if they always send their singular warning or token before them when starting upon their mission. You see how quickly the deed followed the sign when it came from Dundee. If they had come from Pondicherry in a steamer they would have arrived almost as soon as their letter. But, as a matter of fact, seven weeks elapsed. I think that those seven weeks represented the difference between the mail-boat which brought the letter and the sailing vessel which brought the writer.\"\n\n\"It is possible.\"\n\n\"More than that. It is probable. And now you see the deadly urgency of this new case, and why I urged young Openshaw to caution. The blow has always fallen at the end of the time which it would take the senders to travel the distance. But this one comes from London, and therefore we cannot count upon delay.\"\n\n\"Good God!\" I cried. \"What can it mean, this relentless persecution?\"\n\n\"The papers which Openshaw carried are obviously of vital importance to the person or persons in the sailing-ship. I think that it is quite clear that there must be more than one of them. A single man could not have carried out two deaths in such a way as to deceive a coroner's jury. There must have been several in it, and they must have been men of resource and determination. Their papers they mean to have, be the holder of them who it may. In this way you see K. K. K. ceases to be the initials of an individual and becomes the badge of a society.\"\n\n\"But of what society?\"\n\n\"Have you never--\" said Sherlock Holmes, bending forward and sinking his voice--\"have you never heard of the Ku Klux Klan?\"\n\n\"I never have.\"\n\nHolmes turned over the leaves of the book upon his knee. \"Here it is,\" said he presently:\n\n\" 'Ku Klux Klan. A name derived from the fanciful resemblance to the sound produced by cocking a rifle. This terrible secret society was formed by some ex-Confederate soldiers in the Southern states after the Civil War, and it rapidly formed local branches in different parts of the country, notably in Tennessee, Louisiana, the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida. Its power was used for political purposes, principally for the terrorising of the negro voters and the murdering and driving from the country of those who were opposed to its views. Its outrages were usually preceded by a warning sent to the marked man in some fantastic but generally recognised shape--a sprig of oak-leaves in some parts, melon seeds or orange pips in others. On receiving this the victim might either openly abjure his former ways, or might fly from the country. If he braved the matter out, death would unfailingly come upon him, and usually in some strange and unforeseen manner. So perfect was the organisation of the society, and so systematic its methods, that there is hardly a case upon record where any man succeeded in braving it with impunity, or in which any of its outrages were traced home to the perpetrators. For some years the organisation flourished in spite of the efforts of the United States government and of the better classes of the community in the South. Eventually, in the year 1869, the movement rather suddenly collapsed, although there have been sporadic outbreaks of the same sort since that date.'\n\n\"You will observe,\" said Holmes, laying down the volume, \"that the sudden breaking up of the society was coincident with the disappearance of Openshaw from America with their papers. It may well have been cause and effect. It is no wonder that he and his family have some of the more implacable spirits upon their track. You can understand that this register and diary may implicate some of the first men in the South, and that there may be many who will not sleep easy at night until it is recovered.\"\n\n\"Then the page we have seen--\"\n\n\"Is such as we might expect. It ran, if I remember right, 'sent the pips to A, B, and C'--that is, sent the society's warning to them. Then there are successive entries that A and B cleared, or left the country, and finally that C was visited, with, I fear, a sinister result for C. Well, I think, Doctor, that we may let some light into this dark place, and I believe that the only chance young Openshaw has in the meantime is to do what I have told him. There is nothing more to be said or to be done to-night, so hand me over my violin and let us try to forget for half an hour the miserable weather and the still more miserable ways of our fellow men.\"\n\nIt had cleared in the morning, and the sun was shining with a subdued brightness through the dim veil which hangs over the great city. Sherlock Holmes was already at breakfast when I came down.\n\n\"You will excuse me for not waiting for you,\" said he; \"I have, I foresee, a very busy day before me in looking into this case of young Openshaw's.\"\n\n\"What steps will you take?\" I asked.\n\n\"It will very much depend upon the results of my first inquiries. I may have to go down to Horsham, after all.\"\n\n\"You will not go there first?\"\n\n\"No, I shall commence with the City. Just ring the bell and the maid will bring up your coffee.\"\n\nAs I waited, I lifted the unopened newspaper from the table and glanced my eye over it. It rested upon a heading which sent a chill to my heart.\n\n\"Holmes,\" I cried, \"you are too late.\"\n\n\"Ah!\" said he, laying down his cup, \"I feared as much. How was it done?\" He spoke calmly, but I could see that he was deeply moved.\n\n\"My eye caught the name of Openshaw, and the heading 'Tragedy Near Waterloo Bridge.' Here is the account:\n\n\" 'Between nine and ten last night Police-Constable Cook, of the H Division, on duty near Waterloo Bridge, heard a cry for help and a splash in the water. The night, however, was extremely dark and stormy, so that, in spite of the help of several passers-by, it was quite impossible to effect a rescue. The alarm, however, was given, and, by the aid of the water-police, the body was eventually recovered. It proved to be that of a young gentleman whose name, as it appears from an envelope which was found in his pocket, was John Openshaw, and whose residence is near Horsham. It is conjectured that he may have been hurrying down to catch the last train from Waterloo Station, and that in his haste and the extreme darkness he missed his path and walked over the edge of one of the small landing-places for river steamboats. The body exhibited no traces of violence, and there can be no doubt that the deceased had been the victim of an unfortunate accident, which should have the effect of calling the attention of the authorities to the condition of the riverside landing-stages.' \"\n\nWe sat in silence for some minutes, Holmes more depressed and shaken than I had ever seen him.\n\n\"That hurts my pride, Watson,\" he said at last. \"It is a petty feeling, no doubt, but it hurts my pride. It becomes a personal matter with me now, and, if God sends me health, I shall set my hand upon this gang. That he should come to me for help, and that I should send him away to his death--!\" He sprang from his chair and paced about the room in uncontrollable agitation, with a flush upon his sallow cheeks and a nervous clasping and unclasping of his long thin hands.\n\n\"They must be cunning devils,\" he exclaimed at last. \"How could they have decoyed him down there? The Embankment is not on the direct line to the station. The bridge, no doubt, was too crowded, even on such a night, for their purpose. Well, Watson, we shall see who will win in the long run. I am going out now!\"\n\n\"To the police?\"\n\n\"No; I shall be my own police. When I have spun the web they may take the flies, but not before.\"\n\nAll day I was engaged in my professional work, and it was late in the evening before I returned to Baker Street. Sherlock Holmes had not come back yet. It was nearly ten o'clock before he entered, looking pale and worn. He walked up to the sideboard, and tearing a piece from the loaf he devoured it voraciously, washing it down with a long draught of water.\n\n\"You are hungry,\" I remarked.\n\n\"Starving. It had escaped my memory. I have had nothing since breakfast.\"\n\n\"Nothing?\"\n\n\"Not a bite. I had no time to think of it.\"\n\n\"And how have you succeeded?\"\n\n\"Well.\"\n\n\"You have a clue?\"\n\n\"I have them in the hollow of my hand. Young Openshaw shall not long remain unavenged. Why, Watson, let us put their own devilish trade-mark upon them. It is well thought of!\"\n\n\"What do you mean?\"\n\nHe took an orange from the cupboard, and tearing it to pieces he squeezed out the pips upon the table. Of these he took five and thrust them into an envelope. On the inside of the flap he wrote \"S. H. for J. O.\" Then he sealed it and addressed it to \"Captain James Calhoun, Barque Lone Star, Savannah, Georgia.\"\n\n\"That will await him when he enters port,\" said he, chuckling. \"It may give him a sleepless night. He will find it as sure a precursor of his fate as Openshaw did before him.\"\n\n\"And who is this Captain Calhoun?\"\n\n\"The leader of the gang. I shall have the others, but he first.\"\n\n\"How did you trace it, then?\"\n\nHe took a large sheet of paper from his pocket, all covered with dates and names.\n\n\"I have spent the whole day,\" said he, \"over Lloyd's registers and files of the old papers, following the future career of every vessel which touched at Pondicherry in January and February in '83. There were thirty-six ships of fair tonnage which were reported there during those months. Of these, one, the Lone Star, instantly attracted my attention, since, although it was reported as having cleared from London, the name is that which is given to one of the states of the Union.\"\n\n\"Texas, I think.\"\n\n\"I was not and am not sure which; but I knew that the ship must have an American origin.\"\n\n\"What then?\"\n\n\"I searched the Dundee records, and when I found that the barque Lone Star was there in January, '85, my suspicion became a certainty. I then inquired as to the vessels which lay at present in the port of London.\"\n\n\"Yes?\"\n\n\"The Lone Star had arrived here last week. I went down to the Albert Dock and found that she had been taken down the river by the early tide this morning, homeward bound to Savannah. I wired to Gravesend and learned that she had passed some time ago, and as the wind is easterly I have no doubt that she is now past the Goodwins and not very far from the Isle of Wight.\"\n\n\"What will you do, then?\"\n\n\"Oh, I have my hand upon him. He and the two mates, are as I learn, the only native-born Americans in the ship. The others are Finns and Germans. I know, also, that they were all three away from the ship last night. I had it from the stevedore who has been loading their cargo. By the time that their sailing-ship reaches Savannah the mail-boat will have carried this letter, and the cable will have informed the police of Savannah that these three gentlemen are badly wanted here upon a charge of murder.\"\n\nThere is ever a flaw, however, in the best laid of human plans, and the murderers of John Openshaw were never to receive the orange pips which would show them that another, as cunning and as resolute as themselves, was upon their track. Very long and very severe were the equinoctial gales that year. We waited long for news of the Lone Star of Savannah, but none ever reached us. We did at last hear that somewhere far out in the Atlantic a shattered stern-post of a boat was seen swinging in the trough of a wave, with the letters \"L. S.\" carved upon it, and that is all which we shall ever know of the fate of the Lone Star.\n\nADVENTURE VI. THE MAN WITH THE TWISTED LIP\n\n\nIsa Whitney, brother of the late Elias Whitney, D.D., Principal of the Theological College of St. George's, was much addicted to opium. The habit grew upon him, as I understand, from some foolish freak when he was at college; for having read De Quincey's description of his dreams and sensations, he had drenched his tobacco with laudanum in an attempt to produce the same effects. He found, as so many more have done, that the practice is easier to attain than to get rid of, and for many years he continued to be a slave to the drug, an object of mingled horror and pity to his friends and relatives. I can see him now, with yellow, pasty face, drooping lids, and pin-point pupils, all huddled in a chair, the wreck and ruin of a noble man.\n\nOne night--it was in June, '89--there came a ring to my bell, about the hour when a man gives his first yawn and glances at the clock. I sat up in my chair, and my wife laid her needle-work down in her lap and made a little face of disappointment.\n\n\"A patient!\" said she. \"You'll have to go out.\"\n\nI groaned, for I was newly come back from a weary day.\n\nWe heard the door open, a few hurried words, and then quick steps upon the linoleum. Our own door flew open, and a lady, clad in some dark-coloured stuff, with a black veil, entered the room.\n\n\"You will excuse my calling so late,\" she began, and then, suddenly losing her self-control, she ran forward, threw her arms about my wife's neck, and sobbed upon her shoulder. \"Oh, I'm in such trouble!\" she cried; \"I do so want a little help.\"\n\n\"Why,\" said my wife, pulling up her veil, \"it is Kate Whitney. How you startled me, Kate! I had not an idea who you were when you came in.\"\n\n\"I didn't know what to do, so I came straight to you.\" That was always the way. Folk who were in grief came to my wife like birds to a light-house.\n\n\"It was very sweet of you to come. Now, you must have some wine and water, and sit here comfortably and tell us all about it. Or should you rather that I sent James off to bed?\"\n\n\"Oh, no, no! I want the doctor's advice and help, too. It's about Isa. He has not been home for two days. I am so frightened about him!\"\n\nIt was not the first time that she had spoken to us of her husband's trouble, to me as a doctor, to my wife as an old friend and school companion. We soothed and comforted her by such words as we could find. Did she know where her husband was? Was it possible that we could bring him back to her?\n\nIt seems that it was. She had the surest information that of late he had, when the fit was on him, made use of an opium den in the farthest east of the City. Hitherto his orgies had always been confined to one day, and he had come back, twitching and shattered, in the evening. But now the spell had been upon him eight-and-forty hours, and he lay there, doubtless among the dregs of the docks, breathing in the poison or sleeping off the effects. There he was to be found, she was sure of it, at the Bar of Gold, in Upper Swandam Lane. But what was she to do? How could she, a young and timid woman, make her way into such a place and pluck her husband out from among the ruffians who surrounded him?\n\nThere was the case, and of course there was but one way out of it. Might I not escort her to this place? And then, as a second thought, why should she come at all? I was Isa Whitney's medical adviser, and as such I had influence over him. I could manage it better if I were alone. I promised her on my word that I would send him home in a cab within two hours if he were indeed at the address which she had given me. And so in ten minutes I had left my armchair and cheery sitting-room behind me, and was speeding eastward in a hansom on a strange errand, as it seemed to me at the time, though the future only could show how strange it was to be.\n\nBut there was no great difficulty in the first stage of my adventure. Upper Swandam Lane is a vile alley lurking behind the high wharves which line the north side of the river to the east of London Bridge. Between a slop-shop and a gin-shop, approached by a steep flight of steps leading down to a black gap like the mouth of a cave, I found the den of which I was in search. Ordering my cab to wait, I passed down the steps, worn hollow in the centre by the ceaseless tread of drunken feet; and by the light of a flickering oil-lamp above the door I found the latch and made my way into a long, low room, thick and heavy with the brown opium smoke, and terraced with wooden berths, like the forecastle of an emigrant ship.\n\nThrough the gloom one could dimly catch a glimpse of bodies lying in strange fantastic poses, bowed shoulders, bent knees, heads thrown back, and chins pointing upward, with here and there a dark, lack-lustre eye turned upon the newcomer. Out of the black shadows there glimmered little red circles of light, now bright, now faint, as the burning poison waxed or waned in the bowls of the metal pipes. The most lay silent, but some muttered to themselves, and others talked together in a strange, low, monotonous voice, their conversation coming in gushes, and then suddenly tailing off into silence, each mumbling out his own thoughts and paying little heed to the words of his neighbour. At the farther end was a small brazier of burning charcoal, beside which on a three-legged wooden stool there sat a tall, thin old man, with his jaw resting upon his two fists, and his elbows upon his knees, staring into the fire.\n\nAs I entered, a sallow Malay attendant had hurried up with a pipe for me and a supply of the drug, beckoning me to an empty berth.\n\n\"Thank you. I have not come to stay,\" said I. \"There is a friend of mine here, Mr. Isa Whitney, and I wish to speak with him.\"\n\nThere was a movement and an exclamation from my right, and peering through the gloom, I saw Whitney, pale, haggard, and unkempt, staring out at me.\n\n\"My God! It's Watson,\" said he. He was in a pitiable state of reaction, with every nerve in a twitter. \"I say, Watson, what o'clock is it?\"\n\n\"Nearly eleven.\"\n\n\"Of what day?\"\n\n\"Of Friday, June 19th.\"\n\n\"Good heavens! I thought it was Wednesday. It is Wednesday. What d'you want to frighten a chap for?\" He sank his face onto his arms and began to sob in a high treble key.\n\n\"I tell you that it is Friday, man. Your wife has been waiting this two days for you. You should be ashamed of yourself!\"\n\n\"So I am. But you've got mixed, Watson, for I have only been here a few hours, three pipes, four pipes--I forget how many. But I'll go home with you. I wouldn't frighten Kate--poor little Kate. Give me your hand! Have you a cab?\"\n\n\"Yes, I have one waiting.\"\n\n\"Then I shall go in it. But I must owe something. Find what I owe, Watson. I am all off colour. I can do nothing for myself.\"\n\nI walked down the narrow passage between the double row of sleepers, holding my breath to keep out the vile, stupefying fumes of the drug, and looking about for the manager. As I passed the tall man who sat by the brazier I felt a sudden pluck at my skirt, and a low voice whispered, \"Walk past me, and then look back at me.\" The words fell quite distinctly upon my ear. I glanced down. They could only have come from the old man at my side, and yet he sat now as absorbed as ever, very thin, very wrinkled, bent with age, an opium pipe dangling down from between his knees, as though it had dropped in sheer lassitude from his fingers. I took two steps forward and looked back. It took all my self-control to prevent me from breaking out into a cry of astonishment. He had turned his back so that none could see him but I. His form had filled out, his wrinkles were gone, the dull eyes had regained their fire, and there, sitting by the fire and grinning at my surprise, was none other than Sherlock Holmes. He made a slight motion to me to approach him, and instantly, as he turned his face half round to the company once more, subsided into a doddering, loose-lipped senility.\n\n\"Holmes!\" I whispered, \"what on earth are you doing in this den?\"\n\n\"As low as you can,\" he answered; \"I have excellent ears. If you would have the great kindness to get rid of that sottish friend of yours I should be exceedingly glad to have a little talk with you.\"\n\n\"I have a cab outside.\"\n\n\"Then pray send him home in it. You may safely trust him, for he appears to be too limp to get into any mischief. I should recommend you also to send a note by the cabman to your wife to say that you have thrown in your lot with me. If you will wait outside, I shall be with you in five minutes.\"\n\nIt was difficult to refuse any of Sherlock Holmes' requests, for they were always so exceedingly definite, and put forward with such a quiet air of mastery. I felt, however, that when Whitney was once confined in the cab my mission was practically accomplished; and for the rest, I could not wish anything better than to be associated with my friend in one of those singular adventures which were the normal condition of his existence. In a few minutes I had written my note, paid Whitney's bill, led him out to the cab, and seen him driven through the darkness. In a very short time a decrepit figure had emerged from the opium den, and I was walking down the street with Sherlock Holmes. For two streets he shuffled along with a bent back and an uncertain foot. Then, glancing quickly round, he straightened himself out and burst into a hearty fit of laughter.\n\n\"I suppose, Watson,\" said he, \"that you imagine that I have added opium-smoking to cocaine injections, and all the other little weaknesses on which you have favoured me with your medical views.\"\n\n\"I was certainly surprised to find you there.\"\n\n\"But not more so than I to find you.\"\n\n\"I came to find a friend.\"\n\n\"And I to find an enemy.\"\n\n\"An enemy?\"\n\n\"Yes; one of my natural enemies, or, shall I say, my natural prey. Briefly, Watson, I am in the midst of a very remarkable inquiry, and I have hoped to find a clue in the incoherent ramblings of these sots, as I have done before now. Had I been recognised in that den my life would not have been worth an hour's purchase; for I have used it before now for my own purposes, and the rascally Lascar who runs it has sworn to have vengeance upon me. There is a trap-door at the back of that building, near the corner of Paul's Wharf, which could tell some strange tales of what has passed through it upon the moonless nights.\"\n\n\"What! You do not mean bodies?\"\n\n\"Ay, bodies, Watson. We should be rich men if we had $1000 for every poor devil who has been done to death in that den. It is the vilest murder-trap on the whole riverside, and I fear that Neville St. Clair has entered it never to leave it more. But our trap should be here.\" He put his two forefingers between his teeth and whistled shrilly--a signal which was answered by a similar whistle from the distance, followed shortly by the rattle of wheels and the clink of horses' hoofs.\n\n\"Now, Watson,\" said Holmes, as a tall dog-cart dashed up through the gloom, throwing out two golden tunnels of yellow light from its side lanterns. \"You'll come with me, won't you?\"\n\n\"If I can be of use.\"\n\n\"Oh, a trusty comrade is always of use; and a chronicler still more so. My room at The Cedars is a double-bedded one.\"\n\n\"The Cedars?\"\n\n\"Yes; that is Mr. St. Clair's house. I am staying there while I conduct the inquiry.\"\n\n\"Where is it, then?\"\n\n\"Near Lee, in Kent. We have a seven-mile drive before us.\"\n\n\"But I am all in the dark.\"\n\n\"Of course you are. You'll know all about it presently. Jump up here. All right, John; we shall not need you. Here's half a crown. Look out for me to-morrow, about eleven. Give her her head. So long, then!\"\n\nHe flicked the horse with his whip, and we dashed away through the endless succession of sombre and deserted streets, which widened gradually, until we were flying across a broad balustraded bridge, with the murky river flowing sluggishly beneath us. Beyond lay another dull wilderness of bricks and mortar, its silence broken only by the heavy, regular footfall of the policeman, or the songs and shouts of some belated party of revellers. A dull wrack was drifting slowly across the sky, and a star or two twinkled dimly here and there through the rifts of the clouds. Holmes drove in silence, with his head sunk upon his breast, and the air of a man who is lost in thought, while I sat beside him, curious to learn what this new quest might be which seemed to tax his powers so sorely, and yet afraid to break in upon the current of his thoughts. We had driven several miles, and were beginning to get to the fringe of the belt of suburban villas, when he shook himself, shrugged his shoulders, and lit up his pipe with the air of a man who has satisfied himself that he is acting for the best.\n\n\"You have a grand gift of silence, Watson,\" said he. \"It makes you quite invaluable as a companion. 'Pon my word, it is a great thing for me to have someone to talk to, for my own thoughts are not over-pleasant. I was wondering what I should say to this dear little woman to-night when she meets me at the door.\"\n\n\"You forget that I know nothing about it.\"\n\n\"I shall just have time to tell you the facts of the case before we get to Lee. It seems absurdly simple, and yet, somehow I can get nothing to go upon. There's plenty of thread, no doubt, but I can't get the end of it into my hand. Now, I'll state the case clearly and concisely to you, Watson, and maybe you can see a spark where all is dark to me.\"\n\n\"Proceed, then.\"\n\n\"Some years ago--to be definite, in May, 1884--there came to Lee a gentleman, Neville St. Clair by name, who appeared to have plenty of money. He took a large villa, laid out the grounds very nicely, and lived generally in good style. By degrees he made friends in the neighbourhood, and in 1887 he married the daughter of a local brewer, by whom he now has two children. He had no occupation, but was interested in several companies and went into town as a rule in the morning, returning by the 5:14 from Cannon Street every night. Mr. St. Clair is now thirty-seven years of age, is a man of temperate habits, a good husband, a very affectionate father, and a man who is popular with all who know him. I may add that his whole debts at the present moment, as far as we have been able to ascertain, amount to $88 10s., while he has $220 standing to his credit in the Capital and Counties Bank. There is no reason, therefore, to think that money troubles have been weighing upon his mind.\n\n\"Last Monday Mr. Neville St. Clair went into town rather earlier than usual, remarking before he started that he had two important commissions to perform, and that he would bring his little boy home a box of bricks. Now, by the merest chance, his wife received a telegram upon this same Monday, very shortly after his departure, to the effect that a small parcel of considerable value which she had been expecting was waiting for her at the offices of the Aberdeen Shipping Company. Now, if you are well up in your London, you will know that the office of the company is in Fresno Street, which branches out of Upper Swandam Lane, where you found me to-night. Mrs. St. Clair had her lunch, started for the City, did some shopping, proceeded to the company's office, got her packet, and found herself at exactly 4:35 walking through Swandam Lane on her way back to the station. Have you followed me so far?\"\n\n\"It is very clear.\"\n\n\"If you remember, Monday was an exceedingly hot day, and Mrs. St. Clair walked slowly, glancing about in the hope of seeing a cab, as she did not like the neighbourhood in which she found herself. While she was walking in this way down Swandam Lane, she suddenly heard an ejaculation or cry, and was struck cold to see her husband looking down at her and, as it seemed to her, beckoning to her from a second-floor window. The window was open, and she distinctly saw his face, which she describes as being terribly agitated. He waved his hands frantically to her, and then vanished from the window so suddenly that it seemed to her that he had been plucked back by some irresistible force from behind. One singular point which struck her quick feminine eye was that although he wore some dark coat, such as he had started to town in, he had on neither collar nor necktie.\n\n\"Convinced that something was amiss with him, she rushed down the steps--for the house was none other than the opium den in which you found me to-night--and running through the front room she attempted to ascend the stairs which led to the first floor. At the foot of the stairs, however, she met this Lascar scoundrel of whom I have spoken, who thrust her back and, aided by a Dane, who acts as assistant there, pushed her out into the street. Filled with the most maddening doubts and fears, she rushed down the lane and, by rare good-fortune, met in Fresno Street a number of constables with an inspector, all on their way to their beat. The inspector and two men accompanied her back, and in spite of the continued resistance of the proprietor, they made their way to the room in which Mr. St. Clair had last been seen. There was no sign of him there. In fact, in the whole of that floor there was no one to be found save a crippled wretch of hideous aspect, who, it seems, made his home there. Both he and the Lascar stoutly swore that no one else had been in the front room during the afternoon. So determined was their denial that the inspector was staggered, and had almost come to believe that Mrs. St. Clair had been deluded when, with a cry, she sprang at a small deal box which lay upon the table and tore the lid from it. Out there fell a cascade of children's bricks. It was the toy which he had promised to bring home.\n\n\"This discovery, and the evident confusion which the cripple showed, made the inspector realise that the matter was serious. The rooms were carefully examined, and results all pointed to an abominable crime. The front room was plainly furnished as a sitting-room and led into a small bedroom, which looked out upon the back of one of the wharves. Between the wharf and the bedroom window is a narrow strip, which is dry at low tide but is covered at high tide with at least four and a half feet of water. The bedroom window was a broad one and opened from below. On examination traces of blood were to be seen upon the windowsill, and several scattered drops were visible upon the wooden floor of the bedroom. Thrust away behind a curtain in the front room were all the clothes of Mr. Neville St. Clair, with the exception of his coat. His boots, his socks, his hat, and his watch--all were there. There were no signs of violence upon any of these garments, and there were no other traces of Mr. Neville St. Clair. Out of the window he must apparently have gone for no other exit could be discovered, and the ominous bloodstains upon the sill gave little promise that he could save himself by swimming, for the tide was at its very highest at the moment of the tragedy.\n\n\"And now as to the villains who seemed to be immediately implicated in the matter. The Lascar was known to be a man of the vilest antecedents, but as, by Mrs. St. Clair's story, he was known to have been at the foot of the stair within a very few seconds of her husband's appearance at the window, he could hardly have been more than an accessory to the crime. His defence was one of absolute ignorance, and he protested that he had no knowledge as to the doings of Hugh Boone, his lodger, and that he could not account in any way for the presence of the missing gentleman's clothes.\n\n\"So much for the Lascar manager. Now for the sinister cripple who lives upon the second floor of the opium den, and who was certainly the last human being whose eyes rested upon Neville St. Clair. His name is Hugh Boone, and his hideous face is one which is familiar to every man who goes much to the City. He is a professional beggar, though in order to avoid the police regulations he pretends to a small trade in wax vestas. Some little distance down Threadneedle Street, upon the left-hand side, there is, as you may have remarked, a small angle in the wall. Here it is that this creature takes his daily seat, cross-legged with his tiny stock of matches on his lap, and as he is a piteous spectacle a small rain of charity descends into the greasy leather cap which lies upon the pavement beside him. I have watched the fellow more than once before ever I thought of making his professional acquaintance, and I have been surprised at the harvest which he has reaped in a short time. His appearance, you see, is so remarkable that no one can pass him without observing him. A shock of orange hair, a pale face disfigured by a horrible scar, which, by its contraction, has turned up the outer edge of his upper lip, a bulldog chin, and a pair of very penetrating dark eyes, which present a singular contrast to the colour of his hair, all mark him out from amid the common crowd of mendicants and so, too, does his wit, for he is ever ready with a reply to any piece of chaff which may be thrown at him by the passers-by. This is the man whom we now learn to have been the lodger at the opium den, and to have been the last man to see the gentleman of whom we are in quest.\"\n\n\"But a cripple!\" said I. \"What could he have done single-handed against a man in the prime of life?\"\n\n\"He is a cripple in the sense that he walks with a limp; but in other respects he appears to be a powerful and well-nurtured man. Surely your medical experience would tell you, Watson, that weakness in one limb is often compensated for by exceptional strength in the others.\"\n\n\"Pray continue your narrative.\"\n\n\"Mrs. St. Clair had fainted at the sight of the blood upon the window, and she was escorted home in a cab by the police, as her presence could be of no help to them in their investigations. Inspector Barton, who had charge of the case, made a very careful examination of the premises, but without finding anything which threw any light upon the matter. One mistake had been made in not arresting Boone instantly, as he was allowed some few minutes during which he might have communicated with his friend the Lascar, but this fault was soon remedied, and he was seized and searched, without anything being found which could incriminate him. There were, it is true, some blood-stains upon his right shirt-sleeve, but he pointed to his ring-finger, which had been cut near the nail, and explained that the bleeding came from there, adding that he had been to the window not long before, and that the stains which had been observed there came doubtless from the same source. He denied strenuously having ever seen Mr. Neville St. Clair and swore that the presence of the clothes in his room was as much a mystery to him as to the police. As to Mrs. St. Clair's assertion that she had actually seen her husband at the window, he declared that she must have been either mad or dreaming. He was removed, loudly protesting, to the police-station, while the inspector remained upon the premises in the hope that the ebbing tide might afford some fresh clue.\n\n\"And it did, though they hardly found upon the mud-bank what they had feared to find. It was Neville St. Clair's coat, and not Neville St. Clair, which lay uncovered as the tide receded. And what do you think they found in the pockets?\"\n\n\"I cannot imagine.\"\n\n\"No, I don't think you would guess. Every pocket stuffed with pennies and half-pennies--421 pennies and 270 half-pennies. It was no wonder that it had not been swept away by the tide. But a human body is a different matter. There is a fierce eddy between the wharf and the house. It seemed likely enough that the weighted coat had remained when the stripped body had been sucked away into the river.\"\n\n\"But I understand that all the other clothes were found in the room. Would the body be dressed in a coat alone?\"\n\n\"No, sir, but the facts might be met speciously enough. Suppose that this man Boone had thrust Neville St. Clair through the window, there is no human eye which could have seen the deed. What would he do then? It would of course instantly strike him that he must get rid of the tell-tale garments. He would seize the coat, then, and be in the act of throwing it out, when it would occur to him that it would swim and not sink. He has little time, for he has heard the scuffle downstairs when the wife tried to force her way up, and perhaps he has already heard from his Lascar confederate that the police are hurrying up the street. There is not an instant to be lost. He rushes to some secret hoard, where he has accumulated the fruits of his beggary, and he stuffs all the coins upon which he can lay his hands into the pockets to make sure of the coat's sinking. He throws it out, and would have done the same with the other garments had not he heard the rush of steps below, and only just had time to close the window when the police appeared.\"\n\n\"It certainly sounds feasible.\"\n\n\"Well, we will take it as a working hypothesis for want of a better. Boone, as I have told you, was arrested and taken to the station, but it could not be shown that there had ever before been anything against him. He had for years been known as a professional beggar, but his life appeared to have been a very quiet and innocent one. There the matter stands at present, and the questions which have to be solved--what Neville St. Clair was doing in the opium den, what happened to him when there, where is he now, and what Hugh Boone had to do with his disappearance--are all as far from a solution as ever. I confess that I cannot recall any case within my experience which looked at the first glance so simple and yet which presented such difficulties.\"\n\nWhile Sherlock Holmes had been detailing this singular series of events, we had been whirling through the outskirts of the great town until the last straggling houses had been left behind, and we rattled along with a country hedge upon either side of us. Just as he finished, however, we drove through two scattered villages, where a few lights still glimmered in the windows.\n\n\"We are on the outskirts of Lee,\" said my companion. \"We have touched on three English counties in our short drive, starting in Middlesex, passing over an angle of Surrey, and ending in Kent. See that light among the trees? That is The Cedars, and beside that lamp sits a woman whose anxious ears have already, I have little doubt, caught the clink of our horse's feet.\"\n\n\"But why are you not conducting the case from Baker Street?\" I asked.\n\n\"Because there are many inquiries which must be made out here. Mrs. St. Clair has most kindly put two rooms at my disposal, and you may rest assured that she will have nothing but a welcome for my friend and colleague. I hate to meet her, Watson, when I have no news of her husband. Here we are. Whoa, there, whoa!\"\n\nWe had pulled up in front of a large villa which stood within its own grounds. A stable-boy had run out to the horse's head, and springing down, I followed Holmes up the small, winding gravel-drive which led to the house. As we approached, the door flew open, and a little blonde woman stood in the opening, clad in some sort of light mousseline de soie, with a touch of fluffy pink chiffon at her neck and wrists. She stood with her figure outlined against the flood of light, one hand upon the door, one half-raised in her eagerness, her body slightly bent, her head and face protruded, with eager eyes and parted lips, a standing question.\n\n\"Well?\" she cried, \"well?\" And then, seeing that there were two of us, she gave a cry of hope which sank into a groan as she saw that my companion shook his head and shrugged his shoulders.\n\n\"No good news?\"\n\n\"None.\"\n\n\"No bad?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"Thank God for that. But come in. You must be weary, for you have had a long day.\"\n\n\"This is my friend, Dr. Watson. He has been of most vital use to me in several of my cases, and a lucky chance has made it possible for me to bring him out and associate him with this investigation.\"\n\n\"I am delighted to see you,\" said she, pressing my hand warmly. \"You will, I am sure, forgive anything that may be wanting in our arrangements, when you consider the blow which has come so suddenly upon us.\"\n\n\"My dear madam,\" said I, \"I am an old campaigner, and if I were not I can very well see that no apology is needed. If I can be of any assistance, either to you or to my friend here, I shall be indeed happy.\"\n\n\"Now, Mr. Sherlock Holmes,\" said the lady as we entered a well-lit dining-room, upon the table of which a cold supper had been laid out, \"I should very much like to ask you one or two plain questions, to which I beg that you will give a plain answer.\"\n\n\"Certainly, madam.\"\n\n\"Do not trouble about my feelings. I am not hysterical, nor given to fainting. I simply wish to hear your real, real opinion.\"\n\n\"Upon what point?\"\n\n\"In your heart of hearts, do you think that Neville is alive?\"\n\nSherlock Holmes seemed to be embarrassed by the question. \"Frankly, now!\" she repeated, standing upon the rug and looking keenly down at him as he leaned back in a basket-chair.\n\n\"Frankly, then, madam, I do not.\"\n\n\"You think that he is dead?\"\n\n\"I do.\"\n\n\"Murdered?\"\n\n\"I don't say that. Perhaps.\"\n\n\"And on what day did he meet his death?\"\n\n\"On Monday.\"\n\n\"Then perhaps, Mr. Holmes, you will be good enough to explain how it is that I have received a letter from him to-day.\"\n\nSherlock Holmes sprang out of his chair as if he had been galvanised.\n\n\"What!\" he roared.\n\n\"Yes, to-day.\" She stood smiling, holding up a little slip of paper in the air.\n\n\"May I see it?\"\n\n\"Certainly.\"\n\nHe snatched it from her in his eagerness, and smoothing it out upon the table he drew over the lamp and examined it intently. I had left my chair and was gazing at it over his shoulder. The envelope was a very coarse one and was stamped with the Gravesend postmark and with the date of that very day, or rather of the day before, for it was considerably after midnight.\n\n\"Coarse writing,\" murmured Holmes. \"Surely this is not your husband's writing, madam.\"\n\n\"No, but the enclosure is.\"\n\n\"I perceive also that whoever addressed the envelope had to go and inquire as to the address.\"\n\n\"How can you tell that?\"\n\n\"The name, you see, is in perfectly black ink, which has dried itself. The rest is of the greyish colour, which shows that blotting-paper has been used. If it had been written straight off, and then blotted, none would be of a deep black shade. This man has written the name, and there has then been a pause before he wrote the address, which can only mean that he was not familiar with it. It is, of course, a trifle, but there is nothing so important as trifles. Let us now see the letter. Ha! there has been an enclosure here!\"\n\n\"Yes, there was a ring. His signet-ring.\"\n\n\"And you are sure that this is your husband's hand?\"\n\n\"One of his hands.\"\n\n\"One?\"\n\n\"His hand when he wrote hurriedly. It is very unlike his usual writing, and yet I know it well.\"\n\n\" 'Dearest do not be frightened. All will come well. There is a huge error which it may take some little time to rectify. Wait in patience.--NEVILLE.' Written in pencil upon the fly-leaf of a book, octavo size, no water-mark. Hum! Posted to-day in Gravesend by a man with a dirty thumb. Ha! And the flap has been gummed, if I am not very much in error, by a person who had been chewing tobacco. And you have no doubt that it is your husband's hand, madam?\"\n\n\"None. Neville wrote those words.\"\n\n\"And they were posted to-day at Gravesend. Well, Mrs. St. Clair, the clouds lighten, though I should not venture to say that the danger is over.\"\n\n\"But he must be alive, Mr. Holmes.\"\n\n\"Unless this is a clever forgery to put us on the wrong scent. The ring, after all, proves nothing. It may have been taken from him.\"\n\n\"No, no; it is, it is his very own writing!\"\n\n\"Very well. It may, however, have been written on Monday and only posted to-day.\"\n\n\"That is possible.\"\n\n\"If so, much may have happened between.\"\n\n\"Oh, you must not discourage me, Mr. Holmes. I know that all is well with him. There is so keen a sympathy between us that I should know if evil came upon him. On the very day that I saw him last he cut himself in the bedroom, and yet I in the dining-room rushed upstairs instantly with the utmost certainty that something had happened. Do you think that I would respond to such a trifle and yet be ignorant of his death?\"\n\n\"I have seen too much not to know that the impression of a woman may be more valuable than the conclusion of an analytical reasoner. And in this letter you certainly have a very strong piece of evidence to corroborate your view. But if your husband is alive and able to write letters, why should he remain away from you?\"\n\n\"I cannot imagine. It is unthinkable.\"\n\n\"And on Monday he made no remarks before leaving you?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"And you were surprised to see him in Swandam Lane?\"\n\n\"Very much so.\"\n\n\"Was the window open?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Then he might have called to you?\"\n\n\"He might.\"\n\n\"He only, as I understand, gave an inarticulate cry?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"A call for help, you thought?\"\n\n\"Yes. He waved his hands.\"\n\n\"But it might have been a cry of surprise. Astonishment at the unexpected sight of you might cause him to throw up his hands?\"\n\n\"It is possible.\"\n\n\"And you thought he was pulled back?\"\n\n\"He disappeared so suddenly.\"\n\n\"He might have leaped back. You did not see anyone else in the room?\"\n\n\"No, but this horrible man confessed to having been there, and the Lascar was at the foot of the stairs.\"\n\n\"Quite so. Your husband, as far as you could see, had his ordinary clothes on?\"\n\n\"But without his collar or tie. I distinctly saw his bare throat.\"\n\n\"Had he ever spoken of Swandam Lane?\"\n\n\"Never.\"\n\n\"Had he ever showed any signs of having taken opium?\"\n\n\"Never.\"\n\n\"Thank you, Mrs. St. Clair. Those are the principal points about which I wished to be absolutely clear. We shall now have a little supper and then retire, for we may have a very busy day to-morrow.\"\n\nA large and comfortable double-bedded room had been placed at our disposal, and I was quickly between the sheets, for I was weary after my night of adventure. Sherlock Holmes was a man, however, who, when he had an unsolved problem upon his mind, would go for days, and even for a week, without rest, turning it over, rearranging his facts, looking at it from every point of view until he had either fathomed it or convinced himself that his data were insufficient. It was soon evident to me that he was now preparing for an all-night sitting. He took off his coat and waistcoat, put on a large blue dressing-gown, and then wandered about the room collecting pillows from his bed and cushions from the sofa and armchairs. With these he constructed a sort of Eastern divan, upon which he perched himself cross-legged, with an ounce of shag tobacco and a box of matches laid out in front of him. In the dim light of the lamp I saw him sitting there, an old briar pipe between his lips, his eyes fixed vacantly upon the corner of the ceiling, the blue smoke curling up from him, silent, motionless, with the light shining upon his strong-set aquiline features. So he sat as I dropped off to sleep, and so he sat when a sudden ejaculation caused me to wake up, and I found the summer sun shining into the apartment. The pipe was still between his lips, the smoke still curled upward, and the room was full of a dense tobacco haze, but nothing remained of the heap of shag which I had seen upon the previous night.\n\n\"Awake, Watson?\" he asked.\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Game for a morning drive?\"\n\n\"Certainly.\"\n\n\"Then dress. No one is stirring yet, but I know where the stable-boy sleeps, and we shall soon have the trap out.\" He chuckled to himself as he spoke, his eyes twinkled, and he seemed a different man to the sombre thinker of the previous night.\n\nAs I dressed I glanced at my watch. It was no wonder that no one was stirring. It was twenty-five minutes past four. I had hardly finished when Holmes returned with the news that the boy was putting in the horse.\n\n\"I want to test a little theory of mine,\" said he, pulling on his boots. \"I think, Watson, that you are now standing in the presence of one of the most absolute fools in Europe. I deserve to be kicked from here to Charing Cross. But I think I have the key of the affair now.\"\n\n\"And where is it?\" I asked, smiling.\n\n\"In the bathroom,\" he answered. \"Oh, yes, I am not joking,\" he continued, seeing my look of incredulity. \"I have just been there, and I have taken it out, and I have got it in this Gladstone bag. Come on, my boy, and we shall see whether it will not fit the lock.\"\n\nWe made our way downstairs as quietly as possible, and out into the bright morning sunshine. In the road stood our horse and trap, with the half-clad stable-boy waiting at the head. We both sprang in, and away we dashed down the London Road. A few country carts were stirring, bearing in vegetables to the metropolis, but the lines of villas on either side were as silent and lifeless as some city in a dream.\n\n\"It has been in some points a singular case,\" said Holmes, flicking the horse on into a gallop. \"I confess that I have been as blind as a mole, but it is better to learn wisdom late than never to learn it at all.\"\n\nIn town the earliest risers were just beginning to look sleepily from their windows as we drove through the streets of the Surrey side. Passing down the Waterloo Bridge Road we crossed over the river, and dashing up Wellington Street wheeled sharply to the right and found ourselves in Bow Street. Sherlock Holmes was well known to the force, and the two constables at the door saluted him. One of them held the horse's head while the other led us in.\n\n\"Who is on duty?\" asked Holmes.\n\n\"Inspector Bradstreet, sir.\"\n\n\"Ah, Bradstreet, how are you?\" A tall, stout official had come down the stone-flagged passage, in a peaked cap and frogged jacket. \"I wish to have a quiet word with you, Bradstreet.\" \"Certainly, Mr. Holmes. Step into my room here.\" It was a small, office-like room, with a huge ledger upon the table, and a telephone projecting from the wall. The inspector sat down at his desk.\n\n\"What can I do for you, Mr. Holmes?\"\n\n\"I called about that beggarman, Boone--the one who was charged with being concerned in the disappearance of Mr. Neville St. Clair, of Lee.\"\n\n\"Yes. He was brought up and remanded for further inquiries.\"\n\n\"So I heard. You have him here?\"\n\n\"In the cells.\"\n\n\"Is he quiet?\"\n\n\"Oh, he gives no trouble. But he is a dirty scoundrel.\"\n\n\"Dirty?\"\n\n\"Yes, it is all we can do to make him wash his hands, and his face is as black as a tinker's. Well, when once his case has been settled, he will have a regular prison bath; and I think, if you saw him, you would agree with me that he needed it.\"\n\n\"I should like to see him very much.\"\n\n\"Would you? That is easily done. Come this way. You can leave your bag.\"\n\n\"No, I think that I'll take it.\"\n\n\"Very good. Come this way, if you please.\" He led us down a passage, opened a barred door, passed down a winding stair, and brought us to a whitewashed corridor with a line of doors on each side.\n\n\"The third on the right is his,\" said the inspector. \"Here it is!\" He quietly shot back a panel in the upper part of the door and glanced through.\n\n\"He is asleep,\" said he. \"You can see him very well.\"\n\nWe both put our eyes to the grating. The prisoner lay with his face towards us, in a very deep sleep, breathing slowly and heavily. He was a middle-sized man, coarsely clad as became his calling, with a coloured shirt protruding through the rent in his tattered coat. He was, as the inspector had said, extremely dirty, but the grime which covered his face could not conceal its repulsive ugliness. A broad wheal from an old scar ran right across it from eye to chin, and by its contraction had turned up one side of the upper lip, so that three teeth were exposed in a perpetual snarl. A shock of very bright red hair grew low over his eyes and forehead.\n\n\"He's a beauty, isn't he?\" said the inspector.\n\n\"He certainly needs a wash,\" remarked Holmes. \"I had an idea that he might, and I took the liberty of bringing the tools with me.\" He opened the Gladstone bag as he spoke, and took out, to my astonishment, a very large bath-sponge.\n\n\"He! he! You are a funny one,\" chuckled the inspector.\n\n\"Now, if you will have the great goodness to open that door very quietly, we will soon make him cut a much more respectable figure.\"\n\n\"Well, I don't know why not,\" said the inspector. \"He doesn't look a credit to the Bow Street cells, does he?\" He slipped his key into the lock, and we all very quietly entered the cell. The sleeper half turned, and then settled down once more into a deep slumber. Holmes stooped to the water-jug, moistened his sponge, and then rubbed it twice vigorously across and down the prisoner's face.\n\n\"Let me introduce you,\" he shouted, \"to Mr. Neville St. Clair, of Lee, in the county of Kent.\"\n\nNever in my life have I seen such a sight. The man's face peeled off under the sponge like the bark from a tree. Gone was the coarse brown tint! Gone, too, was the horrid scar which had seamed it across, and the twisted lip which had given the repulsive sneer to the face! A twitch brought away the tangled red hair, and there, sitting up in his bed, was a pale, sad-faced, refined-looking man, black-haired and smooth-skinned, rubbing his eyes and staring about him with sleepy bewilderment. Then suddenly realising the exposure, he broke into a scream and threw himself down with his face to the pillow.\n\n\"Great heavens!\" cried the inspector, \"it is, indeed, the missing man. I know him from the photograph.\"\n\nThe prisoner turned with the reckless air of a man who abandons himself to his destiny. \"Be it so,\" said he. \"And pray what am I charged with?\"\n\n\"With making away with Mr. Neville St.-- Oh, come, you can't be charged with that unless they make a case of attempted suicide of it,\" said the inspector with a grin. \"Well, I have been twenty-seven years in the force, but this really takes the cake.\"\n\n\"If I am Mr. Neville St. Clair, then it is obvious that no crime has been committed, and that, therefore, I am illegally detained.\"\n\n\"No crime, but a very great error has been committed,\" said Holmes. \"You would have done better to have trusted you wife.\"\n\n\"It was not the wife; it was the children,\" groaned the prisoner. \"God help me, I would not have them ashamed of their father. My God! What an exposure! What can I do?\"\n\nSherlock Holmes sat down beside him on the couch and patted him kindly on the shoulder.\n\n\"If you leave it to a court of law to clear the matter up,\" said he, \"of course you can hardly avoid publicity. On the other hand, if you convince the police authorities that there is no possible case against you, I do not know that there is any reason that the details should find their way into the papers. Inspector Bradstreet would, I am sure, make notes upon anything which you might tell us and submit it to the proper authorities. The case would then never go into court at all.\"\n\n\"God bless you!\" cried the prisoner passionately. \"I would have endured imprisonment, ay, even execution, rather than have left my miserable secret as a family blot to my children.\n\n\"You are the first who have ever heard my story. My father was a schoolmaster in Chesterfield, where I received an excellent education. I travelled in my youth, took to the stage, and finally became a reporter on an evening paper in London. One day my editor wished to have a series of articles upon begging in the metropolis, and I volunteered to supply them. There was the point from which all my adventures started. It was only by trying begging as an amateur that I could get the facts upon which to base my articles. When an actor I had, of course, learned all the secrets of making up, and had been famous in the green-room for my skill. I took advantage now of my attainments. I painted my face, and to make myself as pitiable as possible I made a good scar and fixed one side of my lip in a twist by the aid of a small slip of flesh-coloured plaster. Then with a red head of hair, and an appropriate dress, I took my station in the business part of the city, ostensibly as a match-seller but really as a beggar. For seven hours I plied my trade, and when I returned home in the evening I found to my surprise that I had received no less than 26s. 4d.\n\n\"I wrote my articles and thought little more of the matter until, some time later, I backed a bill for a friend and had a writ served upon me for $25. I was at my wit's end where to get the money, but a sudden idea came to me. I begged a fortnight's grace from the creditor, asked for a holiday from my employers, and spent the time in begging in the City under my disguise. In ten days I had the money and had paid the debt.\n\n\"Well, you can imagine how hard it was to settle down to arduous work at $2 a week when I knew that I could earn as much in a day by smearing my face with a little paint, laying my cap on the ground, and sitting still. It was a long fight between my pride and the money, but the dollars won at last, and I threw up reporting and sat day after day in the corner which I had first chosen, inspiring pity by my ghastly face and filling my pockets with coppers. Only one man knew my secret. He was the keeper of a low den in which I used to lodge in Swandam Lane, where I could every morning emerge as a squalid beggar and in the evenings transform myself into a well-dressed man about town. This fellow, a Lascar, was well paid by me for his rooms, so that I knew that my secret was safe in his possession.\n\n\"Well, very soon I found that I was saving considerable sums of money. I do not mean that any beggar in the streets of London could earn $700 a year--which is less than my average takings--but I had exceptional advantages in my power of making up, and also in a facility of repartee, which improved by practice and made me quite a recognised character in the City. All day a stream of pennies, varied by silver, poured in upon me, and it was a very bad day in which I failed to take $2.\n\n\"As I grew richer I grew more ambitious, took a house in the country, and eventually married, without anyone having a suspicion as to my real occupation. My dear wife knew that I had business in the City. She little knew what.\n\n\"Last Monday I had finished for the day and was dressing in my room above the opium den when I looked out of my window and saw, to my horror and astonishment, that my wife was standing in the street, with her eyes fixed full upon me. I gave a cry of surprise, threw up my arms to cover my face, and, rushing to my confidant, the Lascar, entreated him to prevent anyone from coming up to me. I heard her voice downstairs, but I knew that she could not ascend. Swiftly I threw off my clothes, pulled on those of a beggar, and put on my pigments and wig. Even a wife's eyes could not pierce so complete a disguise. But then it occurred to me that there might be a search in the room, and that the clothes might betray me. I threw open the window, reopening by my violence a small cut which I had inflicted upon myself in the bedroom that morning. Then I seized my coat, which was weighted by the coppers which I had just transferred to it from the leather bag in which I carried my takings. I hurled it out of the window, and it disappeared into the Thames. The other clothes would have followed, but at that moment there was a rush of constables up the stair, and a few minutes after I found, rather, I confess, to my relief, that instead of being identified as Mr. Neville St. Clair, I was arrested as his murderer.\n\n\"I do not know that there is anything else for me to explain. I was determined to preserve my disguise as long as possible, and hence my preference for a dirty face. Knowing that my wife would be terribly anxious, I slipped off my ring and confided it to the Lascar at a moment when no constable was watching me, together with a hurried scrawl, telling her that she had no cause to fear.\"\n\n\"That note only reached her yesterday,\" said Holmes.\n\n\"Good God! What a week she must have spent!\"\n\n\"The police have watched this Lascar,\" said Inspector Bradstreet, \"and I can quite understand that he might find it difficult to post a letter unobserved. Probably he handed it to some sailor customer of his, who forgot all about it for some days.\"\n\n\"That was it,\" said Holmes, nodding approvingly; \"I have no doubt of it. But have you never been prosecuted for begging?\"\n\n\"Many times; but what was a fine to me?\"\n\n\"It must stop here, however,\" said Bradstreet. \"If the police are to hush this thing up, there must be no more of Hugh Boone.\"\n\n\"I have sworn it by the most solemn oaths which a man can take.\"\n\n\"In that case I think that it is probable that no further steps may be taken. But if you are found again, then all must come out. I am sure, Mr. Holmes, that we are very much indebted to you for having cleared the matter up. I wish I knew how you reach your results.\"\n\n\"I reached this one,\" said my friend, \"by sitting upon five pillows and consuming an ounce of shag. I think, Watson, that if we drive to Baker Street we shall just be in time for breakfast.\"\n\nVII. THE ADVENTURE OF THE BLUE CARBUNCLE\n\n\nI had called upon my friend Sherlock Holmes upon the second morning after Christmas, with the intention of wishing him the compliments of the season. He was lounging upon the sofa in a purple dressing-gown, a pipe-rack within his reach upon the right, and a pile of crumpled morning papers, evidently newly studied, near at hand. Beside the couch was a wooden chair, and on the angle of the back hung a very seedy and disreputable hard-felt hat, much the worse for wear, and cracked in several places. A lens and a forceps lying upon the seat of the chair suggested that the hat had been suspended in this manner for the purpose of examination.\n\n\"You are engaged,\" said I; \"perhaps I interrupt you.\"\n\n\"Not at all. I am glad to have a friend with whom I can discuss my results. The matter is a perfectly trivial one\"--he jerked his thumb in the direction of the old hat--\"but there are points in connection with it which are not entirely devoid of interest and even of instruction.\"\n\nI seated myself in his armchair and warmed my hands before his crackling fire, for a sharp frost had set in, and the windows were thick with the ice crystals. \"I suppose,\" I remarked, \"that, homely as it looks, this thing has some deadly story linked on to it--that it is the clue which will guide you in the solution of some mystery and the punishment of some crime.\"\n\n\"No, no. No crime,\" said Sherlock Holmes, laughing. \"Only one of those whimsical little incidents which will happen when you have four million human beings all jostling each other within the space of a few square miles. Amid the action and reaction of so dense a swarm of humanity, every possible combination of events may be expected to take place, and many a little problem will be presented which may be striking and bizarre without being criminal. We have already had experience of such.\"\n\n\"So much so,\" I remarked, \"that of the last six cases which I have added to my notes, three have been entirely free of any legal crime.\"\n\n\"Precisely. You allude to my attempt to recover the Irene Adler papers, to the singular case of Miss Mary Sutherland, and to the adventure of the man with the twisted lip. Well, I have no doubt that this small matter will fall into the same innocent category. You know Peterson, the commissionaire?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"It is to him that this trophy belongs.\"\n\n\"It is his hat.\"\n\n\"No, no, he found it. Its owner is unknown. I beg that you will look upon it not as a battered billycock but as an intellectual problem. And, first, as to how it came here. It arrived upon Christmas morning, in company with a good fat goose, which is, I have no doubt, roasting at this moment in front of Peterson's fire. The facts are these: about four o'clock on Christmas morning, Peterson, who, as you know, is a very honest fellow, was returning from some small jollification and was making his way homeward down Tottenham Court Road. In front of him he saw, in the gaslight, a tallish man, walking with a slight stagger, and carrying a white goose slung over his shoulder. As he reached the corner of Goodge Street, a row broke out between this stranger and a little knot of roughs. One of the latter knocked off the man's hat, on which he raised his stick to defend himself and, swinging it over his head, smashed the shop window behind him. Peterson had rushed forward to protect the stranger from his assailants; but the man, shocked at having broken the window, and seeing an official-looking person in uniform rushing towards him, dropped his goose, took to his heels, and vanished amid the labyrinth of small streets which lie at the back of Tottenham Court Road. The roughs had also fled at the appearance of Peterson, so that he was left in possession of the field of battle, and also of the spoils of victory in the shape of this battered hat and a most unimpeachable Christmas goose.\"\n\n\"Which surely he restored to their owner?\"\n\n\"My dear fellow, there lies the problem. It is true that 'For Mrs. Henry Baker' was printed upon a small card which was tied to the bird's left leg, and it is also true that the initials 'H. B.' are legible upon the lining of this hat, but as there are some thousands of Bakers, and some hundreds of Henry Bakers in this city of ours, it is not easy to restore lost property to any one of them.\"\n\n\"What, then, did Peterson do?\"\n\n\"He brought round both hat and goose to me on Christmas morning, knowing that even the smallest problems are of interest to me. The goose we retained until this morning, when there were signs that, in spite of the slight frost, it would be well that it should be eaten without unnecessary delay. Its finder has carried it off, therefore, to fulfil the ultimate destiny of a goose, while I continue to retain the hat of the unknown gentleman who lost his Christmas dinner.\"\n\n\"Did he not advertise?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"Then, what clue could you have as to his identity?\"\n\n\"Only as much as we can deduce.\"\n\n\"From his hat?\"\n\n\"Precisely.\"\n\n\"But you are joking. What can you gather from this old battered felt?\"\n\n\"Here is my lens. You know my methods. What can you gather yourself as to the individuality of the man who has worn this article?\"\n\nI took the tattered object in my hands and turned it over rather ruefully. It was a very ordinary black hat of the usual round shape, hard and much the worse for wear. The lining had been of red silk, but was a good deal discoloured. There was no maker's name; but, as Holmes had remarked, the initials \"H. B.\" were scrawled upon one side. It was pierced in the brim for a hat-securer, but the elastic was missing. For the rest, it was cracked, exceedingly dusty, and spotted in several places, although there seemed to have been some attempt to hide the discoloured patches by smearing them with ink.\n\n\"I can see nothing,\" said I, handing it back to my friend.\n\n\"On the contrary, Watson, you can see everything. You fail, however, to reason from what you see. You are too timid in drawing your inferences.\"\n\n\"Then, pray tell me what it is that you can infer from this hat?\"\n\nHe picked it up and gazed at it in the peculiar introspective fashion which was characteristic of him. \"It is perhaps less suggestive than it might have been,\" he remarked, \"and yet there are a few inferences which are very distinct, and a few others which represent at least a strong balance of probability. That the man was highly intellectual is of course obvious upon the face of it, and also that he was fairly well-to-do within the last three years, although he has now fallen upon evil days. He had foresight, but has less now than formerly, pointing to a moral retrogression, which, when taken with the decline of his fortunes, seems to indicate some evil influence, probably drink, at work upon him. This may account also for the obvious fact that his wife has ceased to love him.\"\n\n\"My dear Holmes!\"\n\n\"He has, however, retained some degree of self-respect,\" he continued, disregarding my remonstrance. \"He is a man who leads a sedentary life, goes out little, is out of training entirely, is middle-aged, has grizzled hair which he has had cut within the last few days, and which he anoints with lime-cream. These are the more patent facts which are to be deduced from his hat. Also, by the way, that it is extremely improbable that he has gas laid on in his house.\"\n\n\"You are certainly joking, Holmes.\"\n\n\"Not in the least. Is it possible that even now, when I give you these results, you are unable to see how they are attained?\"\n\n\"I have no doubt that I am very stupid, but I must confess that I am unable to follow you. For example, how did you deduce that this man was intellectual?\"\n\nFor answer Holmes clapped the hat upon his head. It came right over the forehead and settled upon the bridge of his nose. \"It is a question of cubic capacity,\" said he; \"a man with so large a brain must have something in it.\"\n\n\"The decline of his fortunes, then?\"\n\n\"This hat is three years old. These flat brims curled at the edge came in then. It is a hat of the very best quality. Look at the band of ribbed silk and the excellent lining. If this man could afford to buy so expensive a hat three years ago, and has had no hat since, then he has assuredly gone down in the world.\"\n\n\"Well, that is clear enough, certainly. But how about the foresight and the moral retrogression?\"\n\nSherlock Holmes laughed. \"Here is the foresight,\" said he putting his finger upon the little disc and loop of the hat-securer. \"They are never sold upon hats. If this man ordered one, it is a sign of a certain amount of foresight, since he went out of his way to take this precaution against the wind. But since we see that he has broken the elastic and has not troubled to replace it, it is obvious that he has less foresight now than formerly, which is a distinct proof of a weakening nature. On the other hand, he has endeavoured to conceal some of these stains upon the felt by daubing them with ink, which is a sign that he has not entirely lost his self-respect.\"\n\n\"Your reasoning is certainly plausible.\"\n\n\"The further points, that he is middle-aged, that his hair is grizzled, that it has been recently cut, and that he uses lime-cream, are all to be gathered from a close examination of the lower part of the lining. The lens discloses a large number of hair-ends, clean cut by the scissors of the barber. They all appear to be adhesive, and there is a distinct odour of lime-cream. This dust, you will observe, is not the gritty, grey dust of the street but the fluffy brown dust of the house, showing that it has been hung up indoors most of the time, while the marks of moisture upon the inside are proof positive that the wearer perspired very freely, and could therefore, hardly be in the best of training.\"\n\n\"But his wife--you said that she had ceased to love him.\"\n\n\"This hat has not been brushed for weeks. When I see you, my dear Watson, with a week's accumulation of dust upon your hat, and when your wife allows you to go out in such a state, I shall fear that you also have been unfortunate enough to lose your wife's affection.\"\n\n\"But he might be a bachelor.\"\n\n\"Nay, he was bringing home the goose as a peace-offering to his wife. Remember the card upon the bird's leg.\"\n\n\"You have an answer to everything. But how on earth do you deduce that the gas is not laid on in his house?\"\n\n\"One tallow stain, or even two, might come by chance; but when I see no less than five, I think that there can be little doubt that the individual must be brought into frequent contact with burning tallow--walks upstairs at night probably with his hat in one hand and a guttering candle in the other. Anyhow, he never got tallow-stains from a gas-jet. Are you satisfied?\"\n\n\"Well, it is very ingenious,\" said I, laughing; \"but since, as you said just now, there has been no crime committed, and no harm done save the loss of a goose, all this seems to be rather a waste of energy.\"\n\nSherlock Holmes had opened his mouth to reply, when the door flew open, and Peterson, the commissionaire, rushed into the apartment with flushed cheeks and the face of a man who is dazed with astonishment.\n\n\"The goose, Mr. Holmes! The goose, sir!\" he gasped.\n\n\"Eh? What of it, then? Has it returned to life and flapped off through the kitchen window?\" Holmes twisted himself round upon the sofa to get a fairer view of the man's excited face.\n\n\"See here, sir! See what my wife found in its crop!\" He held out his hand and displayed upon the centre of the palm a brilliantly scintillating blue stone, rather smaller than a bean in size, but of such purity and radiance that it twinkled like an electric point in the dark hollow of his hand.\n\nSherlock Holmes sat up with a whistle. \"By Jove, Peterson!\" said he, \"this is treasure trove indeed. I suppose you know what you have got?\"\n\n\"A diamond, sir? A precious stone. It cuts into glass as though it were putty.\"\n\n\"It's more than a precious stone. It is the precious stone.\"\n\n\"Not the Countess of Morcar's blue carbuncle!\" I ejaculated.\n\n\"Precisely so. I ought to know its size and shape, seeing that I have read the advertisement about it in The Times every day lately. It is absolutely unique, and its value can only be conjectured, but the reward offered of $1000 is certainly not within a twentieth part of the market price.\"\n\n\"A thousand pounds! Great Lord of mercy!\" The commissionaire plumped down into a chair and stared from one to the other of us.\n\n\"That is the reward, and I have reason to know that there are sentimental considerations in the background which would induce the Countess to part with half her fortune if she could but recover the gem.\"\n\n\"It was lost, if I remember aright, at the Hotel Cosmopolitan,\" I remarked.\n\n\"Precisely so, on December 22nd, just five days ago. John Horner, a plumber, was accused of having abstracted it from the lady's jewel-case. The evidence against him was so strong that the case has been referred to the Assizes. I have some account of the matter here, I believe.\" He rummaged amid his newspapers, glancing over the dates, until at last he smoothed one out, doubled it over, and read the following paragraph:\n\n\"Hotel Cosmopolitan Jewel Robbery. John Horner, 26, plumber, was brought up upon the charge of having upon the 22nd inst., abstracted from the jewel-case of the Countess of Morcar the valuable gem known as the blue carbuncle. James Ryder, upper-attendant at the hotel, gave his evidence to the effect that he had shown Horner up to the dressing-room of the Countess of Morcar upon the day of the robbery in order that he might solder the second bar of the grate, which was loose. He had remained with Horner some little time, but had finally been called away. On returning, he found that Horner had disappeared, that the bureau had been forced open, and that the small morocco casket in which, as it afterwards transpired, the Countess was accustomed to keep her jewel, was lying empty upon the dressing-table. Ryder instantly gave the alarm, and Horner was arrested the same evening; but the stone could not be found either upon his person or in his rooms. Catherine Cusack, maid to the Countess, deposed to having heard Ryder's cry of dismay on discovering the robbery, and to having rushed into the room, where she found matters as described by the last witness. Inspector Bradstreet, B division, gave evidence as to the arrest of Horner, who struggled frantically, and protested his innocence in the strongest terms. Evidence of a previous conviction for robbery having been given against the prisoner, the magistrate refused to deal summarily with the offence, but referred it to the Assizes. Horner, who had shown signs of intense emotion during the proceedings, fainted away at the conclusion and was carried out of court.\"\n\n\"Hum! So much for the police-court,\" said Holmes thoughtfully, tossing aside the paper. \"The question for us now to solve is the sequence of events leading from a rifled jewel-case at one end to the crop of a goose in Tottenham Court Road at the other. You see, Watson, our little deductions have suddenly assumed a much more important and less innocent aspect. Here is the stone; the stone came from the goose, and the goose came from Mr. Henry Baker, the gentleman with the bad hat and all the other characteristics with which I have bored you. So now we must set ourselves very seriously to finding this gentleman and ascertaining what part he has played in this little mystery. To do this, we must try the simplest means first, and these lie undoubtedly in an advertisement in all the evening papers. If this fail, I shall have recourse to other methods.\"\n\n\"What will you say?\"\n\n\"Give me a pencil and that slip of paper. Now, then: 'Found at the corner of Goodge Street, a goose and a black felt hat. Mr. Henry Baker can have the same by applying at 6:30 this evening at 221B, Baker Street.' That is clear and concise.\"\n\n\"Very. But will he see it?\"\n\n\"Well, he is sure to keep an eye on the papers, since, to a poor man, the loss was a heavy one. He was clearly so scared by his mischance in breaking the window and by the approach of Peterson that he thought of nothing but flight, but since then he must have bitterly regretted the impulse which caused him to drop his bird. Then, again, the introduction of his name will cause him to see it, for everyone who knows him will direct his attention to it. Here you are, Peterson, run down to the advertising agency and have this put in the evening papers.\"\n\n\"In which, sir?\"\n\n\"Oh, in the Globe, Star, Pall Mall, St. James's, Evening News, Standard, Echo, and any others that occur to you.\"\n\n\"Very well, sir. And this stone?\"\n\n\"Ah, yes, I shall keep the stone. Thank you. And, I say, Peterson, just buy a goose on your way back and leave it here with me, for we must have one to give to this gentleman in place of the one which your family is now devouring.\"\n\nWhen the commissionaire had gone, Holmes took up the stone and held it against the light. \"It's a bonny thing,\" said he. \"Just see how it glints and sparkles. Of course it is a nucleus and focus of crime. Every good stone is. They are the devil's pet baits. In the larger and older jewels every facet may stand for a bloody deed. This stone is not yet twenty years old. It was found in the banks of the Amoy River in southern China and is remarkable in having every characteristic of the carbuncle, save that it is blue in shade instead of ruby red. In spite of its youth, it has already a sinister history. There have been two murders, a vitriol-throwing, a suicide, and several robberies brought about for the sake of this forty-grain weight of crystallised charcoal. Who would think that so pretty a toy would be a purveyor to the gallows and the prison? I'll lock it up in my strong box now and drop a line to the Countess to say that we have it.\"\n\n\"Do you think that this man Horner is innocent?\"\n\n\"I cannot tell.\"\n\n\"Well, then, do you imagine that this other one, Henry Baker, had anything to do with the matter?\"\n\n\"It is, I think, much more likely that Henry Baker is an absolutely innocent man, who had no idea that the bird which he was carrying was of considerably more value than if it were made of solid gold. That, however, I shall determine by a very simple test if we have an answer to our advertisement.\"\n\n\"And you can do nothing until then?\"\n\n\"Nothing.\"\n\n\"In that case I shall continue my professional round. But I shall come back in the evening at the hour you have mentioned, for I should like to see the solution of so tangled a business.\"\n\n\"Very glad to see you. I dine at seven. There is a woodcock, I believe. By the way, in view of recent occurrences, perhaps I ought to ask Mrs. Hudson to examine its crop.\"\n\nI had been delayed at a case, and it was a little after half-past six when I found myself in Baker Street once more. As I approached the house I saw a tall man in a Scotch bonnet with a coat which was buttoned up to his chin waiting outside in the bright semicircle which was thrown from the fanlight. Just as I arrived the door was opened, and we were shown up together to Holmes' room.\n\n\"Mr. Henry Baker, I believe,\" said he, rising from his armchair and greeting his visitor with the easy air of geniality which he could so readily assume. \"Pray take this chair by the fire, Mr. Baker. It is a cold night, and I observe that your circulation is more adapted for summer than for winter. Ah, Watson, you have just come at the right time. Is that your hat, Mr. Baker?\"\n\n\"Yes, sir, that is undoubtedly my hat.\"\n\nHe was a large man with rounded shoulders, a massive head, and a broad, intelligent face, sloping down to a pointed beard of grizzled brown. A touch of red in nose and cheeks, with a slight tremor of his extended hand, recalled Holmes' surmise as to his habits. His rusty black frock-coat was buttoned right up in front, with the collar turned up, and his lank wrists protruded from his sleeves without a sign of cuff or shirt. He spoke in a slow staccato fashion, choosing his words with care, and gave the impression generally of a man of learning and letters who had had ill-usage at the hands of fortune.\n\n\"We have retained these things for some days,\" said Holmes, \"because we expected to see an advertisement from you giving your address. I am at a loss to know now why you did not advertise.\"\n\nOur visitor gave a rather shamefaced laugh. \"Shillings have not been so plentiful with me as they once were,\" he remarked. \"I had no doubt that the gang of roughs who assaulted me had carried off both my hat and the bird. I did not care to spend more money in a hopeless attempt at recovering them.\"\n\n\"Very naturally. By the way, about the bird, we were compelled to eat it.\"\n\n\"To eat it!\" Our visitor half rose from his chair in his excitement.\n\n\"Yes, it would have been of no use to anyone had we not done so. But I presume that this other goose upon the sideboard, which is about the same weight and perfectly fresh, will answer your purpose equally well?\"\n\n\"Oh, certainly, certainly,\" answered Mr. Baker with a sigh of relief.\n\n\"Of course, we still have the feathers, legs, crop, and so on of your own bird, so if you wish--\"\n\nThe man burst into a hearty laugh. \"They might be useful to me as relics of my adventure,\" said he, \"but beyond that I can hardly see what use the disjecta membra of my late acquaintance are going to be to me. No, sir, I think that, with your permission, I will confine my attentions to the excellent bird which I perceive upon the sideboard.\"\n\nSherlock Holmes glanced sharply across at me with a slight shrug of his shoulders.\n\n\"There is your hat, then, and there your bird,\" said he. \"By the way, would it bore you to tell me where you got the other one from? I am somewhat of a fowl fancier, and I have seldom seen a better grown goose.\"\n\n\"Certainly, sir,\" said Baker, who had risen and tucked his newly gained property under his arm. \"There are a few of us who frequent the Alpha Inn, near the Museum--we are to be found in the Museum itself during the day, you understand. This year our good host, Windigate by name, instituted a goose club, by which, on consideration of some few pence every week, we were each to receive a bird at Christmas. My pence were duly paid, and the rest is familiar to you. I am much indebted to you, sir, for a Scotch bonnet is fitted neither to my years nor my gravity.\" With a comical pomposity of manner he bowed solemnly to both of us and strode off upon his way.\n\n\"So much for Mr. Henry Baker,\" said Holmes when he had closed the door behind him. \"It is quite certain that he knows nothing whatever about the matter. Are you hungry, Watson?\"\n\n\"Not particularly.\"\n\n\"Then I suggest that we turn our dinner into a supper and follow up this clue while it is still hot.\"\n\n\"By all means.\"\n\nIt was a bitter night, so we drew on our ulsters and wrapped cravats about our throats. Outside, the stars were shining coldly in a cloudless sky, and the breath of the passers-by blew out into smoke like so many pistol shots. Our footfalls rang out crisply and loudly as we swung through the doctors' quarter, Wimpole Street, Harley Street, and so through Wigmore Street into Oxford Street. In a quarter of an hour we were in Bloomsbury at the Alpha Inn, which is a small public-house at the corner of one of the streets which runs down into Holborn. Holmes pushed open the door of the private bar and ordered two glasses of beer from the ruddy-faced, white-aproned landlord.\n\n\"Your beer should be excellent if it is as good as your geese,\" said he.\n\n\"My geese!\" The man seemed surprised.\n\n\"Yes. I was speaking only half an hour ago to Mr. Henry Baker, who was a member of your goose club.\"\n\n\"Ah! yes, I see. But you see, sir, them's not our geese.\"\n\n\"Indeed! Whose, then?\"\n\n\"Well, I got the two dozen from a salesman in Covent Garden.\"\n\n\"Indeed? I know some of them. Which was it?\"\n\n\"Breckinridge is his name.\"\n\n\"Ah! I don't know him. Well, here's your good health landlord, and prosperity to your house. Good-night.\"\n\n\"Now for Mr. Breckinridge,\" he continued, buttoning up his coat as we came out into the frosty air. \"Remember, Watson that though we have so homely a thing as a goose at one end of this chain, we have at the other a man who will certainly get seven years' penal servitude unless we can establish his innocence. It is possible that our inquiry may but confirm his guilt; but, in any case, we have a line of investigation which has been missed by the police, and which a singular chance has placed in our hands. Let us follow it out to the bitter end. Faces to the south, then, and quick march!\"\n\nWe passed across Holborn, down Endell Street, and so through a zigzag of slums to Covent Garden Market. One of the largest stalls bore the name of Breckinridge upon it, and the proprietor a horsey-looking man, with a sharp face and trim side-whiskers was helping a boy to put up the shutters.\n\n\"Good-evening. It's a cold night,\" said Holmes.\n\nThe salesman nodded and shot a questioning glance at my companion.\n\n\"Sold out of geese, I see,\" continued Holmes, pointing at the bare slabs of marble.\n\n\"Let you have five hundred to-morrow morning.\"\n\n\"That's no good.\"\n\n\"Well, there are some on the stall with the gas-flare.\"\n\n\"Ah, but I was recommended to you.\"\n\n\"Who by?\"\n\n\"The landlord of the Alpha.\"\n\n\"Oh, yes; I sent him a couple of dozen.\"\n\n\"Fine birds they were, too. Now where did you get them from?\"\n\nTo my surprise the question provoked a burst of anger from the salesman.\n\n\"Now, then, mister,\" said he, with his head cocked and his arms akimbo, \"what are you driving at? Let's have it straight, now.\"\n\n\"It is straight enough. I should like to know who sold you the geese which you supplied to the Alpha.\"\n\n\"Well then, I shan't tell you. So now!\"\n\n\"Oh, it is a matter of no importance; but I don't know why you should be so warm over such a trifle.\"\n\n\"Warm! You'd be as warm, maybe, if you were as pestered as I am. When I pay good money for a good article there should be an end of the business; but it's 'Where are the geese?' and 'Who did you sell the geese to?' and 'What will you take for the geese?' One would think they were the only geese in the world, to hear the fuss that is made over them.\"\n\n\"Well, I have no connection with any other people who have been making inquiries,\" said Holmes carelessly. \"If you won't tell us the bet is off, that is all. But I'm always ready to back my opinion on a matter of fowls, and I have a fiver on it that the bird I ate is country bred.\"\n\n\"Well, then, you've lost your fiver, for it's town bred,\" snapped the salesman.\n\n\"It's nothing of the kind.\"\n\n\"I say it is.\"\n\n\"I don't believe it.\"\n\n\"D'you think you know more about fowls than I, who have handled them ever since I was a nipper? I tell you, all those birds that went to the Alpha were town bred.\"\n\n\"You'll never persuade me to believe that.\"\n\n\"Will you bet, then?\"\n\n\"It's merely taking your money, for I know that I am right. But I'll have a sovereign on with you, just to teach you not to be obstinate.\"\n\nThe salesman chuckled grimly. \"Bring me the books, Bill,\" said he.\n\nThe small boy brought round a small thin volume and a great greasy-backed one, laying them out together beneath the hanging lamp.\n\n\"Now then, Mr. Cocksure,\" said the salesman, \"I thought that I was out of geese, but before I finish you'll find that there is still one left in my shop. You see this little book?\"\n\n\"Well?\"\n\n\"That's the list of the folk from whom I buy. D'you see? Well, then, here on this page are the country folk, and the numbers after their names are where their accounts are in the big ledger. Now, then! You see this other page in red ink? Well, that is a list of my town suppliers. Now, look at that third name. Just read it out to me.\"\n\n\"Mrs. Oakshott, 117, Brixton Road--249,\" read Holmes.\n\n\"Quite so. Now turn that up in the ledger.\"\n\nHolmes turned to the page indicated. \"Here you are, 'Mrs. Oakshott, 117, Brixton Road, egg and poultry supplier.' \"\n\n\"Now, then, what's the last entry?\"\n\n\" 'December 22nd. Twenty-four geese at 7s. 6d.' \"\n\n\"Quite so. There you are. And underneath?\"\n\n\" 'Sold to Mr. Windigate of the Alpha, at 12s.' \"\n\n\"What have you to say now?\"\n\nSherlock Holmes looked deeply chagrined. He drew a sovereign from his pocket and threw it down upon the slab, turning away with the air of a man whose disgust is too deep for words. A few yards off he stopped under a lamp-post and laughed in the hearty, noiseless fashion which was peculiar to him.\n\n\"When you see a man with whiskers of that cut and the 'Pink 'un' protruding out of his pocket, you can always draw him by a bet,\" said he. \"I daresay that if I had put $100 down in front of him, that man would not have given me such complete information as was drawn from him by the idea that he was doing me on a wager. Well, Watson, we are, I fancy, nearing the end of our quest, and the only point which remains to be determined is whether we should go on to this Mrs. Oakshott to-night, or whether we should reserve it for to-morrow. It is clear from what that surly fellow said that there are others besides ourselves who are anxious about the matter, and I should--\"\n\nHis remarks were suddenly cut short by a loud hubbub which broke out from the stall which we had just left. Turning round we saw a little rat-faced fellow standing in the centre of the circle of yellow light which was thrown by the swinging lamp, while Breckinridge, the salesman, framed in the door of his stall, was shaking his fists fiercely at the cringing figure.\n\n\"I've had enough of you and your geese,\" he shouted. \"I wish you were all at the devil together. If you come pestering me any more with your silly talk I'll set the dog at you. You bring Mrs. Oakshott here and I'll answer her, but what have you to do with it? Did I buy the geese off you?\"\n\n\"No; but one of them was mine all the same,\" whined the little man.\n\n\"Well, then, ask Mrs. Oakshott for it.\"\n\n\"She told me to ask you.\"\n\n\"Well, you can ask the King of Proosia, for all I care. I've had enough of it. Get out of this!\" He rushed fiercely forward, and the inquirer flitted away into the darkness.\n\n\"Ha! this may save us a visit to Brixton Road,\" whispered Holmes. \"Come with me, and we will see what is to be made of this fellow.\" Striding through the scattered knots of people who lounged round the flaring stalls, my companion speedily overtook the little man and touched him upon the shoulder. He sprang round, and I could see in the gas-light that every vestige of colour had been driven from his face.\n\n\"Who are you, then? What do you want?\" he asked in a quavering voice.\n\n\"You will excuse me,\" said Holmes blandly, \"but I could not help overhearing the questions which you put to the salesman just now. I think that I could be of assistance to you.\"\n\n\"You? Who are you? How could you know anything of the matter?\"\n\n\"My name is Sherlock Holmes. It is my business to know what other people don't know.\"\n\n\"But you can know nothing of this?\"\n\n\"Excuse me, I know everything of it. You are endeavouring to trace some geese which were sold by Mrs. Oakshott, of Brixton Road, to a salesman named Breckinridge, by him in turn to Mr. Windigate, of the Alpha, and by him to his club, of which Mr. Henry Baker is a member.\"\n\n\"Oh, sir, you are the very man whom I have longed to meet,\" cried the little fellow with outstretched hands and quivering fingers. \"I can hardly explain to you how interested I am in this matter.\"\n\nSherlock Holmes hailed a four-wheeler which was passing. \"In that case we had better discuss it in a cosy room rather than in this wind-swept market-place,\" said he. \"But pray tell me, before we go farther, who it is that I have the pleasure of assisting.\"\n\nThe man hesitated for an instant. \"My name is John Robinson,\" he answered with a sidelong glance.\n\n\"No, no; the real name,\" said Holmes sweetly. \"It is always awkward doing business with an alias.\"\n\nA flush sprang to the white cheeks of the stranger. \"Well then,\" said he, \"my real name is James Ryder.\"\n\n\"Precisely so. Head attendant at the Hotel Cosmopolitan. Pray step into the cab, and I shall soon be able to tell you everything which you would wish to know.\"\n\nThe little man stood glancing from one to the other of us with half-frightened, half-hopeful eyes, as one who is not sure whether he is on the verge of a windfall or of a catastrophe. Then he stepped into the cab, and in half an hour we were back in the sitting-room at Baker Street. Nothing had been said during our drive, but the high, thin breathing of our new companion, and the claspings and unclaspings of his hands, spoke of the nervous tension within him.\n\n\"Here we are!\" said Holmes cheerily as we filed into the room. \"The fire looks very seasonable in this weather. You look cold, Mr. Ryder. Pray take the basket-chair. I will just put on my slippers before we settle this little matter of yours. Now, then! You want to know what became of those geese?\"\n\n\"Yes, sir.\"\n\n\"Or rather, I fancy, of that goose. It was one bird, I imagine in which you were interested--white, with a black bar across the tail.\"\n\nRyder quivered with emotion. \"Oh, sir,\" he cried, \"can you tell me where it went to?\"\n\n\"It came here.\"\n\n\"Here?\"\n\n\"Yes, and a most remarkable bird it proved. I don't wonder that you should take an interest in it. It laid an egg after it was dead--the bonniest, brightest little blue egg that ever was seen. I have it here in my museum.\"\n\nOur visitor staggered to his feet and clutched the mantelpiece with his right hand. Holmes unlocked his strong-box and held up the blue carbuncle, which shone out like a star, with a cold, brilliant, many-pointed radiance. Ryder stood glaring with a drawn face, uncertain whether to claim or to disown it.\n\n\"The game's up, Ryder,\" said Holmes quietly. \"Hold up, man, or you'll be into the fire! Give him an arm back into his chair, Watson. He's not got blood enough to go in for felony with impunity. Give him a dash of brandy. So! Now he looks a little more human. What a shrimp it is, to be sure!\"\n\nFor a moment he had staggered and nearly fallen, but the brandy brought a tinge of colour into his cheeks, and he sat staring with frightened eyes at his accuser.\n\n\"I have almost every link in my hands, and all the proofs which I could possibly need, so there is little which you need tell me. Still, that little may as well be cleared up to make the case complete. You had heard, Ryder, of this blue stone of the Countess of Morcar's?\"\n\n\"It was Catherine Cusack who told me of it,\" said he in a crackling voice.\n\n\"I see--her ladyship's waiting-maid. Well, the temptation of sudden wealth so easily acquired was too much for you, as it has been for better men before you; but you were not very scrupulous in the means you used. It seems to me, Ryder, that there is the making of a very pretty villain in you. You knew that this man Horner, the plumber, had been concerned in some such matter before, and that suspicion would rest the more readily upon him. What did you do, then? You made some small job in my lady's room--you and your confederate Cusack--and you managed that he should be the man sent for. Then, when he had left, you rifled the jewel-case, raised the alarm, and had this unfortunate man arrested. You then--\"\n\nRyder threw himself down suddenly upon the rug and clutched at my companion's knees. \"For God's sake, have mercy!\" he shrieked. \"Think of my father! Of my mother! It would break their hearts. I never went wrong before! I never will again. I swear it. I'll swear it on a Bible. Oh, don't bring it into court! For Christ's sake, don't!\"\n\n\"Get back into your chair!\" said Holmes sternly. \"It is very well to cringe and crawl now, but you thought little enough of this poor Horner in the dock for a crime of which he knew nothing.\"\n\n\"I will fly, Mr. Holmes. I will leave the country, sir. Then the charge against him will break down.\"\n\n\"Hum! We will talk about that. And now let us hear a true account of the next act. How came the stone into the goose, and how came the goose into the open market? Tell us the truth, for there lies your only hope of safety.\"\n\nRyder passed his tongue over his parched lips. \"I will tell you it just as it happened, sir,\" said he. \"When Horner had been arrested, it seemed to me that it would be best for me to get away with the stone at once, for I did not know at what moment the police might not take it into their heads to search me and my room. There was no place about the hotel where it would be safe. I went out, as if on some commission, and I made for my sister's house. She had married a man named Oakshott, and lived in Brixton Road, where she fattened fowls for the market. All the way there every man I met seemed to me to be a policeman or a detective; and, for all that it was a cold night, the sweat was pouring down my face before I came to the Brixton Road. My sister asked me what was the matter, and why I was so pale; but I told her that I had been upset by the jewel robbery at the hotel. Then I went into the back yard and smoked a pipe and wondered what it would be best to do.\n\n\"I had a friend once called Maudsley, who went to the bad, and has just been serving his time in Pentonville. One day he had met me, and fell into talk about the ways of thieves, and how they could get rid of what they stole. I knew that he would be true to me, for I knew one or two things about him; so I made up my mind to go right on to Kilburn, where he lived, and take him into my confidence. He would show me how to turn the stone into money. But how to get to him in safety? I thought of the agonies I had gone through in coming from the hotel. I might at any moment be seized and searched, and there would be the stone in my waistcoat pocket. I was leaning against the wall at the time and looking at the geese which were waddling about round my feet, and suddenly an idea came into my head which showed me how I could beat the best detective that ever lived.\n\n\"My sister had told me some weeks before that I might have the pick of her geese for a Christmas present, and I knew that she was always as good as her word. I would take my goose now, and in it I would carry my stone to Kilburn. There was a little shed in the yard, and behind this I drove one of the birds--a fine big one, white, with a barred tail. I caught it, and prying its bill open, I thrust the stone down its throat as far as my finger could reach. The bird gave a gulp, and I felt the stone pass along its gullet and down into its crop. But the creature flapped and struggled, and out came my sister to know what was the matter. As I turned to speak to her the brute broke loose and fluttered off among the others.\n\n\" 'Whatever were you doing with that bird, Jem?' says she.\n\n\" 'Well,' said I, 'you said you'd give me one for Christmas, and I was feeling which was the fattest.'\n\n\" 'Oh,' says she, 'we've set yours aside for you--Jem's bird, we call it. It's the big white one over yonder. There's twenty-six of them, which makes one for you, and one for us, and two dozen for the market.'\n\n\" 'Thank you, Maggie,' says I; 'but if it is all the same to you, I'd rather have that one I was handling just now.'\n\n\" 'The other is a good three pound heavier,' said she, 'and we fattened it expressly for you.'\n\n\" 'Never mind. I'll have the other, and I'll take it now,' said I.\n\n\" 'Oh, just as you like,' said she, a little huffed. 'Which is it you want, then?'\n\n\" 'That white one with the barred tail, right in the middle of the flock.'\n\n\" 'Oh, very well. Kill it and take it with you.'\n\n\"Well, I did what she said, Mr. Holmes, and I carried the bird all the way to Kilburn. I told my pal what I had done, for he was a man that it was easy to tell a thing like that to. He laughed until he choked, and we got a knife and opened the goose. My heart turned to water, for there was no sign of the stone, and I knew that some terrible mistake had occurred. I left the bird, rushed back to my sister's, and hurried into the back yard. There was not a bird to be seen there.\n\n\" 'Where are they all, Maggie?' I cried.\n\n\" 'Gone to the dealer's, Jem.'\n\n\" 'Which dealer's?'\n\n\" 'Breckinridge, of Covent Garden.'\n\n\" 'But was there another with a barred tail?' I asked, 'the same as the one I chose?'\n\n\" 'Yes, Jem; there were two barred-tailed ones, and I could never tell them apart.'\n\n\"Well, then, of course I saw it all, and I ran off as hard as my feet would carry me to this man Breckinridge; but he had sold the lot at once, and not one word would he tell me as to where they had gone. You heard him yourselves to-night. Well, he has always answered me like that. My sister thinks that I am going mad. Sometimes I think that I am myself. And now--and now I am myself a branded thief, without ever having touched the wealth for which I sold my character. God help me! God help me!\" He burst into convulsive sobbing, with his face buried in his hands.\n\nThere was a long silence, broken only by his heavy breathing and by the measured tapping of Sherlock Holmes' finger-tips upon the edge of the table. Then my friend rose and threw open the door.\n\n\"Get out!\" said he.\n\n\"What, sir! Oh, Heaven bless you!\"\n\n\"No more words. Get out!\"\n\nAnd no more words were needed. There was a rush, a clatter upon the stairs, the bang of a door, and the crisp rattle of running footfalls from the street.\n\n\"After all, Watson,\" said Holmes, reaching up his hand for his clay pipe, \"I am not retained by the police to supply their deficiencies. If Horner were in danger it would be another thing; but this fellow will not appear against him, and the case must collapse. I suppose that I am commuting a felony, but it is just possible that I am saving a soul. This fellow will not go wrong again; he is too terribly frightened. Send him to gaol now, and you make him a gaol-bird for life. Besides, it is the season of forgiveness. Chance has put in our way a most singular and whimsical problem, and its solution is its own reward. If you will have the goodness to touch the bell, Doctor, we will begin another investigation, in which, also a bird will be the chief feature.\"\n\nVIII. THE ADVENTURE OF THE SPECKLED BAND\n\n\nOn glancing over my notes of the seventy odd cases in which I have during the last eight years studied the methods of my friend Sherlock Holmes, I find many tragic, some comic, a large number merely strange, but none commonplace; for, working as he did rather for the love of his art than for the acquirement of wealth, he refused to associate himself with any investigation which did not tend towards the unusual, and even the fantastic. Of all these varied cases, however, I cannot recall any which presented more singular features than that which was associated with the well-known Surrey family of the Roylotts of Stoke Moran. The events in question occurred in the early days of my association with Holmes, when we were sharing rooms as bachelors in Baker Street. It is possible that I might have placed them upon record before, but a promise of secrecy was made at the time, from which I have only been freed during the last month by the untimely death of the lady to whom the pledge was given. It is perhaps as well that the facts should now come to light, for I have reasons to know that there are widespread rumours as to the death of Dr. Grimesby Roylott which tend to make the matter even more terrible than the truth.\n\nIt was early in April in the year '83 that I woke one morning to find Sherlock Holmes standing, fully dressed, by the side of my bed. He was a late riser, as a rule, and as the clock on the mantelpiece showed me that it was only a quarter-past seven, I blinked up at him in some surprise, and perhaps just a little resentment, for I was myself regular in my habits.\n\n\"Very sorry to knock you up, Watson,\" said he, \"but it's the common lot this morning. Mrs. Hudson has been knocked up, she retorted upon me, and I on you.\"\n\n\"What is it, then--a fire?\"\n\n\"No; a client. It seems that a young lady has arrived in a considerable state of excitement, who insists upon seeing me. She is waiting now in the sitting-room. Now, when young ladies wander about the metropolis at this hour of the morning, and knock sleepy people up out of their beds, I presume that it is something very pressing which they have to communicate. Should it prove to be an interesting case, you would, I am sure, wish to follow it from the outset. I thought, at any rate, that I should call you and give you the chance.\"\n\n\"My dear fellow, I would not miss it for anything.\"\n\nI had no keener pleasure than in following Holmes in his professional investigations, and in admiring the rapid deductions, as swift as intuitions, and yet always founded on a logical basis with which he unravelled the problems which were submitted to him. I rapidly threw on my clothes and was ready in a few minutes to accompany my friend down to the sitting-room. A lady dressed in black and heavily veiled, who had been sitting in the window, rose as we entered.\n\n\"Good-morning, madam,\" said Holmes cheerily. \"My name is Sherlock Holmes. This is my intimate friend and associate, Dr. Watson, before whom you can speak as freely as before myself. Ha! I am glad to see that Mrs. Hudson has had the good sense to light the fire. Pray draw up to it, and I shall order you a cup of hot coffee, for I observe that you are shivering.\"\n\n\"It is not cold which makes me shiver,\" said the woman in a low voice, changing her seat as requested.\n\n\"What, then?\"\n\n\"It is fear, Mr. Holmes. It is terror.\" She raised her veil as she spoke, and we could see that she was indeed in a pitiable state of agitation, her face all drawn and grey, with restless frightened eyes, like those of some hunted animal. Her features and figure were those of a woman of thirty, but her hair was shot with premature grey, and her expression was weary and haggard. Sherlock Holmes ran her over with one of his quick, all-comprehensive glances.\n\n\"You must not fear,\" said he soothingly, bending forward and patting her forearm. \"We shall soon set matters right, I have no doubt. You have come in by train this morning, I see.\"\n\n\"You know me, then?\"\n\n\"No, but I observe the second half of a return ticket in the palm of your left glove. You must have started early, and yet you had a good drive in a dog-cart, along heavy roads, before you reached the station.\"\n\nThe lady gave a violent start and stared in bewilderment at my companion.\n\n\"There is no mystery, my dear madam,\" said he, smiling. \"The left arm of your jacket is spattered with mud in no less than seven places. The marks are perfectly fresh. There is no vehicle save a dog-cart which throws up mud in that way, and then only when you sit on the left-hand side of the driver.\"\n\n\"Whatever your reasons may be, you are perfectly correct,\" said she. \"I started from home before six, reached Leatherhead at twenty past, and came in by the first train to Waterloo. Sir, I can stand this strain no longer; I shall go mad if it continues. I have no one to turn to--none, save only one, who cares for me, and he, poor fellow, can be of little aid. I have heard of you, Mr. Holmes; I have heard of you from Mrs. Farintosh, whom you helped in the hour of her sore need. It was from her that I had your address. Oh, sir, do you not think that you could help me, too, and at least throw a little light through the dense darkness which surrounds me? At present it is out of my power to reward you for your services, but in a month or six weeks I shall be married, with the control of my own income, and then at least you shall not find me ungrateful.\"\n\nHolmes turned to his desk and, unlocking it, drew out a small case-book, which he consulted.\n\n\"Farintosh,\" said he. \"Ah yes, I recall the case; it was concerned with an opal tiara. I think it was before your time, Watson. I can only say, madam, that I shall be happy to devote the same care to your case as I did to that of your friend. As to reward, my profession is its own reward; but you are at liberty to defray whatever expenses I may be put to, at the time which suits you best. And now I beg that you will lay before us everything that may help us in forming an opinion upon the matter.\"\n\n\"Alas!\" replied our visitor, \"the very horror of my situation lies in the fact that my fears are so vague, and my suspicions depend so entirely upon small points, which might seem trivial to another, that even he to whom of all others I have a right to look for help and advice looks upon all that I tell him about it as the fancies of a nervous woman. He does not say so, but I can read it from his soothing answers and averted eyes. But I have heard, Mr. Holmes, that you can see deeply into the manifold wickedness of the human heart. You may advise me how to walk amid the dangers which encompass me.\"\n\n\"I am all attention, madam.\"\n\n\"My name is Helen Stoner, and I am living with my stepfather, who is the last survivor of one of the oldest Saxon families in England, the Roylotts of Stoke Moran, on the western border of Surrey.\"\n\nHolmes nodded his head. \"The name is familiar to me,\" said he.\n\n\"The family was at one time among the richest in England, and the estates extended over the borders into Berkshire in the north, and Hampshire in the west. In the last century, however, four successive heirs were of a dissolute and wasteful disposition, and the family ruin was eventually completed by a gambler in the days of the Regency. Nothing was left save a few acres of ground, and the two-hundred-year-old house, which is itself crushed under a heavy mortgage. The last squire dragged out his existence there, living the horrible life of an aristocratic pauper; but his only son, my stepfather, seeing that he must adapt himself to the new conditions, obtained an advance from a relative, which enabled him to take a medical degree and went out to Calcutta, where, by his professional skill and his force of character, he established a large practice. In a fit of anger, however, caused by some robberies which had been perpetrated in the house, he beat his native butler to death and narrowly escaped a capital sentence. As it was, he suffered a long term of imprisonment and afterwards returned to England a morose and disappointed man.\n\n\"When Dr. Roylott was in India he married my mother, Mrs. Stoner, the young widow of Major-General Stoner, of the Bengal Artillery. My sister Julia and I were twins, and we were only two years old at the time of my mother's re-marriage. She had a considerable sum of money--not less than $1000 a year--and this she bequeathed to Dr. Roylott entirely while we resided with him, with a provision that a certain annual sum should be allowed to each of us in the event of our marriage. Shortly after our return to England my mother died--she was killed eight years ago in a railway accident near Crewe. Dr. Roylott then abandoned his attempts to establish himself in practice in London and took us to live with him in the old ancestral house at Stoke Moran. The money which my mother had left was enough for all our wants, and there seemed to be no obstacle to our happiness.\n\n\"But a terrible change came over our stepfather about this time. Instead of making friends and exchanging visits with our neighbours, who had at first been overjoyed to see a Roylott of Stoke Moran back in the old family seat, he shut himself up in his house and seldom came out save to indulge in ferocious quarrels with whoever might cross his path. Violence of temper approaching to mania has been hereditary in the men of the family, and in my stepfather's case it had, I believe, been intensified by his long residence in the tropics. A series of disgraceful brawls took place, two of which ended in the police-court, until at last he became the terror of the village, and the folks would fly at his approach, for he is a man of immense strength, and absolutely uncontrollable in his anger.\n\n\"Last week he hurled the local blacksmith over a parapet into a stream, and it was only by paying over all the money which I could gather together that I was able to avert another public exposure. He had no friends at all save the wandering gipsies, and he would give these vagabonds leave to encamp upon the few acres of bramble-covered land which represent the family estate, and would accept in return the hospitality of their tents, wandering away with them sometimes for weeks on end. He has a passion also for Indian animals, which are sent over to him by a correspondent, and he has at this moment a cheetah and a baboon, which wander freely over his grounds and are feared by the villagers almost as much as their master.\n\n\"You can imagine from what I say that my poor sister Julia and I had no great pleasure in our lives. No servant would stay with us, and for a long time we did all the work of the house. She was but thirty at the time of her death, and yet her hair had already begun to whiten, even as mine has.\"\n\n\"Your sister is dead, then?\"\n\n\"She died just two years ago, and it is of her death that I wish to speak to you. You can understand that, living the life which I have described, we were little likely to see anyone of our own age and position. We had, however, an aunt, my mother's maiden sister, Miss Honoria Westphail, who lives near Harrow, and we were occasionally allowed to pay short visits at this lady's house. Julia went there at Christmas two years ago, and met there a half-pay major of marines, to whom she became engaged. My stepfather learned of the engagement when my sister returned and offered no objection to the marriage; but within a fortnight of the day which had been fixed for the wedding, the terrible event occurred which has deprived me of my only companion.\"\n\nSherlock Holmes had been leaning back in his chair with his eyes closed and his head sunk in a cushion, but he half opened his lids now and glanced across at his visitor.\n\n\"Pray be precise as to details,\" said he.\n\n\"It is easy for me to be so, for every event of that dreadful time is seared into my memory. The manor-house is, as I have already said, very old, and only one wing is now inhabited. The bedrooms in this wing are on the ground floor, the sitting-rooms being in the central block of the buildings. Of these bedrooms the first is Dr. Roylott's, the second my sister's, and the third my own. There is no communication between them, but they all open out into the same corridor. Do I make myself plain?\"\n\n\"Perfectly so.\"\n\n\"The windows of the three rooms open out upon the lawn. That fatal night Dr. Roylott had gone to his room early, though we knew that he had not retired to rest, for my sister was troubled by the smell of the strong Indian cigars which it was his custom to smoke. She left her room, therefore, and came into mine, where she sat for some time, chatting about her approaching wedding. At eleven o'clock she rose to leave me, but she paused at the door and looked back.\n\n\" 'Tell me, Helen,' said she, 'have you ever heard anyone whistle in the dead of the night?'\n\n\" 'Never,' said I.\n\n\" 'I suppose that you could not possibly whistle, yourself, in your sleep?'\n\n\" 'Certainly not. But why?'\n\n\" 'Because during the last few nights I have always, about three in the morning, heard a low, clear whistle. I am a light sleeper, and it has awakened me. I cannot tell where it came from--perhaps from the next room, perhaps from the lawn. I thought that I would just ask you whether you had heard it.'\n\n\" 'No, I have not. It must be those wretched gipsies in the plantation.'\n\n\" 'Very likely. And yet if it were on the lawn, I wonder that you did not hear it also.'\n\n\" 'Ah, but I sleep more heavily than you.'\n\n\" 'Well, it is of no great consequence, at any rate.' She smiled back at me, closed my door, and a few moments later I heard her key turn in the lock.\"\n\n\"Indeed,\" said Holmes. \"Was it your custom always to lock yourselves in at night?\"\n\n\"Always.\"\n\n\"And why?\"\n\n\"I think that I mentioned to you that the doctor kept a cheetah and a baboon. We had no feeling of security unless our doors were locked.\"\n\n\"Quite so. Pray proceed with your statement.\"\n\n\"I could not sleep that night. A vague feeling of impending misfortune impressed me. My sister and I, you will recollect, were twins, and you know how subtle are the links which bind two souls which are so closely allied. It was a wild night. The wind was howling outside, and the rain was beating and splashing against the windows. Suddenly, amid all the hubbub of the gale, there burst forth the wild scream of a terrified woman. I knew that it was my sister's voice. I sprang from my bed, wrapped a shawl round me, and rushed into the corridor. As I opened my door I seemed to hear a low whistle, such as my sister described, and a few moments later a clanging sound, as if a mass of metal had fallen. As I ran down the passage, my sister's door was unlocked, and revolved slowly upon its hinges. I stared at it horror-stricken, not knowing what was about to issue from it. By the light of the corridor-lamp I saw my sister appear at the opening, her face blanched with terror, her hands groping for help, her whole figure swaying to and fro like that of a drunkard. I ran to her and threw my arms round her, but at that moment her knees seemed to give way and she fell to the ground. She writhed as one who is in terrible pain, and her limbs were dreadfully convulsed. At first I thought that she had not recognised me, but as I bent over her she suddenly shrieked out in a voice which I shall never forget, 'Oh, my God! Helen! It was the band! The speckled band!' There was something else which she would fain have said, and she stabbed with her finger into the air in the direction of the doctor's room, but a fresh convulsion seized her and choked her words. I rushed out, calling loudly for my stepfather, and I met him hastening from his room in his dressing-gown. When he reached my sister's side she was unconscious, and though he poured brandy down her throat and sent for medical aid from the village, all efforts were in vain, for she slowly sank and died without having recovered her consciousness. Such was the dreadful end of my beloved sister.\"\n\n\"One moment,\" said Holmes, \"are you sure about this whistle and metallic sound? Could you swear to it?\"\n\n\"That was what the county coroner asked me at the inquiry. It is my strong impression that I heard it, and yet, among the crash of the gale and the creaking of an old house, I may possibly have been deceived.\"\n\n\"Was your sister dressed?\"\n\n\"No, she was in her night-dress. In her right hand was found the charred stump of a match, and in her left a match-box.\"\n\n\"Showing that she had struck a light and looked about her when the alarm took place. That is important. And what conclusions did the coroner come to?\"\n\n\"He investigated the case with great care, for Dr. Roylott's conduct had long been notorious in the county, but he was unable to find any satisfactory cause of death. My evidence showed that the door had been fastened upon the inner side, and the windows were blocked by old-fashioned shutters with broad iron bars, which were secured every night. The walls were carefully sounded, and were shown to be quite solid all round, and the flooring was also thoroughly examined, with the same result. The chimney is wide, but is barred up by four large staples. It is certain, therefore, that my sister was quite alone when she met her end. Besides, there were no marks of any violence upon her.\"\n\n\"How about poison?\"\n\n\"The doctors examined her for it, but without success.\"\n\n\"What do you think that this unfortunate lady died of, then?\"\n\n\"It is my belief that she died of pure fear and nervous shock, though what it was that frightened her I cannot imagine.\"\n\n\"Were there gipsies in the plantation at the time?\"\n\n\"Yes, there are nearly always some there.\"\n\n\"Ah, and what did you gather from this allusion to a band--a speckled band?\"\n\n\"Sometimes I have thought that it was merely the wild talk of delirium, sometimes that it may have referred to some band of people, perhaps to these very gipsies in the plantation. I do not know whether the spotted handkerchiefs which so many of them wear over their heads might have suggested the strange adjective which she used.\"\n\nHolmes shook his head like a man who is far from being satisfied.\n\n\"These are very deep waters,\" said he; \"pray go on with your narrative.\"\n\n\"Two years have passed since then, and my life has been until lately lonelier than ever. A month ago, however, a dear friend, whom I have known for many years, has done me the honour to ask my hand in marriage. His name is Armitage--Percy Armitage--the second son of Mr. Armitage, of Crane Water, near Reading. My stepfather has offered no opposition to the match, and we are to be married in the course of the spring. Two days ago some repairs were started in the west wing of the building, and my bedroom wall has been pierced, so that I have had to move into the chamber in which my sister died, and to sleep in the very bed in which she slept. Imagine, then, my thrill of terror when last night, as I lay awake, thinking over her terrible fate, I suddenly heard in the silence of the night the low whistle which had been the herald of her own death. I sprang up and lit the lamp, but nothing was to be seen in the room. I was too shaken to go to bed again, however, so I dressed, and as soon as it was daylight I slipped down, got a dog-cart at the Crown Inn, which is opposite, and drove to Leatherhead, from whence I have come on this morning with the one object of seeing you and asking your advice.\"\n\n\"You have done wisely,\" said my friend. \"But have you told me all?\"\n\n\"Yes, all.\"\n\n\"Miss Roylott, you have not. You are screening your stepfather.\"\n\n\"Why, what do you mean?\"\n\nFor answer Holmes pushed back the frill of black lace which fringed the hand that lay upon our visitor's knee. Five little livid spots, the marks of four fingers and a thumb, were printed upon the white wrist.\n\n\"You have been cruelly used,\" said Holmes.\n\nThe lady coloured deeply and covered over her injured wrist. \"He is a hard man,\" she said, \"and perhaps he hardly knows his own strength.\"\n\nThere was a long silence, during which Holmes leaned his chin upon his hands and stared into the crackling fire.\n\n\"This is a very deep business,\" he said at last. \"There are a thousand details which I should desire to know before I decide upon our course of action. Yet we have not a moment to lose. If we were to come to Stoke Moran to-day, would it be possible for us to see over these rooms without the knowledge of your stepfather?\"\n\n\"As it happens, he spoke of coming into town to-day upon some most important business. It is probable that he will be away all day, and that there would be nothing to disturb you. We have a housekeeper now, but she is old and foolish, and I could easily get her out of the way.\"\n\n\"Excellent. You are not averse to this trip, Watson?\"\n\n\"By no means.\"\n\n\"Then we shall both come. What are you going to do yourself?\"\n\n\"I have one or two things which I would wish to do now that I am in town. But I shall return by the twelve o'clock train, so as to be there in time for your coming.\"\n\n\"And you may expect us early in the afternoon. I have myself some small business matters to attend to. Will you not wait and breakfast?\"\n\n\"No, I must go. My heart is lightened already since I have confided my trouble to you. I shall look forward to seeing you again this afternoon.\" She dropped her thick black veil over her face and glided from the room.\n\n\"And what do you think of it all, Watson?\" asked Sherlock Holmes, leaning back in his chair.\n\n\"It seems to me to be a most dark and sinister business.\"\n\n\"Dark enough and sinister enough.\"\n\n\"Yet if the lady is correct in saying that the flooring and walls are sound, and that the door, window, and chimney are impassable, then her sister must have been undoubtedly alone when she met her mysterious end.\"\n\n\"What becomes, then, of these nocturnal whistles, and what of the very peculiar words of the dying woman?\"\n\n\"I cannot think.\"\n\n\"When you combine the ideas of whistles at night, the presence of a band of gipsies who are on intimate terms with this old doctor, the fact that we have every reason to believe that the doctor has an interest in preventing his stepdaughter's marriage, the dying allusion to a band, and, finally, the fact that Miss Helen Stoner heard a metallic clang, which might have been caused by one of those metal bars that secured the shutters falling back into its place, I think that there is good ground to think that the mystery may be cleared along those lines.\"\n\n\"But what, then, did the gipsies do?\"\n\n\"I cannot imagine.\"\n\n\"I see many objections to any such theory.\"\n\n\"And so do I. It is precisely for that reason that we are going to Stoke Moran this day. I want to see whether the objections are fatal, or if they may be explained away. But what in the name of the devil!\"\n\nThe ejaculation had been drawn from my companion by the fact that our door had been suddenly dashed open, and that a huge man had framed himself in the aperture. His costume was a peculiar mixture of the professional and of the agricultural, having a black top-hat, a long frock-coat, and a pair of high gaiters, with a hunting-crop swinging in his hand. So tall was he that his hat actually brushed the cross bar of the doorway, and his breadth seemed to span it across from side to side. A large face, seared with a thousand wrinkles, burned yellow with the sun, and marked with every evil passion, was turned from one to the other of us, while his deep-set, bile-shot eyes, and his high, thin, fleshless nose, gave him somewhat the resemblance to a fierce old bird of prey.\n\n\"Which of you is Holmes?\" asked this apparition.\n\n\"My name, sir; but you have the advantage of me,\" said my companion quietly.\n\n\"I am Dr. Grimesby Roylott, of Stoke Moran.\"\n\n\"Indeed, Doctor,\" said Holmes blandly. \"Pray take a seat.\"\n\n\"I will do nothing of the kind. My stepdaughter has been here. I have traced her. What has she been saying to you?\"\n\n\"It is a little cold for the time of the year,\" said Holmes.\n\n\"What has she been saying to you?\" screamed the old man furiously.\n\n\"But I have heard that the crocuses promise well,\" continued my companion imperturbably.\n\n\"Ha! You put me off, do you?\" said our new visitor, taking a step forward and shaking his hunting-crop. \"I know you, you scoundrel! I have heard of you before. You are Holmes, the meddler.\"\n\nMy friend smiled.\n\n\"Holmes, the busybody!\"\n\nHis smile broadened.\n\n\"Holmes, the Scotland Yard Jack-in-office!\"\n\nHolmes chuckled heartily. \"Your conversation is most entertaining,\" said he. \"When you go out close the door, for there is a decided draught.\"\n\n\"I will go when I have said my say. Don't you dare to meddle with my affairs. I know that Miss Stoner has been here. I traced her! I am a dangerous man to fall foul of! See here.\" He stepped swiftly forward, seized the poker, and bent it into a curve with his huge brown hands.\n\n\"See that you keep yourself out of my grip,\" he snarled, and hurling the twisted poker into the fireplace he strode out of the room.\n\n\"He seems a very amiable person,\" said Holmes, laughing. \"I am not quite so bulky, but if he had remained I might have shown him that my grip was not much more feeble than his own.\" As he spoke he picked up the steel poker and, with a sudden effort, straightened it out again.\n\n\"Fancy his having the insolence to confound me with the official detective force! This incident gives zest to our investigation, however, and I only trust that our little friend will not suffer from her imprudence in allowing this brute to trace her. And now, Watson, we shall order breakfast, and afterwards I shall walk down to Doctors' Commons, where I hope to get some data which may help us in this matter.\"\n\nIt was nearly one o'clock when Sherlock Holmes returned from his excursion. He held in his hand a sheet of blue paper, scrawled over with notes and figures.\n\n\"I have seen the will of the deceased wife,\" said he. \"To determine its exact meaning I have been obliged to work out the present prices of the investments with which it is concerned. The total income, which at the time of the wife's death was little short of $1100, is now, through the fall in agricultural prices, not more than $750. Each daughter can claim an income of $250, in case of marriage. It is evident, therefore, that if both girls had married, this beauty would have had a mere pittance, while even one of them would cripple him to a very serious extent. My morning's work has not been wasted, since it has proved that he has the very strongest motives for standing in the way of anything of the sort. And now, Watson, this is too serious for dawdling, especially as the old man is aware that we are interesting ourselves in his affairs; so if you are ready, we shall call a cab and drive to Waterloo. I should be very much obliged if you would slip your revolver into your pocket. An Eley's No. 2 is an excellent argument with gentlemen who can twist steel pokers into knots. That and a tooth-brush are, I think, all that we need.\"\n\nAt Waterloo we were fortunate in catching a train for Leatherhead, where we hired a trap at the station inn and drove for four or five miles through the lovely Surrey lanes. It was a perfect day, with a bright sun and a few fleecy clouds in the heavens. The trees and wayside hedges were just throwing out their first green shoots, and the air was full of the pleasant smell of the moist earth. To me at least there was a strange contrast between the sweet promise of the spring and this sinister quest upon which we were engaged. My companion sat in the front of the trap, his arms folded, his hat pulled down over his eyes, and his chin sunk upon his breast, buried in the deepest thought. Suddenly, however, he started, tapped me on the shoulder, and pointed over the meadows.\n\n\"Look there!\" said he.\n\nA heavily timbered park stretched up in a gentle slope, thickening into a grove at the highest point. From amid the branches there jutted out the grey gables and high roof-tree of a very old mansion.\n\n\"Stoke Moran?\" said he.\n\n\"Yes, sir, that be the house of Dr. Grimesby Roylott,\" remarked the driver.\n\n\"There is some building going on there,\" said Holmes; \"that is where we are going.\"\n\n\"There's the village,\" said the driver, pointing to a cluster of roofs some distance to the left; \"but if you want to get to the house, you'll find it shorter to get over this stile, and so by the foot-path over the fields. There it is, where the lady is walking.\"\n\n\"And the lady, I fancy, is Miss Stoner,\" observed Holmes, shading his eyes. \"Yes, I think we had better do as you suggest.\"\n\nWe got off, paid our fare, and the trap rattled back on its way to Leatherhead.\n\n\"I thought it as well,\" said Holmes as we climbed the stile, \"that this fellow should think we had come here as architects, or on some definite business. It may stop his gossip. Good-afternoon, Miss Stoner. You see that we have been as good as our word.\"\n\nOur client of the morning had hurried forward to meet us with a face which spoke her joy. \"I have been waiting so eagerly for you,\" she cried, shaking hands with us warmly. \"All has turned out splendidly. Dr. Roylott has gone to town, and it is unlikely that he will be back before evening.\"\n\n\"We have had the pleasure of making the doctor's acquaintance,\" said Holmes, and in a few words he sketched out what had occurred. Miss Stoner turned white to the lips as she listened.\n\n\"Good heavens!\" she cried, \"he has followed me, then.\"\n\n\"So it appears.\"\n\n\"He is so cunning that I never know when I am safe from him. What will he say when he returns?\"\n\n\"He must guard himself, for he may find that there is someone more cunning than himself upon his track. You must lock yourself up from him to-night. If he is violent, we shall take you away to your aunt's at Harrow. Now, we must make the best use of our time, so kindly take us at once to the rooms which we are to examine.\"\n\nThe building was of grey, lichen-blotched stone, with a high central portion and two curving wings, like the claws of a crab, thrown out on each side. In one of these wings the windows were broken and blocked with wooden boards, while the roof was partly caved in, a picture of ruin. The central portion was in little better repair, but the right-hand block was comparatively modern, and the blinds in the windows, with the blue smoke curling up from the chimneys, showed that this was where the family resided. Some scaffolding had been erected against the end wall, and the stone-work had been broken into, but there were no signs of any workmen at the moment of our visit. Holmes walked slowly up and down the ill-trimmed lawn and examined with deep attention the outsides of the windows.\n\n\"This, I take it, belongs to the room in which you used to sleep, the centre one to your sister's, and the one next to the main building to Dr. Roylott's chamber?\"\n\n\"Exactly so. But I am now sleeping in the middle one.\"\n\n\"Pending the alterations, as I understand. By the way, there does not seem to be any very pressing need for repairs at that end wall.\"\n\n\"There were none. I believe that it was an excuse to move me from my room.\"\n\n\"Ah! that is suggestive. Now, on the other side of this narrow wing runs the corridor from which these three rooms open. There are windows in it, of course?\"\n\n\"Yes, but very small ones. Too narrow for anyone to pass through.\"\n\n\"As you both locked your doors at night, your rooms were unapproachable from that side. Now, would you have the kindness to go into your room and bar your shutters?\"\n\nMiss Stoner did so, and Holmes, after a careful examination through the open window, endeavoured in every way to force the shutter open, but without success. There was no slit through which a knife could be passed to raise the bar. Then with his lens he tested the hinges, but they were of solid iron, built firmly into the massive masonry. \"Hum!\" said he, scratching his chin in some perplexity, \"my theory certainly presents some difficulties. No one could pass these shutters if they were bolted. Well, we shall see if the inside throws any light upon the matter.\"\n\nA small side door led into the whitewashed corridor from which the three bedrooms opened. Holmes refused to examine the third chamber, so we passed at once to the second, that in which Miss Stoner was now sleeping, and in which her sister had met with her fate. It was a homely little room, with a low ceiling and a gaping fireplace, after the fashion of old country-houses. A brown chest of drawers stood in one corner, a narrow white-counterpaned bed in another, and a dressing-table on the left-hand side of the window. These articles, with two small wicker-work chairs, made up all the furniture in the room save for a square of Wilton carpet in the centre. The boards round and the panelling of the walls were of brown, worm-eaten oak, so old and discoloured that it may have dated from the original building of the house. Holmes drew one of the chairs into a corner and sat silent, while his eyes travelled round and round and up and down, taking in every detail of the apartment.\n\n\"Where does that bell communicate with?\" he asked at last pointing to a thick bell-rope which hung down beside the bed, the tassel actually lying upon the pillow.\n\n\"It goes to the housekeeper's room.\"\n\n\"It looks newer than the other things?\"\n\n\"Yes, it was only put there a couple of years ago.\"\n\n\"Your sister asked for it, I suppose?\"\n\n\"No, I never heard of her using it. We used always to get what we wanted for ourselves.\"\n\n\"Indeed, it seemed unnecessary to put so nice a bell-pull there. You will excuse me for a few minutes while I satisfy myself as to this floor.\" He threw himself down upon his face with his lens in his hand and crawled swiftly backward and forward, examining minutely the cracks between the boards. Then he did the same with the wood-work with which the chamber was panelled. Finally he walked over to the bed and spent some time in staring at it and in running his eye up and down the wall. Finally he took the bell-rope in his hand and gave it a brisk tug.\n\n\"Why, it's a dummy,\" said he.\n\n\"Won't it ring?\"\n\n\"No, it is not even attached to a wire. This is very interesting. You can see now that it is fastened to a hook just above where the little opening for the ventilator is.\"\n\n\"How very absurd! I never noticed that before.\"\n\n\"Very strange!\" muttered Holmes, pulling at the rope. \"There are one or two very singular points about this room. For example, what a fool a builder must be to open a ventilator into another room, when, with the same trouble, he might have communicated with the outside air!\"\n\n\"That is also quite modern,\" said the lady.\n\n\"Done about the same time as the bell-rope?\" remarked Holmes.\n\n\"Yes, there were several little changes carried out about that time.\"\n\n\"They seem to have been of a most interesting character--dummy bell-ropes, and ventilators which do not ventilate. With your permission, Miss Stoner, we shall now carry our researches into the inner apartment.\"\n\nDr. Grimesby Roylott's chamber was larger than that of his step-daughter, but was as plainly furnished. A camp-bed, a small wooden shelf full of books, mostly of a technical character, an armchair beside the bed, a plain wooden chair against the wall, a round table, and a large iron safe were the principal things which met the eye. Holmes walked slowly round and examined each and all of them with the keenest interest.\n\n\"What's in here?\" he asked, tapping the safe.\n\n\"My stepfather's business papers.\"\n\n\"Oh! you have seen inside, then?\"\n\n\"Only once, some years ago. I remember that it was full of papers.\"\n\n\"There isn't a cat in it, for example?\"\n\n\"No. What a strange idea!\"\n\n\"Well, look at this!\" He took up a small saucer of milk which stood on the top of it.\n\n\"No; we don't keep a cat. But there is a cheetah and a baboon.\"\n\n\"Ah, yes, of course! Well, a cheetah is just a big cat, and yet a saucer of milk does not go very far in satisfying its wants, I daresay. There is one point which I should wish to determine.\" He squatted down in front of the wooden chair and examined the seat of it with the greatest attention.\n\n\"Thank you. That is quite settled,\" said he, rising and putting his lens in his pocket. \"Hullo! Here is something interesting!\"\n\nThe object which had caught his eye was a small dog lash hung on one corner of the bed. The lash, however, was curled upon itself and tied so as to make a loop of whipcord.\n\n\"What do you make of that, Watson?\"\n\n\"It's a common enough lash. But I don't know why it should be tied.\"\n\n\"That is not quite so common, is it? Ah, me! it's a wicked world, and when a clever man turns his brains to crime it is the worst of all. I think that I have seen enough now, Miss Stoner, and with your permission we shall walk out upon the lawn.\"\n\nI had never seen my friend's face so grim or his brow so dark as it was when we turned from the scene of this investigation. We had walked several times up and down the lawn, neither Miss Stoner nor myself liking to break in upon his thoughts before he roused himself from his reverie.\n\n\"It is very essential, Miss Stoner,\" said he, \"that you should absolutely follow my advice in every respect.\"\n\n\"I shall most certainly do so.\"\n\n\"The matter is too serious for any hesitation. Your life may depend upon your compliance.\"\n\n\"I assure you that I am in your hands.\"\n\n\"In the first place, both my friend and I must spend the night in your room.\"\n\nBoth Miss Stoner and I gazed at him in astonishment.\n\n\"Yes, it must be so. Let me explain. I believe that that is the village inn over there?\"\n\n\"Yes, that is the Crown.\"\n\n\"Very good. Your windows would be visible from there?\"\n\n\"Certainly.\"\n\n\"You must confine yourself to your room, on pretence of a headache, when your stepfather comes back. Then when you hear him retire for the night, you must open the shutters of your window, undo the hasp, put your lamp there as a signal to us, and then withdraw quietly with everything which you are likely to want into the room which you used to occupy. I have no doubt that, in spite of the repairs, you could manage there for one night.\"\n\n\"Oh, yes, easily.\"\n\n\"The rest you will leave in our hands.\"\n\n\"But what will you do?\"\n\n\"We shall spend the night in your room, and we shall investigate the cause of this noise which has disturbed you.\"\n\n\"I believe, Mr. Holmes, that you have already made up your mind,\" said Miss Stoner, laying her hand upon my companion's sleeve.\n\n\"Perhaps I have.\"\n\n\"Then, for pity's sake, tell me what was the cause of my sister's death.\"\n\n\"I should prefer to have clearer proofs before I speak.\"\n\n\"You can at least tell me whether my own thought is correct, and if she died from some sudden fright.\"\n\n\"No, I do not think so. I think that there was probably some more tangible cause. And now, Miss Stoner, we must leave you for if Dr. Roylott returned and saw us our journey would be in vain. Good-bye, and be brave, for if you will do what I have told you, you may rest assured that we shall soon drive away the dangers that threaten you.\"\n\nSherlock Holmes and I had no difficulty in engaging a bedroom and sitting-room at the Crown Inn. They were on the upper floor, and from our window we could command a view of the avenue gate, and of the inhabited wing of Stoke Moran Manor House. At dusk we saw Dr. Grimesby Roylott drive past, his huge form looming up beside the little figure of the lad who drove him. The boy had some slight difficulty in undoing the heavy iron gates, and we heard the hoarse roar of the doctor's voice and saw the fury with which he shook his clinched fists at him. The trap drove on, and a few minutes later we saw a sudden light spring up among the trees as the lamp was lit in one of the sitting-rooms.\n\n\"Do you know, Watson,\" said Holmes as we sat together in the gathering darkness, \"I have really some scruples as to taking you to-night. There is a distinct element of danger.\"\n\n\"Can I be of assistance?\"\n\n\"Your presence might be invaluable.\"\n\n\"Then I shall certainly come.\"\n\n\"It is very kind of you.\"\n\n\"You speak of danger. You have evidently seen more in these rooms than was visible to me.\"\n\n\"No, but I fancy that I may have deduced a little more. I imagine that you saw all that I did.\"\n\n\"I saw nothing remarkable save the bell-rope, and what purpose that could answer I confess is more than I can imagine.\"\n\n\"You saw the ventilator, too?\"\n\n\"Yes, but I do not think that it is such a very unusual thing to have a small opening between two rooms. It was so small that a rat could hardly pass through.\"\n\n\"I knew that we should find a ventilator before ever we came to Stoke Moran.\"\n\n\"My dear Holmes!\"\n\n\"Oh, yes, I did. You remember in her statement she said that her sister could smell Dr. Roylott's cigar. Now, of course that suggested at once that there must be a communication between the two rooms. It could only be a small one, or it would have been remarked upon at the coroner's inquiry. I deduced a ventilator.\"\n\n\"But what harm can there be in that?\"\n\n\"Well, there is at least a curious coincidence of dates. A ventilator is made, a cord is hung, and a lady who sleeps in the bed dies. Does not that strike you?\"\n\n\"I cannot as yet see any connection.\"\n\n\"Did you observe anything very peculiar about that bed?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"It was clamped to the floor. Did you ever see a bed fastened like that before?\"\n\n\"I cannot say that I have.\"\n\n\"The lady could not move her bed. It must always be in the same relative position to the ventilator and to the rope--or so we may call it, since it was clearly never meant for a bell-pull.\"\n\n\"Holmes,\" I cried, \"I seem to see dimly what you are hinting at. We are only just in time to prevent some subtle and horrible crime.\"\n\n\"Subtle enough and horrible enough. When a doctor does go wrong he is the first of criminals. He has nerve and he has knowledge. Palmer and Pritchard were among the heads of their profession. This man strikes even deeper, but I think, Watson, that we shall be able to strike deeper still. But we shall have horrors enough before the night is over; for goodness' sake let us have a quiet pipe and turn our minds for a few hours to something more cheerful.\"\n\nAbout nine o'clock the light among the trees was extinguished, and all was dark in the direction of the Manor House. Two hours passed slowly away, and then, suddenly, just at the stroke of eleven, a single bright light shone out right in front of us.\n\n\"That is our signal,\" said Holmes, springing to his feet; \"it comes from the middle window.\"\n\nAs we passed out he exchanged a few words with the landlord, explaining that we were going on a late visit to an acquaintance, and that it was possible that we might spend the night there. A moment later we were out on the dark road, a chill wind blowing in our faces, and one yellow light twinkling in front of us through the gloom to guide us on our sombre errand.\n\nThere was little difficulty in entering the grounds, for unrepaired breaches gaped in the old park wall. Making our way among the trees, we reached the lawn, crossed it, and were about to enter through the window when out from a clump of laurel bushes there darted what seemed to be a hideous and distorted child, who threw itself upon the grass with writhing limbs and then ran swiftly across the lawn into the darkness.\n\n\"My God!\" I whispered; \"did you see it?\"\n\nHolmes was for the moment as startled as I. His hand closed like a vice upon my wrist in his agitation. Then he broke into a low laugh and put his lips to my ear.\n\n\"It is a nice household,\" he murmured. \"That is the baboon.\"\n\nI had forgotten the strange pets which the doctor affected. There was a cheetah, too; perhaps we might find it upon our shoulders at any moment. I confess that I felt easier in my mind when, after following Holmes' example and slipping off my shoes, I found myself inside the bedroom. My companion noiselessly closed the shutters, moved the lamp onto the table, and cast his eyes round the room. All was as we had seen it in the daytime. Then creeping up to me and making a trumpet of his hand, he whispered into my ear again so gently that it was all that I could do to distinguish the words:\n\n\"The least sound would be fatal to our plans.\"\n\nI nodded to show that I had heard.\n\n\"We must sit without light. He would see it through the ventilator.\"\n\nI nodded again.\n\n\"Do not go asleep; your very life may depend upon it. Have your pistol ready in case we should need it. I will sit on the side of the bed, and you in that chair.\"\n\nI took out my revolver and laid it on the corner of the table.\n\nHolmes had brought up a long thin cane, and this he placed upon the bed beside him. By it he laid the box of matches and the stump of a candle. Then he turned down the lamp, and we were left in darkness.\n\nHow shall I ever forget that dreadful vigil? I could not hear a sound, not even the drawing of a breath, and yet I knew that my companion sat open-eyed, within a few feet of me, in the same state of nervous tension in which I was myself. The shutters cut off the least ray of light, and we waited in absolute darkness.\n\nFrom outside came the occasional cry of a night-bird, and once at our very window a long drawn catlike whine, which told us that the cheetah was indeed at liberty. Far away we could hear the deep tones of the parish clock, which boomed out every quarter of an hour. How long they seemed, those quarters! Twelve struck, and one and two and three, and still we sat waiting silently for whatever might befall.\n\nSuddenly there was the momentary gleam of a light up in the direction of the ventilator, which vanished immediately, but was succeeded by a strong smell of burning oil and heated metal. Someone in the next room had lit a dark-lantern. I heard a gentle sound of movement, and then all was silent once more, though the smell grew stronger. For half an hour I sat with straining ears. Then suddenly another sound became audible--a very gentle, soothing sound, like that of a small jet of steam escaping continually from a kettle. The instant that we heard it, Holmes sprang from the bed, struck a match, and lashed furiously with his cane at the bell-pull.\n\n\"You see it, Watson?\" he yelled. \"You see it?\"\n\nBut I saw nothing. At the moment when Holmes struck the light I heard a low, clear whistle, but the sudden glare flashing into my weary eyes made it impossible for me to tell what it was at which my friend lashed so savagely. I could, however, see that his face was deadly pale and filled with horror and loathing. He had ceased to strike and was gazing up at the ventilator when suddenly there broke from the silence of the night the most horrible cry to which I have ever listened. It swelled up louder and louder, a hoarse yell of pain and fear and anger all mingled in the one dreadful shriek. They say that away down in the village, and even in the distant parsonage, that cry raised the sleepers from their beds. It struck cold to our hearts, and I stood gazing at Holmes, and he at me, until the last echoes of it had died away into the silence from which it rose.\n\n\"What can it mean?\" I gasped.\n\n\"It means that it is all over,\" Holmes answered. \"And perhaps, after all, it is for the best. Take your pistol, and we will enter Dr. Roylott's room.\"\n\nWith a grave face he lit the lamp and led the way down the corridor. Twice he struck at the chamber door without any reply from within. Then he turned the handle and entered, I at his heels, with the cocked pistol in my hand.\n\nIt was a singular sight which met our eyes. On the table stood a dark-lantern with the shutter half open, throwing a brilliant beam of light upon the iron safe, the door of which was ajar. Beside this table, on the wooden chair, sat Dr. Grimesby Roylott clad in a long grey dressing-gown, his bare ankles protruding beneath, and his feet thrust into red heelless Turkish slippers. Across his lap lay the short stock with the long lash which we had noticed during the day. His chin was cocked upward and his eyes were fixed in a dreadful, rigid stare at the corner of the ceiling. Round his brow he had a peculiar yellow band, with brownish speckles, which seemed to be bound tightly round his head. As we entered he made neither sound nor motion.\n\n\"The band! the speckled band!\" whispered Holmes.\n\nI took a step forward. In an instant his strange headgear began to move, and there reared itself from among his hair the squat diamond-shaped head and puffed neck of a loathsome serpent.\n\n\"It is a swamp adder!\" cried Holmes; \"the deadliest snake in India. He has died within ten seconds of being bitten. Violence does, in truth, recoil upon the violent, and the schemer falls into the pit which he digs for another. Let us thrust this creature back into its den, and we can then remove Miss Stoner to some place of shelter and let the county police know what has happened.\"\n\nAs he spoke he drew the dog-whip swiftly from the dead man's lap, and throwing the noose round the reptile's neck he drew it from its horrid perch and, carrying it at arm's length, threw it into the iron safe, which he closed upon it.\n\nSuch are the true facts of the death of Dr. Grimesby Roylott, of Stoke Moran. It is not necessary that I should prolong a narrative which has already run to too great a length by telling how we broke the sad news to the terrified girl, how we conveyed her by the morning train to the care of her good aunt at Harrow, of how the slow process of official inquiry came to the conclusion that the doctor met his fate while indiscreetly playing with a dangerous pet. The little which I had yet to learn of the case was told me by Sherlock Holmes as we travelled back next day.\n\n\"I had,\" said he, \"come to an entirely erroneous conclusion which shows, my dear Watson, how dangerous it always is to reason from insufficient data. The presence of the gipsies, and the use of the word 'band,' which was used by the poor girl, no doubt, to explain the appearance which she had caught a hurried glimpse of by the light of her match, were sufficient to put me upon an entirely wrong scent. I can only claim the merit that I instantly reconsidered my position when, however, it became clear to me that whatever danger threatened an occupant of the room could not come either from the window or the door. My attention was speedily drawn, as I have already remarked to you, to this ventilator, and to the bell-rope which hung down to the bed. The discovery that this was a dummy, and that the bed was clamped to the floor, instantly gave rise to the suspicion that the rope was there as a bridge for something passing through the hole and coming to the bed. The idea of a snake instantly occurred to me, and when I coupled it with my knowledge that the doctor was furnished with a supply of creatures from India, I felt that I was probably on the right track. The idea of using a form of poison which could not possibly be discovered by any chemical test was just such a one as would occur to a clever and ruthless man who had had an Eastern training. The rapidity with which such a poison would take effect would also, from his point of view, be an advantage. It would be a sharp-eyed coroner, indeed, who could distinguish the two little dark punctures which would show where the poison fangs had done their work. Then I thought of the whistle. Of course he must recall the snake before the morning light revealed it to the victim. He had trained it, probably by the use of the milk which we saw, to return to him when summoned. He would put it through this ventilator at the hour that he thought best, with the certainty that it would crawl down the rope and land on the bed. It might or might not bite the occupant, perhaps she might escape every night for a week, but sooner or later she must fall a victim.\n\n\"I had come to these conclusions before ever I had entered his room. An inspection of his chair showed me that he had been in the habit of standing on it, which of course would be necessary in order that he should reach the ventilator. The sight of the safe, the saucer of milk, and the loop of whipcord were enough to finally dispel any doubts which may have remained. The metallic clang heard by Miss Stoner was obviously caused by her stepfather hastily closing the door of his safe upon its terrible occupant. Having once made up my mind, you know the steps which I took in order to put the matter to the proof. I heard the creature hiss as I have no doubt that you did also, and I instantly lit the light and attacked it.\"\n\n\"With the result of driving it through the ventilator.\"\n\n\"And also with the result of causing it to turn upon its master at the other side. Some of the blows of my cane came home and roused its snakish temper, so that it flew upon the first person it saw. In this way I am no doubt indirectly responsible for Dr. Grimesby Roylott's death, and I cannot say that it is likely to weigh very heavily upon my conscience.\"\n\nIX. THE ADVENTURE OF THE ENGINEER'S THUMB\n\n\nOf all the problems which have been submitted to my friend, Mr. Sherlock Holmes, for solution during the years of our intimacy, there were only two which I was the means of introducing to his notice--that of Mr. Hatherley's thumb, and that of Colonel Warburton's madness. Of these the latter may have afforded a finer field for an acute and original observer, but the other was so strange in its inception and so dramatic in its details that it may be the more worthy of being placed upon record, even if it gave my friend fewer openings for those deductive methods of reasoning by which he achieved such remarkable results. The story has, I believe, been told more than once in the newspapers, but, like all such narratives, its effect is much less striking when set forth en bloc in a single half-column of print than when the facts slowly evolve before your own eyes, and the mystery clears gradually away as each new discovery furnishes a step which leads on to the complete truth. At the time the circumstances made a deep impression upon me, and the lapse of two years has hardly served to weaken the effect.\n\nIt was in the summer of '89, not long after my marriage, that the events occurred which I am now about to summarise. I had returned to civil practice and had finally abandoned Holmes in his Baker Street rooms, although I continually visited him and occasionally even persuaded him to forgo his Bohemian habits so far as to come and visit us. My practice had steadily increased, and as I happened to live at no very great distance from Paddington Station, I got a few patients from among the officials. One of these, whom I had cured of a painful and lingering disease, was never weary of advertising my virtues and of endeavouring to send me on every sufferer over whom he might have any influence.\n\nOne morning, at a little before seven o'clock, I was awakened by the maid tapping at the door to announce that two men had come from Paddington and were waiting in the consulting-room. I dressed hurriedly, for I knew by experience that railway cases were seldom trivial, and hastened downstairs. As I descended, my old ally, the guard, came out of the room and closed the door tightly behind him.\n\n\"I've got him here,\" he whispered, jerking his thumb over his shoulder; \"he's all right.\"\n\n\"What is it, then?\" I asked, for his manner suggested that it was some strange creature which he had caged up in my room.\n\n\"It's a new patient,\" he whispered. \"I thought I'd bring him round myself; then he couldn't slip away. There he is, all safe and sound. I must go now, Doctor; I have my dooties, just the same as you.\" And off he went, this trusty tout, without even giving me time to thank him.\n\nI entered my consulting-room and found a gentleman seated by the table. He was quietly dressed in a suit of heather tweed with a soft cloth cap which he had laid down upon my books. Round one of his hands he had a handkerchief wrapped, which was mottled all over with bloodstains. He was young, not more than five-and-twenty, I should say, with a strong, masculine face; but he was exceedingly pale and gave me the impression of a man who was suffering from some strong agitation, which it took all his strength of mind to control.\n\n\"I am sorry to knock you up so early, Doctor,\" said he, \"but I have had a very serious accident during the night. I came in by train this morning, and on inquiring at Paddington as to where I might find a doctor, a worthy fellow very kindly escorted me here. I gave the maid a card, but I see that she has left it upon the side-table.\"\n\nI took it up and glanced at it. \"Mr. Victor Hatherley, hydraulic engineer, 16A, Victoria Street (3rd floor).\" That was the name, style, and abode of my morning visitor. \"I regret that I have kept you waiting,\" said I, sitting down in my library-chair. \"You are fresh from a night journey, I understand, which is in itself a monotonous occupation.\"\n\n\"Oh, my night could not be called monotonous,\" said he, and laughed. He laughed very heartily, with a high, ringing note, leaning back in his chair and shaking his sides. All my medical instincts rose up against that laugh.\n\n\"Stop it!\" I cried; \"pull yourself together!\" and I poured out some water from a caraffe.\n\nIt was useless, however. He was off in one of those hysterical outbursts which come upon a strong nature when some great crisis is over and gone. Presently he came to himself once more, very weary and pale-looking.\n\n\"I have been making a fool of myself,\" he gasped.\n\n\"Not at all. Drink this.\" I dashed some brandy into the water, and the colour began to come back to his bloodless cheeks.\n\n\"That's better!\" said he. \"And now, Doctor, perhaps you would kindly attend to my thumb, or rather to the place where my thumb used to be.\"\n\nHe unwound the handkerchief and held out his hand. It gave even my hardened nerves a shudder to look at it. There were four protruding fingers and a horrid red, spongy surface where the thumb should have been. It had been hacked or torn right out from the roots.\n\n\"Good heavens!\" I cried, \"this is a terrible injury. It must have bled considerably.\"\n\n\"Yes, it did. I fainted when it was done, and I think that I must have been senseless for a long time. When I came to I found that it was still bleeding, so I tied one end of my handkerchief very tightly round the wrist and braced it up with a twig.\"\n\n\"Excellent! You should have been a surgeon.\"\n\n\"It is a question of hydraulics, you see, and came within my own province.\"\n\n\"This has been done,\" said I, examining the wound, \"by a very heavy and sharp instrument.\"\n\n\"A thing like a cleaver,\" said he.\n\n\"An accident, I presume?\"\n\n\"By no means.\"\n\n\"What! a murderous attack?\"\n\n\"Very murderous indeed.\"\n\n\"You horrify me.\"\n\nI sponged the wound, cleaned it, dressed it, and finally covered it over with cotton wadding and carbolised bandages. He lay back without wincing, though he bit his lip from time to time.\n\n\"How is that?\" I asked when I had finished.\n\n\"Capital! Between your brandy and your bandage, I feel a new man. I was very weak, but I have had a good deal to go through.\"\n\n\"Perhaps you had better not speak of the matter. It is evidently trying to your nerves.\"\n\n\"Oh, no, not now. I shall have to tell my tale to the police; but, between ourselves, if it were not for the convincing evidence of this wound of mine, I should be surprised if they believed my statement, for it is a very extraordinary one, and I have not much in the way of proof with which to back it up; and, even if they believe me, the clues which I can give them are so vague that it is a question whether justice will be done.\"\n\n\"Ha!\" cried I, \"if it is anything in the nature of a problem which you desire to see solved, I should strongly recommend you to come to my friend, Mr. Sherlock Holmes, before you go to the official police.\"\n\n\"Oh, I have heard of that fellow,\" answered my visitor, \"and I should be very glad if he would take the matter up, though of course I must use the official police as well. Would you give me an introduction to him?\"\n\n\"I'll do better. I'll take you round to him myself.\"\n\n\"I should be immensely obliged to you.\"\n\n\"We'll call a cab and go together. We shall just be in time to have a little breakfast with him. Do you feel equal to it?\"\n\n\"Yes; I shall not feel easy until I have told my story.\"\n\n\"Then my servant will call a cab, and I shall be with you in an instant.\" I rushed upstairs, explained the matter shortly to my wife, and in five minutes was inside a hansom, driving with my new acquaintance to Baker Street.\n\nSherlock Holmes was, as I expected, lounging about his sitting-room in his dressing-gown, reading the agony column of The Times and smoking his before-breakfast pipe, which was composed of all the plugs and dottles left from his smokes of the day before, all carefully dried and collected on the corner of the mantelpiece. He received us in his quietly genial fashion, ordered fresh rashers and eggs, and joined us in a hearty meal. When it was concluded he settled our new acquaintance upon the sofa, placed a pillow beneath his head, and laid a glass of brandy and water within his reach.\n\n\"It is easy to see that your experience has been no common one, Mr. Hatherley,\" said he. \"Pray, lie down there and make yourself absolutely at home. Tell us what you can, but stop when you are tired and keep up your strength with a little stimulant.\"\n\n\"Thank you,\" said my patient. \"but I have felt another man since the doctor bandaged me, and I think that your breakfast has completed the cure. I shall take up as little of your valuable time as possible, so I shall start at once upon my peculiar experiences.\"\n\nHolmes sat in his big armchair with the weary, heavy-lidded expression which veiled his keen and eager nature, while I sat opposite to him, and we listened in silence to the strange story which our visitor detailed to us.\n\n\"You must know,\" said he, \"that I am an orphan and a bachelor, residing alone in lodgings in London. By profession I am a hydraulic engineer, and I have had considerable experience of my work during the seven years that I was apprenticed to Venner & Matheson, the well-known firm, of Greenwich. Two years ago, having served my time, and having also come into a fair sum of money through my poor father's death, I determined to start in business for myself and took professional chambers in Victoria Street.\n\n\"I suppose that everyone finds his first independent start in business a dreary experience. To me it has been exceptionally so. During two years I have had three consultations and one small job, and that is absolutely all that my profession has brought me. My gross takings amount to $27 10s. Every day, from nine in the morning until four in the afternoon, I waited in my little den, until at last my heart began to sink, and I came to believe that I should never have any practice at all.\n\n\"Yesterday, however, just as I was thinking of leaving the office, my clerk entered to say there was a gentleman waiting who wished to see me upon business. He brought up a card, too, with the name of 'Colonel Lysander Stark' engraved upon it. Close at his heels came the colonel himself, a man rather over the middle size, but of an exceeding thinness. I do not think that I have ever seen so thin a man. His whole face sharpened away into nose and chin, and the skin of his cheeks was drawn quite tense over his outstanding bones. Yet this emaciation seemed to be his natural habit, and due to no disease, for his eye was bright, his step brisk, and his bearing assured. He was plainly but neatly dressed, and his age, I should judge, would be nearer forty than thirty.\n\n\" 'Mr. Hatherley?' said he, with something of a German accent. 'You have been recommended to me, Mr. Hatherley, as being a man who is not only proficient in his profession but is also discreet and capable of preserving a secret.'\n\n\"I bowed, feeling as flattered as any young man would at such an address. 'May I ask who it was who gave me so good a character?'\n\n\" 'Well, perhaps it is better that I should not tell you that just at this moment. I have it from the same source that you are both an orphan and a bachelor and are residing alone in London.'\n\n\" 'That is quite correct,' I answered; 'but you will excuse me if I say that I cannot see how all this bears upon my professional qualifications. I understand that it was on a professional matter that you wished to speak to me?'\n\n\" 'Undoubtedly so. But you will find that all I say is really to the point. I have a professional commission for you, but absolute secrecy is quite essential--absolute secrecy, you understand, and of course we may expect that more from a man who is alone than from one who lives in the bosom of his family.'\n\n\" 'If I promise to keep a secret,' said I, 'you may absolutely depend upon my doing so.'\n\n\"He looked very hard at me as I spoke, and it seemed to me that I had never seen so suspicious and questioning an eye.\n\n\" 'Do you promise, then?' said he at last.\n\n\" 'Yes, I promise.'\n\n\" 'Absolute and complete silence before, during, and after? No reference to the matter at all, either in word or writing?'\n\n\" 'I have already given you my word.'\n\n\" 'Very good.' He suddenly sprang up, and darting like lightning across the room he flung open the door. The passage outside was empty.\n\n\" 'That's all right,' said he, coming back. 'I know that clerks are sometimes curious as to their master's affairs. Now we can talk in safety.' He drew up his chair very close to mine and began to stare at me again with the same questioning and thoughtful look.\n\n\"A feeling of repulsion, and of something akin to fear had begun to rise within me at the strange antics of this fleshless man. Even my dread of losing a client could not restrain me from showing my impatience.\n\n\" 'I beg that you will state your business, sir,' said I; 'my time is of value.' Heaven forgive me for that last sentence, but the words came to my lips.\n\n\" 'How would fifty guineas for a night's work suit you?' he asked.\n\n\" 'Most admirably.'\n\n\" 'I say a night's work, but an hour's would be nearer the mark. I simply want your opinion about a hydraulic stamping machine which has got out of gear. If you show us what is wrong we shall soon set it right ourselves. What do you think of such a commission as that?'\n\n\" 'The work appears to be light and the pay munificent.'\n\n\" 'Precisely so. We shall want you to come to-night by the last train.'\n\n\" 'Where to?'\n\n\" 'To Eyford, in Berkshire. It is a little place near the borders of Oxfordshire, and within seven miles of Reading. There is a train from Paddington which would bring you there at about 11:15.'\n\n\" 'Very good.'\n\n\" 'I shall come down in a carriage to meet you.'\n\n\" 'There is a drive, then?'\n\n\" 'Yes, our little place is quite out in the country. It is a good seven miles from Eyford Station.'\n\n\" 'Then we can hardly get there before midnight. I suppose there would be no chance of a train back. I should be compelled to stop the night.'\n\n\" 'Yes, we could easily give you a shake-down.'\n\n\" 'That is very awkward. Could I not come at some more convenient hour?'\n\n\" 'We have judged it best that you should come late. It is to recompense you for any inconvenience that we are paying to you, a young and unknown man, a fee which would buy an opinion from the very heads of your profession. Still, of course, if you would like to draw out of the business, there is plenty of time to do so.'\n\n\"I thought of the fifty guineas, and of how very useful they would be to me. 'Not at all,' said I, 'I shall be very happy to accommodate myself to your wishes. I should like, however, to understand a little more clearly what it is that you wish me to do.'\n\n\" 'Quite so. It is very natural that the pledge of secrecy which we have exacted from you should have aroused your curiosity. I have no wish to commit you to anything without your having it all laid before you. I suppose that we are absolutely safe from eavesdroppers?'\n\n\" 'Entirely.'\n\n\" 'Then the matter stands thus. You are probably aware that fuller's-earth is a valuable product, and that it is only found in one or two places in England?'\n\n\" 'I have heard so.'\n\n\" 'Some little time ago I bought a small place--a very small place--within ten miles of Reading. I was fortunate enough to discover that there was a deposit of fuller's-earth in one of my fields. On examining it, however, I found that this deposit was a comparatively small one, and that it formed a link between two very much larger ones upon the right and left--both of them, however, in the grounds of my neighbours. These good people were absolutely ignorant that their land contained that which was quite as valuable as a gold-mine. Naturally, it was to my interest to buy their land before they discovered its true value, but unfortunately I had no capital by which I could do this. I took a few of my friends into the secret, however, and they suggested that we should quietly and secretly work our own little deposit and that in this way we should earn the money which would enable us to buy the neighbouring fields. This we have now been doing for some time, and in order to help us in our operations we erected a hydraulic press. This press, as I have already explained, has got out of order, and we wish your advice upon the subject. We guard our secret very jealously, however, and if it once became known that we had hydraulic engineers coming to our little house, it would soon rouse inquiry, and then, if the facts came out, it would be good-bye to any chance of getting these fields and carrying out our plans. That is why I have made you promise me that you will not tell a human being that you are going to Eyford to-night. I hope that I make it all plain?'\n\n\" 'I quite follow you,' said I. 'The only point which I could not quite understand was what use you could make of a hydraulic press in excavating fuller's-earth, which, as I understand, is dug out like gravel from a pit.'\n\n\" 'Ah!' said he carelessly, 'we have our own process. We compress the earth into bricks, so as to remove them without revealing what they are. But that is a mere detail. I have taken you fully into my confidence now, Mr. Hatherley, and I have shown you how I trust you.' He rose as he spoke. 'I shall expect you, then, at Eyford at 11:15.'\n\n\" 'I shall certainly be there.'\n\n\" 'And not a word to a soul.' He looked at me with a last long, questioning gaze, and then, pressing my hand in a cold, dank grasp, he hurried from the room.\n\n\"Well, when I came to think it all over in cool blood I was very much astonished, as you may both think, at this sudden commission which had been intrusted to me. On the one hand, of course, I was glad, for the fee was at least tenfold what I should have asked had I set a price upon my own services, and it was possible that this order might lead to other ones. On the other hand, the face and manner of my patron had made an unpleasant impression upon me, and I could not think that his explanation of the fuller's-earth was sufficient to explain the necessity for my coming at midnight, and his extreme anxiety lest I should tell anyone of my errand. However, I threw all fears to the winds, ate a hearty supper, drove to Paddington, and started off, having obeyed to the letter the injunction as to holding my tongue.\n\n\"At Reading I had to change not only my carriage but my station. However, I was in time for the last train to Eyford, and I reached the little dim-lit station after eleven o'clock. I was the only passenger who got out there, and there was no one upon the platform save a single sleepy porter with a lantern. As I passed out through the wicket gate, however, I found my acquaintance of the morning waiting in the shadow upon the other side. Without a word he grasped my arm and hurried me into a carriage, the door of which was standing open. He drew up the windows on either side, tapped on the wood-work, and away we went as fast as the horse could go.\"\n\n\"One horse?\" interjected Holmes.\n\n\"Yes, only one.\"\n\n\"Did you observe the colour?\"\n\n\"Yes, I saw it by the side-lights when I was stepping into the carriage. It was a chestnut.\"\n\n\"Tired-looking or fresh?\"\n\n\"Oh, fresh and glossy.\"\n\n\"Thank you. I am sorry to have interrupted you. Pray continue your most interesting statement.\"\n\n\"Away we went then, and we drove for at least an hour. Colonel Lysander Stark had said that it was only seven miles, but I should think, from the rate that we seemed to go, and from the time that we took, that it must have been nearer twelve. He sat at my side in silence all the time, and I was aware, more than once when I glanced in his direction, that he was looking at me with great intensity. The country roads seem to be not very good in that part of the world, for we lurched and jolted terribly. I tried to look out of the windows to see something of where we were, but they were made of frosted glass, and I could make out nothing save the occasional bright blur of a passing light. Now and then I hazarded some remark to break the monotony of the journey, but the colonel answered only in monosyllables, and the conversation soon flagged. At last, however, the bumping of the road was exchanged for the crisp smoothness of a gravel-drive, and the carriage came to a stand. Colonel Lysander Stark sprang out, and, as I followed after him, pulled me swiftly into a porch which gaped in front of us. We stepped, as it were, right out of the carriage and into the hall, so that I failed to catch the most fleeting glance of the front of the house. The instant that I had crossed the threshold the door slammed heavily behind us, and I heard faintly the rattle of the wheels as the carriage drove away.\n\n\"It was pitch dark inside the house, and the colonel fumbled about looking for matches and muttering under his breath. Suddenly a door opened at the other end of the passage, and a long, golden bar of light shot out in our direction. It grew broader, and a woman appeared with a lamp in her hand, which she held above her head, pushing her face forward and peering at us. I could see that she was pretty, and from the gloss with which the light shone upon her dark dress I knew that it was a rich material. She spoke a few words in a foreign tongue in a tone as though asking a question, and when my companion answered in a gruff monosyllable she gave such a start that the lamp nearly fell from her hand. Colonel Stark went up to her, whispered something in her ear, and then, pushing her back into the room from whence she had come, he walked towards me again with the lamp in his hand.\n\n\" 'Perhaps you will have the kindness to wait in this room for a few minutes,' said he, throwing open another door. It was a quiet, little, plainly furnished room, with a round table in the centre, on which several German books were scattered. Colonel Stark laid down the lamp on the top of a harmonium beside the door. 'I shall not keep you waiting an instant,' said he, and vanished into the darkness.\n\n\"I glanced at the books upon the table, and in spite of my ignorance of German I could see that two of them were treatises on science, the others being volumes of poetry. Then I walked across to the window, hoping that I might catch some glimpse of the country-side, but an oak shutter, heavily barred, was folded across it. It was a wonderfully silent house. There was an old clock ticking loudly somewhere in the passage, but otherwise everything was deadly still. A vague feeling of uneasiness began to steal over me. Who were these German people, and what were they doing living in this strange, out-of-the-way place? And where was the place? I was ten miles or so from Eyford, that was all I knew, but whether north, south, east, or west I had no idea. For that matter, Reading, and possibly other large towns, were within that radius, so the place might not be so secluded, after all. Yet it was quite certain, from the absolute stillness, that we were in the country. I paced up and down the room, humming a tune under my breath to keep up my spirits and feeling that I was thoroughly earning my fifty-guinea fee.\n\n\"Suddenly, without any preliminary sound in the midst of the utter stillness, the door of my room swung slowly open. The woman was standing in the aperture, the darkness of the hall behind her, the yellow light from my lamp beating upon her eager and beautiful face. I could see at a glance that she was sick with fear, and the sight sent a chill to my own heart. She held up one shaking finger to warn me to be silent, and she shot a few whispered words of broken English at me, her eyes glancing back, like those of a frightened horse, into the gloom behind her.\n\n\" 'I would go,' said she, trying hard, as it seemed to me, to speak calmly; 'I would go. I should not stay here. There is no good for you to do.'\n\n\" 'But, madam,' said I, 'I have not yet done what I came for. I cannot possibly leave until I have seen the machine.'\n\n\" 'It is not worth your while to wait,' she went on. 'You can pass through the door; no one hinders.' And then, seeing that I smiled and shook my head, she suddenly threw aside her constraint and made a step forward, with her hands wrung together. 'For the love of Heaven!' she whispered, 'get away from here before it is too late!'\n\n\"But I am somewhat headstrong by nature, and the more ready to engage in an affair when there is some obstacle in the way. I thought of my fifty-guinea fee, of my wearisome journey, and of the unpleasant night which seemed to be before me. Was it all to go for nothing? Why should I slink away without having carried out my commission, and without the payment which was my due? This woman might, for all I knew, be a monomaniac. With a stout bearing, therefore, though her manner had shaken me more than I cared to confess, I still shook my head and declared my intention of remaining where I was. She was about to renew her entreaties when a door slammed overhead, and the sound of several footsteps was heard upon the stairs. She listened for an instant, threw up her hands with a despairing gesture, and vanished as suddenly and as noiselessly as she had come.\n\n\"The newcomers were Colonel Lysander Stark and a short thick man with a chinchilla beard growing out of the creases of his double chin, who was introduced to me as Mr. Ferguson.\n\n\" 'This is my secretary and manager,' said the colonel. 'By the way, I was under the impression that I left this door shut just now. I fear that you have felt the draught.'\n\n\" 'On the contrary,' said I, 'I opened the door myself because I felt the room to be a little close.'\n\n\"He shot one of his suspicious looks at me. 'Perhaps we had better proceed to business, then,' said he. 'Mr. Ferguson and I will take you up to see the machine.'\n\n\" 'I had better put my hat on, I suppose.'\n\n\" 'Oh, no, it is in the house.'\n\n\" 'What, you dig fuller's-earth in the house?'\n\n\" 'No, no. This is only where we compress it. But never mind that. All we wish you to do is to examine the machine and to let us know what is wrong with it.'\n\n\"We went upstairs together, the colonel first with the lamp, the fat manager and I behind him. It was a labyrinth of an old house, with corridors, passages, narrow winding staircases, and little low doors, the thresholds of which were hollowed out by the generations who had crossed them. There were no carpets and no signs of any furniture above the ground floor, while the plaster was peeling off the walls, and the damp was breaking through in green, unhealthy blotches. I tried to put on as unconcerned an air as possible, but I had not forgotten the warnings of the lady, even though I disregarded them, and I kept a keen eye upon my two companions. Ferguson appeared to be a morose and silent man, but I could see from the little that he said that he was at least a fellow-countryman.\n\n\"Colonel Lysander Stark stopped at last before a low door, which he unlocked. Within was a small, square room, in which the three of us could hardly get at one time. Ferguson remained outside, and the colonel ushered me in.\n\n\" 'We are now,' said he, 'actually within the hydraulic press, and it would be a particularly unpleasant thing for us if anyone were to turn it on. The ceiling of this small chamber is really the end of the descending piston, and it comes down with the force of many tons upon this metal floor. There are small lateral columns of water outside which receive the force, and which transmit and multiply it in the manner which is familiar to you. The machine goes readily enough, but there is some stiffness in the working of it, and it has lost a little of its force. Perhaps you will have the goodness to look it over and to show us how we can set it right.'\n\n\"I took the lamp from him, and I examined the machine very thoroughly. It was indeed a gigantic one, and capable of exercising enormous pressure. When I passed outside, however, and pressed down the levers which controlled it, I knew at once by the whishing sound that there was a slight leakage, which allowed a regurgitation of water through one of the side cylinders. An examination showed that one of the india-rubber bands which was round the head of a driving-rod had shrunk so as not quite to fill the socket along which it worked. This was clearly the cause of the loss of power, and I pointed it out to my companions, who followed my remarks very carefully and asked several practical questions as to how they should proceed to set it right. When I had made it clear to them, I returned to the main chamber of the machine and took a good look at it to satisfy my own curiosity. It was obvious at a glance that the story of the fuller's-earth was the merest fabrication, for it would be absurd to suppose that so powerful an engine could be designed for so inadequate a purpose. The walls were of wood, but the floor consisted of a large iron trough, and when I came to examine it I could see a crust of metallic deposit all over it. I had stooped and was scraping at this to see exactly what it was when I heard a muttered exclamation in German and saw the cadaverous face of the colonel looking down at me.\n\n\" 'What are you doing there?' he asked.\n\n\"I felt angry at having been tricked by so elaborate a story as that which he had told me. 'I was admiring your fuller's-earth,' said I; 'I think that I should be better able to advise you as to your machine if I knew what the exact purpose was for which it was used.'\n\n\"The instant that I uttered the words I regretted the rashness of my speech. His face set hard, and a baleful light sprang up in his grey eyes.\n\n\" 'Very well,' said he, 'you shall know all about the machine.' He took a step backward, slammed the little door, and turned the key in the lock. I rushed towards it and pulled at the handle, but it was quite secure, and did not give in the least to my kicks and shoves. 'Hullo!' I yelled. 'Hullo! Colonel! Let me out!'\n\n\"And then suddenly in the silence I heard a sound which sent my heart into my mouth. It was the clank of the levers and the swish of the leaking cylinder. He had set the engine at work. The lamp still stood upon the floor where I had placed it when examining the trough. By its light I saw that the black ceiling was coming down upon me, slowly, jerkily, but, as none knew better than myself, with a force which must within a minute grind me to a shapeless pulp. I threw myself, screaming, against the door, and dragged with my nails at the lock. I implored the colonel to let me out, but the remorseless clanking of the levers drowned my cries. The ceiling was only a foot or two above my head, and with my hand upraised I could feel its hard, rough surface. Then it flashed through my mind that the pain of my death would depend very much upon the position in which I met it. If I lay on my face the weight would come upon my spine, and I shuddered to think of that dreadful snap. Easier the other way, perhaps; and yet, had I the nerve to lie and look up at that deadly black shadow wavering down upon me? Already I was unable to stand erect, when my eye caught something which brought a gush of hope back to my heart.\n\n\"I have said that though the floor and ceiling were of iron, the walls were of wood. As I gave a last hurried glance around, I saw a thin line of yellow light between two of the boards, which broadened and broadened as a small panel was pushed backward. For an instant I could hardly believe that here was indeed a door which led away from death. The next instant I threw myself through, and lay half-fainting upon the other side. The panel had closed again behind me, but the crash of the lamp, and a few moments afterwards the clang of the two slabs of metal, told me how narrow had been my escape.\n\n\"I was recalled to myself by a frantic plucking at my wrist, and I found myself lying upon the stone floor of a narrow corridor, while a woman bent over me and tugged at me with her left hand, while she held a candle in her right. It was the same good friend whose warning I had so foolishly rejected.\n\n\" 'Come! come!' she cried breathlessly. 'They will be here in a moment. They will see that you are not there. Oh, do not waste the so-precious time, but come!'\n\n\"This time, at least, I did not scorn her advice. I staggered to my feet and ran with her along the corridor and down a winding stair. The latter led to another broad passage, and just as we reached it we heard the sound of running feet and the shouting of two voices, one answering the other from the floor on which we were and from the one beneath. My guide stopped and looked about her like one who is at her wit's end. Then she threw open a door which led into a bedroom, through the window of which the moon was shining brightly.\n\n\" 'It is your only chance,' said she. 'It is high, but it may be that you can jump it.'\n\n\"As she spoke a light sprang into view at the further end of the passage, and I saw the lean figure of Colonel Lysander Stark rushing forward with a lantern in one hand and a weapon like a butcher's cleaver in the other. I rushed across the bedroom, flung open the window, and looked out. How quiet and sweet and wholesome the garden looked in the moonlight, and it could not be more than thirty feet down. I clambered out upon the sill, but I hesitated to jump until I should have heard what passed between my saviour and the ruffian who pursued me. If she were ill-used, then at any risks I was determined to go back to her assistance. The thought had hardly flashed through my mind before he was at the door, pushing his way past her; but she threw her arms round him and tried to hold him back.\n\n\" 'Fritz! Fritz!' she cried in English, 'remember your promise after the last time. You said it should not be again. He will be silent! Oh, he will be silent!'\n\n\" 'You are mad, Elise!' he shouted, struggling to break away from her. 'You will be the ruin of us. He has seen too much. Let me pass, I say!' He dashed her to one side, and, rushing to the window, cut at me with his heavy weapon. I had let myself go, and was hanging by the hands to the sill, when his blow fell. I was conscious of a dull pain, my grip loosened, and I fell into the garden below.\n\n\"I was shaken but not hurt by the fall; so I picked myself up and rushed off among the bushes as hard as I could run, for I understood that I was far from being out of danger yet. Suddenly, however, as I ran, a deadly dizziness and sickness came over me. I glanced down at my hand, which was throbbing painfully, and then, for the first time, saw that my thumb had been cut off and that the blood was pouring from my wound. I endeavoured to tie my handkerchief round it, but there came a sudden buzzing in my ears, and next moment I fell in a dead faint among the rose-bushes.\n\n\"How long I remained unconscious I cannot tell. It must have been a very long time, for the moon had sunk, and a bright morning was breaking when I came to myself. My clothes were all sodden with dew, and my coat-sleeve was drenched with blood from my wounded thumb. The smarting of it recalled in an instant all the particulars of my night's adventure, and I sprang to my feet with the feeling that I might hardly yet be safe from my pursuers. But to my astonishment, when I came to look round me, neither house nor garden were to be seen. I had been lying in an angle of the hedge close by the highroad, and just a little lower down was a long building, which proved, upon my approaching it, to be the very station at which I had arrived upon the previous night. Were it not for the ugly wound upon my hand, all that had passed during those dreadful hours might have been an evil dream.\n\n\"Half dazed, I went into the station and asked about the morning train. There would be one to Reading in less than an hour. The same porter was on duty, I found, as had been there when I arrived. I inquired of him whether he had ever heard of Colonel Lysander Stark. The name was strange to him. Had he observed a carriage the night before waiting for me? No, he had not. Was there a police-station anywhere near? There was one about three miles off.\n\n\"It was too far for me to go, weak and ill as I was. I determined to wait until I got back to town before telling my story to the police. It was a little past six when I arrived, so I went first to have my wound dressed, and then the doctor was kind enough to bring me along here. I put the case into your hands and shall do exactly what you advise.\"\n\nWe both sat in silence for some little time after listening to this extraordinary narrative. Then Sherlock Holmes pulled down from the shelf one of the ponderous commonplace books in which he placed his cuttings.\n\n\"Here is an advertisement which will interest you,\" said he. \"It appeared in all the papers about a year ago. Listen to this: 'Lost, on the 9th inst., Mr. Jeremiah Hayling, aged twenty-six, a hydraulic engineer. Left his lodgings at ten o'clock at night, and has not been heard of since. Was dressed in,' etc., etc. Ha! That represents the last time that the colonel needed to have his machine overhauled, I fancy.\"\n\n\"Good heavens!\" cried my patient. \"Then that explains what the girl said.\"\n\n\"Undoubtedly. It is quite clear that the colonel was a cool and desperate man, who was absolutely determined that nothing should stand in the way of his little game, like those out-and-out pirates who will leave no survivor from a captured ship. Well, every moment now is precious, so if you feel equal to it we shall go down to Scotland Yard at once as a preliminary to starting for Eyford.\"\n\nSome three hours or so afterwards we were all in the train together, bound from Reading to the little Berkshire village. There were Sherlock Holmes, the hydraulic engineer, Inspector Bradstreet, of Scotland Yard, a plain-clothes man, and myself. Bradstreet had spread an ordnance map of the county out upon the seat and was busy with his compasses drawing a circle with Eyford for its centre.\n\n\"There you are,\" said he. \"That circle is drawn at a radius of ten miles from the village. The place we want must be somewhere near that line. You said ten miles, I think, sir.\"\n\n\"It was an hour's good drive.\"\n\n\"And you think that they brought you back all that way when you were unconscious?\"\n\n\"They must have done so. I have a confused memory, too, of having been lifted and conveyed somewhere.\"\n\n\"What I cannot understand,\" said I, \"is why they should have spared you when they found you lying fainting in the garden. Perhaps the villain was softened by the woman's entreaties.\"\n\n\"I hardly think that likely. I never saw a more inexorable face in my life.\"\n\n\"Oh, we shall soon clear up all that,\" said Bradstreet. \"Well, I have drawn my circle, and I only wish I knew at what point upon it the folk that we are in search of are to be found.\"\n\n\"I think I could lay my finger on it,\" said Holmes quietly.\n\n\"Really, now!\" cried the inspector, \"you have formed your opinion! Come, now, we shall see who agrees with you. I say it is south, for the country is more deserted there.\"\n\n\"And I say east,\" said my patient.\n\n\"I am for west,\" remarked the plain-clothes man. \"There are several quiet little villages up there.\"\n\n\"And I am for north,\" said I, \"because there are no hills there, and our friend says that he did not notice the carriage go up any.\"\n\n\"Come,\" cried the inspector, laughing; \"it's a very pretty diversity of opinion. We have boxed the compass among us. Who do you give your casting vote to?\"\n\n\"You are all wrong.\"\n\n\"But we can't all be.\"\n\n\"Oh, yes, you can. This is my point.\" He placed his finger in the centre of the circle. \"This is where we shall find them.\"\n\n\"But the twelve-mile drive?\" gasped Hatherley.\n\n\"Six out and six back. Nothing simpler. You say yourself that the horse was fresh and glossy when you got in. How could it be that if it had gone twelve miles over heavy roads?\"\n\n\"Indeed, it is a likely ruse enough,\" observed Bradstreet thoughtfully. \"Of course there can be no doubt as to the nature of this gang.\"\n\n\"None at all,\" said Holmes. \"They are coiners on a large scale, and have used the machine to form the amalgam which has taken the place of silver.\"\n\n\"We have known for some time that a clever gang was at work,\" said the inspector. \"They have been turning out half-crowns by the thousand. We even traced them as far as Reading, but could get no farther, for they had covered their traces in a way that showed that they were very old hands. But now, thanks to this lucky chance, I think that we have got them right enough.\"\n\nBut the inspector was mistaken, for those criminals were not destined to fall into the hands of justice. As we rolled into Eyford Station we saw a gigantic column of smoke which streamed up from behind a small clump of trees in the neighbourhood and hung like an immense ostrich feather over the landscape.\n\n\"A house on fire?\" asked Bradstreet as the train steamed off again on its way.\n\n\"Yes, sir!\" said the station-master.\n\n\"When did it break out?\"\n\n\"I hear that it was during the night, sir, but it has got worse, and the whole place is in a blaze.\"\n\n\"Whose house is it?\"\n\n\"Dr. Becher's.\"\n\n\"Tell me,\" broke in the engineer, \"is Dr. Becher a German, very thin, with a long, sharp nose?\"\n\nThe station-master laughed heartily. \"No, sir, Dr. Becher is an Englishman, and there isn't a man in the parish who has a better-lined waistcoat. But he has a gentleman staying with him, a patient, as I understand, who is a foreigner, and he looks as if a little good Berkshire beef would do him no harm.\"\n\nThe station-master had not finished his speech before we were all hastening in the direction of the fire. The road topped a low hill, and there was a great widespread whitewashed building in front of us, spouting fire at every chink and window, while in the garden in front three fire-engines were vainly striving to keep the flames under.\n\n\"That's it!\" cried Hatherley, in intense excitement. \"There is the gravel-drive, and there are the rose-bushes where I lay. That second window is the one that I jumped from.\"\n\n\"Well, at least,\" said Holmes, \"you have had your revenge upon them. There can be no question that it was your oil-lamp which, when it was crushed in the press, set fire to the wooden walls, though no doubt they were too excited in the chase after you to observe it at the time. Now keep your eyes open in this crowd for your friends of last night, though I very much fear that they are a good hundred miles off by now.\"\n\nAnd Holmes' fears came to be realised, for from that day to this no word has ever been heard either of the beautiful woman, the sinister German, or the morose Englishman. Early that morning a peasant had met a cart containing several people and some very bulky boxes driving rapidly in the direction of Reading, but there all traces of the fugitives disappeared, and even Holmes' ingenuity failed ever to discover the least clue as to their whereabouts.\n\nThe firemen had been much perturbed at the strange arrangements which they had found within, and still more so by discovering a newly severed human thumb upon a window-sill of the second floor. About sunset, however, their efforts were at last successful, and they subdued the flames, but not before the roof had fallen in, and the whole place been reduced to such absolute ruin that, save some twisted cylinders and iron piping, not a trace remained of the machinery which had cost our unfortunate acquaintance so dearly. Large masses of nickel and of tin were discovered stored in an out-house, but no coins were to be found, which may have explained the presence of those bulky boxes which have been already referred to.\n\nHow our hydraulic engineer had been conveyed from the garden to the spot where he recovered his senses might have remained forever a mystery were it not for the soft mould, which told us a very plain tale. He had evidently been carried down by two persons, one of whom had remarkably small feet and the other unusually large ones. On the whole, it was most probable that the silent Englishman, being less bold or less murderous than his companion, had assisted the woman to bear the unconscious man out of the way of danger.\n\n\"Well,\" said our engineer ruefully as we took our seats to return once more to London, \"it has been a pretty business for me! I have lost my thumb and I have lost a fifty-guinea fee, and what have I gained?\"\n\n\"Experience,\" said Holmes, laughing. \"Indirectly it may be of value, you know; you have only to put it into words to gain the reputation of being excellent company for the remainder of your existence.\"\n\nX. THE ADVENTURE OF THE NOBLE BACHELOR\n\n\nThe Lord St. Simon marriage, and its curious termination, have long ceased to be a subject of interest in those exalted circles in which the unfortunate bridegroom moves. Fresh scandals have eclipsed it, and their more piquant details have drawn the gossips away from this four-year-old drama. As I have reason to believe, however, that the full facts have never been revealed to the general public, and as my friend Sherlock Holmes had a considerable share in clearing the matter up, I feel that no memoir of him would be complete without some little sketch of this remarkable episode.\n\nIt was a few weeks before my own marriage, during the days when I was still sharing rooms with Holmes in Baker Street, that he came home from an afternoon stroll to find a letter on the table waiting for him. I had remained indoors all day, for the weather had taken a sudden turn to rain, with high autumnal winds, and the Jezail bullet which I had brought back in one of my limbs as a relic of my Afghan campaign throbbed with dull persistence. With my body in one easy-chair and my legs upon another, I had surrounded myself with a cloud of newspapers until at last, saturated with the news of the day, I tossed them all aside and lay listless, watching the huge crest and monogram upon the envelope upon the table and wondering lazily who my friend's noble correspondent could be.\n\n\"Here is a very fashionable epistle,\" I remarked as he entered. \"Your morning letters, if I remember right, were from a fish-monger and a tide-waiter.\"\n\n\"Yes, my correspondence has certainly the charm of variety,\" he answered, smiling, \"and the humbler are usually the more interesting. This looks like one of those unwelcome social summonses which call upon a man either to be bored or to lie.\"\n\nHe broke the seal and glanced over the contents.\n\n\"Oh, come, it may prove to be something of interest, after all.\"\n\n\"Not social, then?\"\n\n\"No, distinctly professional.\"\n\n\"And from a noble client?\"\n\n\"One of the highest in England.\"\n\n\"My dear fellow, I congratulate you.\"\n\n\"I assure you, Watson, without affectation, that the status of my client is a matter of less moment to me than the interest of his case. It is just possible, however, that that also may not be wanting in this new investigation. You have been reading the papers diligently of late, have you not?\"\n\n\"It looks like it,\" said I ruefully, pointing to a huge bundle in the corner. \"I have had nothing else to do.\"\n\n\"It is fortunate, for you will perhaps be able to post me up. I read nothing except the criminal news and the agony column. The latter is always instructive. But if you have followed recent events so closely you must have read about Lord St. Simon and his wedding?\"\n\n\"Oh, yes, with the deepest interest.\"\n\n\"That is well. The letter which I hold in my hand is from Lord St. Simon. I will read it to you, and in return you must turn over these papers and let me have whatever bears upon the matter. This is what he says:\n\n\" 'MY DEAR MR. SHERLOCK HOLMES:--Lord Backwater tells me that I may place implicit reliance upon your judgment and discretion. I have determined, therefore, to call upon you and to consult you in reference to the very painful event which has occurred in connection with my wedding. Mr. Lestrade, of Scotland Yard, is acting already in the matter, but he assures me that he sees no objection to your co-operation, and that he even thinks that it might be of some assistance. I will call at four o'clock in the afternoon, and, should you have any other engagement at that time, I hope that you will postpone it, as this matter is of paramount importance. Yours faithfully,\n\n\n\" 'ST. SIMON.'\n\n\"It is dated from Grosvenor Mansions, written with a quill pen, and the noble lord has had the misfortune to get a smear of ink upon the outer side of his right little finger,\" remarked Holmes as he folded up the epistle.\n\n\"He says four o'clock. It is three now. He will be here in an hour.\"\n\n\"Then I have just time, with your assistance, to get clear upon the subject. Turn over those papers and arrange the extracts in their order of time, while I take a glance as to who our client is.\" He picked a red-covered volume from a line of books of reference beside the mantelpiece. \"Here he is,\" said he, sitting down and flattening it out upon his knee. \" 'Lord Robert Walsingham de Vere St. Simon, second son of the Duke of Balmoral.' Hum! 'Arms: Azure, three caltrops in chief over a fess sable. Born in 1846.' He's forty-one years of age, which is mature for marriage. Was Under-Secretary for the colonies in a late administration. The Duke, his father, was at one time Secretary for Foreign Affairs. They inherit Plantagenet blood by direct descent, and Tudor on the distaff side. Ha! Well, there is nothing very instructive in all this. I think that I must turn to you Watson, for something more solid.\"\n\n\"I have very little difficulty in finding what I want,\" said I, \"for the facts are quite recent, and the matter struck me as remarkable. I feared to refer them to you, however, as I knew that you had an inquiry on hand and that you disliked the intrusion of other matters.\"\n\n\"Oh, you mean the little problem of the Grosvenor Square furniture van. That is quite cleared up now--though, indeed, it was obvious from the first. Pray give me the results of your newspaper selections.\"\n\n\"Here is the first notice which I can find. It is in the personal column of the Morning Post, and dates, as you see, some weeks back: 'A marriage has been arranged,' it says, 'and will, if rumour is correct, very shortly take place, between Lord Robert St. Simon, second son of the Duke of Balmoral, and Miss Hatty Doran, the only daughter of Aloysius Doran. Esq., of San Francisco, Cal., U.S.A.' That is all.\"\n\n\"Terse and to the point,\" remarked Holmes, stretching his long, thin legs towards the fire.\n\n\"There was a paragraph amplifying this in one of the society papers of the same week. Ah, here it is: 'There will soon be a call for protection in the marriage market, for the present free-trade principle appears to tell heavily against our home product. One by one the management of the noble houses of Great Britain is passing into the hands of our fair cousins from across the Atlantic. An important addition has been made during the last week to the list of the prizes which have been borne away by these charming invaders. Lord St. Simon, who has shown himself for over twenty years proof against the little god's arrows, has now definitely announced his approaching marriage with Miss Hatty Doran, the fascinating daughter of a California millionaire. Miss Doran, whose graceful figure and striking face attracted much attention at the Westbury House festivities, is an only child, and it is currently reported that her dowry will run to considerably over the six figures, with expectancies for the future. As it is an open secret that the Duke of Balmoral has been compelled to sell his pictures within the last few years, and as Lord St. Simon has no property of his own save the small estate of Birchmoor, it is obvious that the Californian heiress is not the only gainer by an alliance which will enable her to make the easy and common transition from a Republican lady to a British peeress.' \"\n\n\"Anything else?\" asked Holmes, yawning.\n\n\"Oh, yes; plenty. Then there is another note in the Morning Post to say that the marriage would be an absolutely quiet one, that it would be at St. George's, Hanover Square, that only half a dozen intimate friends would be invited, and that the party would return to the furnished house at Lancaster Gate which has been taken by Mr. Aloysius Doran. Two days later--that is, on Wednesday last--there is a curt announcement that the wedding had taken place, and that the honeymoon would be passed at Lord Backwater's place, near Petersfield. Those are all the notices which appeared before the disappearance of the bride.\"\n\n\"Before the what?\" asked Holmes with a start.\n\n\"The vanishing of the lady.\"\n\n\"When did she vanish, then?\"\n\n\"At the wedding breakfast.\"\n\n\"Indeed. This is more interesting than it promised to be; quite dramatic, in fact.\"\n\n\"Yes; it struck me as being a little out of the common.\"\n\n\"They often vanish before the ceremony, and occasionally during the honeymoon; but I cannot call to mind anything quite so prompt as this. Pray let me have the details.\"\n\n\"I warn you that they are very incomplete.\"\n\n\"Perhaps we may make them less so.\"\n\n\"Such as they are, they are set forth in a single article of a morning paper of yesterday, which I will read to you. It is headed, 'Singular Occurrence at a Fashionable Wedding':\n\n\" 'The family of Lord Robert St. Simon has been thrown into the greatest consternation by the strange and painful episodes which have taken place in connection with his wedding. The ceremony, as shortly announced in the papers of yesterday, occurred on the previous morning; but it is only now that it has been possible to confirm the strange rumours which have been so persistently floating about. In spite of the attempts of the friends to hush the matter up, so much public attention has now been drawn to it that no good purpose can be served by affecting to disregard what is a common subject for conversation.\n\n\" 'The ceremony, which was performed at St. George's, Hanover Square, was a very quiet one, no one being present save the father of the bride, Mr. Aloysius Doran, the Duchess of Balmoral, Lord Backwater, Lord Eustace and Lady Clara St. Simon (the younger brother and sister of the bridegroom), and Lady Alicia Whittington. The whole party proceeded afterwards to the house of Mr. Aloysius Doran, at Lancaster Gate, where breakfast had been prepared. It appears that some little trouble was caused by a woman, whose name has not been ascertained, who endeavoured to force her way into the house after the bridal party, alleging that she had some claim upon Lord St. Simon. It was only after a painful and prolonged scene that she was ejected by the butler and the footman. The bride, who had fortunately entered the house before this unpleasant interruption, had sat down to breakfast with the rest, when she complained of a sudden indisposition and retired to her room. Her prolonged absence having caused some comment, her father followed her, but learned from her maid that she had only come up to her chamber for an instant, caught up an ulster and bonnet, and hurried down to the passage. One of the footmen declared that he had seen a lady leave the house thus apparelled, but had refused to credit that it was his mistress, believing her to be with the company. On ascertaining that his daughter had disappeared, Mr. Aloysius Doran, in conjunction with the bridegroom, instantly put themselves in communication with the police, and very energetic inquiries are being made, which will probably result in a speedy clearing up of this very singular business. Up to a late hour last night, however, nothing had transpired as to the whereabouts of the missing lady. There are rumours of foul play in the matter, and it is said that the police have caused the arrest of the woman who had caused the original disturbance, in the belief that, from jealousy or some other motive, she may have been concerned in the strange disappearance of the bride.' \"\n\n\"And is that all?\"\n\n\"Only one little item in another of the morning papers, but it is a suggestive one.\"\n\n\"And it is--\"\n\n\"That Miss Flora Millar, the lady who had caused the disturbance, has actually been arrested. It appears that she was formerly a danseuse at the Allegro, and that she has known the bridegroom for some years. There are no further particulars, and the whole case is in your hands now--so far as it has been set forth in the public press.\"\n\n\"And an exceedingly interesting case it appears to be. I would not have missed it for worlds. But there is a ring at the bell, Watson, and as the clock makes it a few minutes after four, I have no doubt that this will prove to be our noble client. Do not dream of going, Watson, for I very much prefer having a witness, if only as a check to my own memory.\"\n\n\"Lord Robert St. Simon,\" announced our page-boy, throwing open the door. A gentleman entered, with a pleasant, cultured face, high-nosed and pale, with something perhaps of petulance about the mouth, and with the steady, well-opened eye of a man whose pleasant lot it had ever been to command and to be obeyed. His manner was brisk, and yet his general appearance gave an undue impression of age, for he had a slight forward stoop and a little bend of the knees as he walked. His hair, too, as he swept off his very curly-brimmed hat, was grizzled round the edges and thin upon the top. As to his dress, it was careful to the verge of foppishness, with high collar, black frock-coat, white waistcoat, yellow gloves, patent-leather shoes, and light-coloured gaiters. He advanced slowly into the room, turning his head from left to right, and swinging in his right hand the cord which held his golden eyeglasses.\n\n\"Good-day, Lord St. Simon,\" said Holmes, rising and bowing. \"Pray take the basket-chair. This is my friend and colleague, Dr. Watson. Draw up a little to the fire, and we will talk this matter over.\"\n\n\"A most painful matter to me, as you can most readily imagine, Mr. Holmes. I have been cut to the quick. I understand that you have already managed several delicate cases of this sort, sir, though I presume that they were hardly from the same class of society.\"\n\n\"No, I am descending.\"\n\n\"I beg pardon.\"\n\n\"My last client of the sort was a king.\"\n\n\"Oh, really! I had no idea. And which king?\"\n\n\"The King of Scandinavia.\"\n\n\"What! Had he lost his wife?\"\n\n\"You can understand,\" said Holmes suavely, \"that I extend to the affairs of my other clients the same secrecy which I promise to you in yours.\"\n\n\"Of course! Very right! very right! I'm sure I beg pardon. As to my own case, I am ready to give you any information which may assist you in forming an opinion.\"\n\n\"Thank you. I have already learned all that is in the public prints, nothing more. I presume that I may take it as correct--this article, for example, as to the disappearance of the bride.\"\n\nLord St. Simon glanced over it. \"Yes, it is correct, as far as it goes.\"\n\n\"But it needs a great deal of supplementing before anyone could offer an opinion. I think that I may arrive at my facts most directly by questioning you.\"\n\n\"Pray do so.\"\n\n\"When did you first meet Miss Hatty Doran?\"\n\n\"In San Francisco, a year ago.\"\n\n\"You were travelling in the States?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Did you become engaged then?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"But you were on a friendly footing?\"\n\n\"I was amused by her society, and she could see that I was amused.\"\n\n\"Her father is very rich?\"\n\n\"He is said to be the richest man on the Pacific slope.\"\n\n\"And how did he make his money?\"\n\n\"In mining. He had nothing a few years ago. Then he struck gold, invested it, and came up by leaps and bounds.\"\n\n\"Now, what is your own impression as to the young lady's--your wife's character?\"\n\nThe nobleman swung his glasses a little faster and stared down into the fire. \"You see, Mr. Holmes,\" said he, \"my wife was twenty before her father became a rich man. During that time she ran free in a mining camp and wandered through woods or mountains, so that her education has come from Nature rather than from the schoolmaster. She is what we call in England a tomboy, with a strong nature, wild and free, unfettered by any sort of traditions. She is impetuous--volcanic, I was about to say. She is swift in making up her mind and fearless in carrying out her resolutions. On the other hand, I would not have given her the name which I have the honour to bear\"--he gave a little stately cough--\"had I not thought her to be at bottom a noble woman. I believe that she is capable of heroic self-sacrifice and that anything dishonourable would be repugnant to her.\"\n\n\"Have you her photograph?\"\n\n\"I brought this with me.\" He opened a locket and showed us the full face of a very lovely woman. It was not a photograph but an ivory miniature, and the artist had brought out the full effect of the lustrous black hair, the large dark eyes, and the exquisite mouth. Holmes gazed long and earnestly at it. Then he closed the locket and handed it back to Lord St. Simon.\n\n\"The young lady came to London, then, and you renewed your acquaintance?\"\n\n\"Yes, her father brought her over for this last London season. I met her several times, became engaged to her, and have now married her.\"\n\n\"She brought, I understand, a considerable dowry?\"\n\n\"A fair dowry. Not more than is usual in my family.\"\n\n\"And this, of course, remains to you, since the marriage is a fait accompli?\"\n\n\"I really have made no inquiries on the subject.\"\n\n\"Very naturally not. Did you see Miss Doran on the day before the wedding?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Was she in good spirits?\"\n\n\"Never better. She kept talking of what we should do in our future lives.\"\n\n\"Indeed! That is very interesting. And on the morning of the wedding?\"\n\n\"She was as bright as possible--at least until after the ceremony.\"\n\n\"And did you observe any change in her then?\"\n\n\"Well, to tell the truth, I saw then the first signs that I had ever seen that her temper was just a little sharp. The incident however, was too trivial to relate and can have no possible bearing upon the case.\"\n\n\"Pray let us have it, for all that.\"\n\n\"Oh, it is childish. She dropped her bouquet as we went towards the vestry. She was passing the front pew at the time, and it fell over into the pew. There was a moment's delay, but the gentleman in the pew handed it up to her again, and it did not appear to be the worse for the fall. Yet when I spoke to her of the matter, she answered me abruptly; and in the carriage, on our way home, she seemed absurdly agitated over this trifling cause.\"\n\n\"Indeed! You say that there was a gentleman in the pew. Some of the general public were present, then?\"\n\n\"Oh, yes. It is impossible to exclude them when the church is open.\"\n\n\"This gentleman was not one of your wife's friends?\"\n\n\"No, no; I call him a gentleman by courtesy, but he was quite a common-looking person. I hardly noticed his appearance. But really I think that we are wandering rather far from the point.\"\n\n\"Lady St. Simon, then, returned from the wedding in a less cheerful frame of mind than she had gone to it. What did she do on re-entering her father's house?\"\n\n\"I saw her in conversation with her maid.\"\n\n\"And who is her maid?\"\n\n\"Alice is her name. She is an American and came from California with her.\"\n\n\"A confidential servant?\"\n\n\"A little too much so. It seemed to me that her mistress allowed her to take great liberties. Still, of course, in America they look upon these things in a different way.\"\n\n\"How long did she speak to this Alice?\"\n\n\"Oh, a few minutes. I had something else to think of.\"\n\n\"You did not overhear what they said?\"\n\n\"Lady St. Simon said something about 'jumping a claim.' She was accustomed to use slang of the kind. I have no idea what she meant.\"\n\n\"American slang is very expressive sometimes. And what did your wife do when she finished speaking to her maid?\"\n\n\"She walked into the breakfast-room.\"\n\n\"On your arm?\"\n\n\"No, alone. She was very independent in little matters like that. Then, after we had sat down for ten minutes or so, she rose hurriedly, muttered some words of apology, and left the room. She never came back.\"\n\n\"But this maid, Alice, as I understand, deposes that she went to her room, covered her bride's dress with a long ulster, put on a bonnet, and went out.\"\n\n\"Quite so. And she was afterwards seen walking into Hyde Park in company with Flora Millar, a woman who is now in custody, and who had already made a disturbance at Mr. Doran's house that morning.\"\n\n\"Ah, yes. I should like a few particulars as to this young lady, and your relations to her.\"\n\nLord St. Simon shrugged his shoulders and raised his eyebrows. \"We have been on a friendly footing for some years--I may say on a very friendly footing. She used to be at the Allegro. I have not treated her ungenerously, and she had no just cause of complaint against me, but you know what women are, Mr. Holmes. Flora was a dear little thing, but exceedingly hot-headed and devotedly attached to me. She wrote me dreadful letters when she heard that I was about to be married, and, to tell the truth, the reason why I had the marriage celebrated so quietly was that I feared lest there might be a scandal in the church. She came to Mr. Doran's door just after we returned, and she endeavoured to push her way in, uttering very abusive expressions towards my wife, and even threatening her, but I had foreseen the possibility of something of the sort, and I had two police fellows there in private clothes, who soon pushed her out again. She was quiet when she saw that there was no good in making a row.\"\n\n\"Did your wife hear all this?\"\n\n\"No, thank goodness, she did not.\"\n\n\"And she was seen walking with this very woman afterwards?\"\n\n\"Yes. That is what Mr. Lestrade, of Scotland Yard, looks upon as so serious. It is thought that Flora decoyed my wife out and laid some terrible trap for her.\"\n\n\"Well, it is a possible supposition.\"\n\n\"You think so, too?\"\n\n\"I did not say a probable one. But you do not yourself look upon this as likely?\"\n\n\"I do not think Flora would hurt a fly.\"\n\n\"Still, jealousy is a strange transformer of characters. Pray what is your own theory as to what took place?\"\n\n\"Well, really, I came to seek a theory, not to propound one. I have given you all the facts. Since you ask me, however, I may say that it has occurred to me as possible that the excitement of this affair, the consciousness that she had made so immense a social stride, had the effect of causing some little nervous disturbance in my wife.\"\n\n\"In short, that she had become suddenly deranged?\"\n\n\"Well, really, when I consider that she has turned her back--I will not say upon me, but upon so much that many have aspired to without success--I can hardly explain it in any other fashion.\"\n\n\"Well, certainly that is also a conceivable hypothesis,\" said Holmes, smiling. \"And now, Lord St. Simon, I think that I have nearly all my data. May I ask whether you were seated at the breakfast-table so that you could see out of the window?\"\n\n\"We could see the other side of the road and the Park.\"\n\n\"Quite so. Then I do not think that I need to detain you longer. I shall communicate with you.\"\n\n\"Should you be fortunate enough to solve this problem,\" said our client, rising.\n\n\"I have solved it.\"\n\n\"Eh? What was that?\"\n\n\"I say that I have solved it.\"\n\n\"Where, then, is my wife?\"\n\n\"That is a detail which I shall speedily supply.\"\n\nLord St. Simon shook his head. \"I am afraid that it will take wiser heads than yours or mine,\" he remarked, and bowing in a stately, old-fashioned manner he departed.\n\n\"It is very good of Lord St. Simon to honour my head by putting it on a level with his own,\" said Sherlock Holmes, laughing. \"I think that I shall have a whisky and soda and a cigar after all this cross-questioning. I had formed my conclusions as to the case before our client came into the room.\"\n\n\"My dear Holmes!\"\n\n\"I have notes of several similar cases, though none, as I remarked before, which were quite as prompt. My whole examination served to turn my conjecture into a certainty. Circumstantial evidence is occasionally very convincing, as when you find a trout in the milk, to quote Thoreau's example.\"\n\n\"But I have heard all that you have heard.\"\n\n\"Without, however, the knowledge of pre-existing cases which serves me so well. There was a parallel instance in Aberdeen some years back, and something on very much the same lines at Munich the year after the Franco-Prussian War. It is one of these cases--but, hullo, here is Lestrade! Good-afternoon, Lestrade! You will find an extra tumbler upon the sideboard, and there are cigars in the box.\"\n\nThe official detective was attired in a pea-jacket and cravat, which gave him a decidedly nautical appearance, and he carried a black canvas bag in his hand. With a short greeting he seated himself and lit the cigar which had been offered to him.\n\n\"What's up, then?\" asked Holmes with a twinkle in his eye. \"You look dissatisfied.\"\n\n\"And I feel dissatisfied. It is this infernal St. Simon marriage case. I can make neither head nor tail of the business.\"\n\n\"Really! You surprise me.\"\n\n\"Who ever heard of such a mixed affair? Every clue seems to slip through my fingers. I have been at work upon it all day.\"\n\n\"And very wet it seems to have made you,\" said Holmes laying his hand upon the arm of the pea-jacket.\n\n\"Yes, I have been dragging the Serpentine.\"\n\n\"In heaven's name, what for?\"\n\n\"In search of the body of Lady St. Simon.\"\n\nSherlock Holmes leaned back in his chair and laughed heartily.\n\n\"Have you dragged the basin of Trafalgar Square fountain?\" he asked.\n\n\"Why? What do you mean?\"\n\n\"Because you have just as good a chance of finding this lady in the one as in the other.\"\n\nLestrade shot an angry glance at my companion. \"I suppose you know all about it,\" he snarled.\n\n\"Well, I have only just heard the facts, but my mind is made up.\"\n\n\"Oh, indeed! Then you think that the Serpentine plays no part in the matter?\"\n\n\"I think it very unlikely.\"\n\n\"Then perhaps you will kindly explain how it is that we found this in it?\" He opened his bag as he spoke, and tumbled onto the floor a wedding-dress of watered silk, a pair of white satin shoes and a bride's wreath and veil, all discoloured and soaked in water. \"There,\" said he, putting a new wedding-ring upon the top of the pile. \"There is a little nut for you to crack, Master Holmes.\"\n\n\"Oh, indeed!\" said my friend, blowing blue rings into the air. \"You dragged them from the Serpentine?\"\n\n\"No. They were found floating near the margin by a park-keeper. They have been identified as her clothes, and it seemed to me that if the clothes were there the body would not be far off.\"\n\n\"By the same brilliant reasoning, every man's body is to be found in the neighbourhood of his wardrobe. And pray what did you hope to arrive at through this?\"\n\n\"At some evidence implicating Flora Millar in the disappearance.\"\n\n\"I am afraid that you will find it difficult.\"\n\n\"Are you, indeed, now?\" cried Lestrade with some bitterness. \"I am afraid, Holmes, that you are not very practical with your deductions and your inferences. You have made two blunders in as many minutes. This dress does implicate Miss Flora Millar.\"\n\n\"And how?\"\n\n\"In the dress is a pocket. In the pocket is a card-case. In the card-case is a note. And here is the very note.\" He slapped it down upon the table in front of him. \"Listen to this: 'You will see me when all is ready. Come at once. F. H. M.' Now my theory all along has been that Lady St. Simon was decoyed away by Flora Millar, and that she, with confederates, no doubt, was responsible for her disappearance. Here, signed with her initials, is the very note which was no doubt quietly slipped into her hand at the door and which lured her within their reach.\"\n\n\"Very good, Lestrade,\" said Holmes, laughing. \"You really are very fine indeed. Let me see it.\" He took up the paper in a listless way, but his attention instantly became riveted, and he gave a little cry of satisfaction. \"This is indeed important,\" said he.\n\n\"Ha! you find it so?\"\n\n\"Extremely so. I congratulate you warmly.\"\n\nLestrade rose in his triumph and bent his head to look. \"Why,\" he shrieked, \"you're looking at the wrong side!\"\n\n\"On the contrary, this is the right side.\"\n\n\"The right side? You're mad! Here is the note written in pencil over here.\"\n\n\"And over here is what appears to be the fragment of a hotel bill, which interests me deeply.\"\n\n\"There's nothing in it. I looked at it before,\" said Lestrade. \" 'Oct. 4th, rooms 8s., breakfast 2s. 6d., cocktail 1s., lunch 2s. 6d., glass sherry, 8d.' I see nothing in that.\"\n\n\"Very likely not. It is most important, all the same. As to the note, it is important also, or at least the initials are, so I congratulate you again.\"\n\n\"I've wasted time enough,\" said Lestrade, rising. \"I believe in hard work and not in sitting by the fire spinning fine theories. Good-day, Mr. Holmes, and we shall see which gets to the bottom of the matter first.\" He gathered up the garments, thrust them into the bag, and made for the door.\n\n\"Just one hint to you, Lestrade,\" drawled Holmes before his rival vanished; \"I will tell you the true solution of the matter. Lady St. Simon is a myth. There is not, and there never has been, any such person.\"\n\nLestrade looked sadly at my companion. Then he turned to me, tapped his forehead three times, shook his head solemnly, and hurried away.\n\nHe had hardly shut the door behind him when Holmes rose to put on his overcoat. \"There is something in what the fellow says about outdoor work,\" he remarked, \"so I think, Watson, that I must leave you to your papers for a little.\"\n\nIt was after five o'clock when Sherlock Holmes left me, but I had no time to be lonely, for within an hour there arrived a confectioner's man with a very large flat box. This he unpacked with the help of a youth whom he had brought with him, and presently, to my very great astonishment, a quite epicurean little cold supper began to be laid out upon our humble lodging-house mahogany. There were a couple of brace of cold woodcock, a pheasant, a pate de foie gras pie with a group of ancient and cobwebby bottles. Having laid out all these luxuries, my two visitors vanished away, like the genii of the Arabian Nights, with no explanation save that the things had been paid for and were ordered to this address.\n\nJust before nine o'clock Sherlock Holmes stepped briskly into the room. His features were gravely set, but there was a light in his eye which made me think that he had not been disappointed in his conclusions.\n\n\"They have laid the supper, then,\" he said, rubbing his hands.\n\n\"You seem to expect company. They have laid for five.\"\n\n\"Yes, I fancy we may have some company dropping in,\" said he. \"I am surprised that Lord St. Simon has not already arrived. Ha! I fancy that I hear his step now upon the stairs.\"\n\nIt was indeed our visitor of the afternoon who came bustling in, dangling his glasses more vigorously than ever, and with a very perturbed expression upon his aristocratic features.\n\n\"My messenger reached you, then?\" asked Holmes.\n\n\"Yes, and I confess that the contents startled me beyond measure. Have you good authority for what you say?\"\n\n\"The best possible.\"\n\nLord St. Simon sank into a chair and passed his hand over his forehead.\n\n\"What will the Duke say,\" he murmured, \"when he hears that one of the family has been subjected to such humiliation?\"\n\n\"It is the purest accident. I cannot allow that there is any humiliation.\"\n\n\"Ah, you look on these things from another standpoint.\"\n\n\"I fail to see that anyone is to blame. I can hardly see how the lady could have acted otherwise, though her abrupt method of doing it was undoubtedly to be regretted. Having no mother, she had no one to advise her at such a crisis.\"\n\n\"It was a slight, sir, a public slight,\" said Lord St. Simon, tapping his fingers upon the table.\n\n\"You must make allowance for this poor girl, placed in so unprecedented a position.\"\n\n\"I will make no allowance. I am very angry indeed, and I have been shamefully used.\"\n\n\"I think that I heard a ring,\" said Holmes. \"Yes, there are steps on the landing. If I cannot persuade you to take a lenient view of the matter, Lord St. Simon, I have brought an advocate here who may be more successful.\" He opened the door and ushered in a lady and gentleman. \"Lord St. Simon,\" said he \"allow me to introduce you to Mr. and Mrs. Francis Hay Moulton. The lady, I think, you have already met.\"\n\nAt the sight of these newcomers our client had sprung from his seat and stood very erect, with his eyes cast down and his hand thrust into the breast of his frock-coat, a picture of offended dignity. The lady had taken a quick step forward and had held out her hand to him, but he still refused to raise his eyes. It was as well for his resolution, perhaps, for her pleading face was one which it was hard to resist.\n\n\"You're angry, Robert,\" said she. \"Well, I guess you have every cause to be.\"\n\n\"Pray make no apology to me,\" said Lord St. Simon bitterly.\n\n\"Oh, yes, I know that I have treated you real bad and that I should have spoken to you before I went; but I was kind of rattled, and from the time when I saw Frank here again I just didn't know what I was doing or saying. I only wonder I didn't fall down and do a faint right there before the altar.\"\n\n\"Perhaps, Mrs. Moulton, you would like my friend and me to leave the room while you explain this matter?\"\n\n\"If I may give an opinion,\" remarked the strange gentleman, \"we've had just a little too much secrecy over this business already. For my part, I should like all Europe and America to hear the rights of it.\" He was a small, wiry, sunburnt man, clean-shaven, with a sharp face and alert manner.\n\n\"Then I'll tell our story right away,\" said the lady. \"Frank here and I met in '84, in McQuire's camp, near the Rockies, where Pa was working a claim. We were engaged to each other, Frank and I; but then one day father struck a rich pocket and made a pile, while poor Frank here had a claim that petered out and came to nothing. The richer Pa grew the poorer was Frank; so at last Pa wouldn't hear of our engagement lasting any longer, and he took me away to 'Frisco. Frank wouldn't throw up his hand, though; so he followed me there, and he saw me without Pa knowing anything about it. It would only have made him mad to know, so we just fixed it all up for ourselves. Frank said that he would go and make his pile, too, and never come back to claim me until he had as much as Pa. So then I promised to wait for him to the end of time and pledged myself not to marry anyone else while he lived. 'Why shouldn't we be married right away, then,' said he, 'and then I will feel sure of you; and I won't claim to be your husband until I come back?' Well, we talked it over, and he had fixed it all up so nicely, with a clergyman all ready in waiting, that we just did it right there; and then Frank went off to seek his fortune, and I went back to Pa.\n\n\"The next I heard of Frank was that he was in Montana, and then he went prospecting in Arizona, and then I heard of him from New Mexico. After that came a long newspaper story about how a miners' camp had been attacked by Apache Indians, and there was my Frank's name among the killed. I fainted dead away, and I was very sick for months after. Pa thought I had a decline and took me to half the doctors in 'Frisco. Not a word of news came for a year and more, so that I never doubted that Frank was really dead. Then Lord St. Simon came to 'Frisco, and we came to London, and a marriage was arranged, and Pa was very pleased, but I felt all the time that no man on this earth would ever take the place in my heart that had been given to my poor Frank.\n\n\"Still, if I had married Lord St. Simon, of course I'd have done my duty by him. We can't command our love, but we can our actions. I went to the altar with him with the intention to make him just as good a wife as it was in me to be. But you may imagine what I felt when, just as I came to the altar rails, I glanced back and saw Frank standing and looking at me out of the first pew. I thought it was his ghost at first; but when I looked again there he was still, with a kind of question in his eyes, as if to ask me whether I were glad or sorry to see him. I wonder I didn't drop. I know that everything was turning round, and the words of the clergyman were just like the buzz of a bee in my ear. I didn't know what to do. Should I stop the service and make a scene in the church? I glanced at him again, and he seemed to know what I was thinking, for he raised his finger to his lips to tell me to be still. Then I saw him scribble on a piece of paper, and I knew that he was writing me a note. As I passed his pew on the way out I dropped my bouquet over to him, and he slipped the note into my hand when he returned me the flowers. It was only a line asking me to join him when he made the sign to me to do so. Of course I never doubted for a moment that my first duty was now to him, and I determined to do just whatever he might direct.\n\n\"When I got back I told my maid, who had known him in California, and had always been his friend. I ordered her to say nothing, but to get a few things packed and my ulster ready. I know I ought to have spoken to Lord St. Simon, but it was dreadful hard before his mother and all those great people. I just made up my mind to run away and explain afterwards. I hadn't been at the table ten minutes before I saw Frank out of the window at the other side of the road. He beckoned to me and then began walking into the Park. I slipped out, put on my things, and followed him. Some woman came talking something or other about Lord St. Simon to me--seemed to me from the little I heard as if he had a little secret of his own before marriage also--but I managed to get away from her and soon overtook Frank. We got into a cab together, and away we drove to some lodgings he had taken in Gordon Square, and that was my true wedding after all those years of waiting. Frank had been a prisoner among the Apaches, had escaped, came on to 'Frisco, found that I had given him up for dead and had gone to England, followed me there, and had come upon me at last on the very morning of my second wedding.\"\n\n\"I saw it in a paper,\" explained the American. \"It gave the name and the church but not where the lady lived.\"\n\n\"Then we had a talk as to what we should do, and Frank was all for openness, but I was so ashamed of it all that I felt as if I should like to vanish away and never see any of them again--just sending a line to Pa, perhaps, to show him that I was alive. It was awful to me to think of all those lords and ladies sitting round that breakfast-table and waiting for me to come back. So Frank took my wedding-clothes and things and made a bundle of them, so that I should not be traced, and dropped them away somewhere where no one could find them. It is likely that we should have gone on to Paris to-morrow, only that this good gentleman, Mr. Holmes, came round to us this evening, though how he found us is more than I can think, and he showed us very clearly and kindly that I was wrong and that Frank was right, and that we should be putting ourselves in the wrong if we were so secret. Then he offered to give us a chance of talking to Lord St. Simon alone, and so we came right away round to his rooms at once. Now, Robert, you have heard it all, and I am very sorry if I have given you pain, and I hope that you do not think very meanly of me.\"\n\nLord St. Simon had by no means relaxed his rigid attitude, but had listened with a frowning brow and a compressed lip to this long narrative.\n\n\"Excuse me,\" he said, \"but it is not my custom to discuss my most intimate personal affairs in this public manner.\"\n\n\"Then you won't forgive me? You won't shake hands before I go?\"\n\n\"Oh, certainly, if it would give you any pleasure.\" He put out his hand and coldly grasped that which she extended to him.\n\n\"I had hoped,\" suggested Holmes, \"that you would have joined us in a friendly supper.\"\n\n\"I think that there you ask a little too much,\" responded his Lordship. \"I may be forced to acquiesce in these recent developments, but I can hardly be expected to make merry over them. I think that with your permission I will now wish you all a very good-night.\" He included us all in a sweeping bow and stalked out of the room.\n\n\"Then I trust that you at least will honour me with your company,\" said Sherlock Holmes. \"It is always a joy to meet an American, Mr. Moulton, for I am one of those who believe that the folly of a monarch and the blundering of a minister in far-gone years will not prevent our children from being some day citizens of the same world-wide country under a flag which shall be a quartering of the Union Jack with the Stars and Stripes.\"\n\n\"The case has been an interesting one,\" remarked Holmes when our visitors had left us, \"because it serves to show very clearly how simple the explanation may be of an affair which at first sight seems to be almost inexplicable. Nothing could be more natural than the sequence of events as narrated by this lady, and nothing stranger than the result when viewed, for instance, by Mr. Lestrade of Scotland Yard.\"\n\n\"You were not yourself at fault at all, then?\"\n\n\"From the first, two facts were very obvious to me, the one that the lady had been quite willing to undergo the wedding ceremony, the other that she had repented of it within a few minutes of returning home. Obviously something had occurred during the morning, then, to cause her to change her mind. What could that something be? She could not have spoken to anyone when she was out, for she had been in the company of the bridegroom. Had she seen someone, then? If she had, it must be someone from America because she had spent so short a time in this country that she could hardly have allowed anyone to acquire so deep an influence over her that the mere sight of him would induce her to change her plans so completely. You see we have already arrived, by a process of exclusion, at the idea that she might have seen an American. Then who could this American be, and why should he possess so much influence over her? It might be a lover; it might be a husband. Her young womanhood had, I knew, been spent in rough scenes and under strange conditions. So far I had got before I ever heard Lord St. Simon's narrative. When he told us of a man in a pew, of the change in the bride's manner, of so transparent a device for obtaining a note as the dropping of a bouquet, of her resort to her confidential maid, and of her very significant allusion to claim-jumping--which in miners' parlance means taking possession of that which another person has a prior claim to--the whole situation became absolutely clear. She had gone off with a man, and the man was either a lover or was a previous husband--the chances being in favour of the latter.\"\n\n\"And how in the world did you find them?\"\n\n\"It might have been difficult, but friend Lestrade held information in his hands the value of which he did not himself know. The initials were, of course, of the highest importance, but more valuable still was it to know that within a week he had settled his bill at one of the most select London hotels.\"\n\n\"How did you deduce the select?\"\n\n\"By the select prices. Eight shillings for a bed and eightpence for a glass of sherry pointed to one of the most expensive hotels. There are not many in London which charge at that rate. In the second one which I visited in Northumberland Avenue, I learned by an inspection of the book that Francis H. Moulton, an American gentleman, had left only the day before, and on looking over the entries against him, I came upon the very items which I had seen in the duplicate bill. His letters were to be forwarded to 226 Gordon Square; so thither I travelled, and being fortunate enough to find the loving couple at home, I ventured to give them some paternal advice and to point out to them that it would be better in every way that they should make their position a little clearer both to the general public and to Lord St. Simon in particular. I invited them to meet him here, and, as you see, I made him keep the appointment.\"\n\n\"But with no very good result,\" I remarked. \"His conduct was certainly not very gracious.\"\n\n\"Ah, Watson,\" said Holmes, smiling, \"perhaps you would not be very gracious either, if, after all the trouble of wooing and wedding, you found yourself deprived in an instant of wife and of fortune. I think that we may judge Lord St. Simon very mercifully and thank our stars that we are never likely to find ourselves in the same position. Draw your chair up and hand me my violin, for the only problem we have still to solve is how to while away these bleak autumnal evenings.\"\n\nXI. THE ADVENTURE OF THE BERYL CORONET\n\n\n\"Holmes,\" said I as I stood one morning in our bow-window looking down the street, \"here is a madman coming along. It seems rather sad that his relatives should allow him to come out alone.\"\n\nMy friend rose lazily from his armchair and stood with his hands in the pockets of his dressing-gown, looking over my shoulder. It was a bright, crisp February morning, and the snow of the day before still lay deep upon the ground, shimmering brightly in the wintry sun. Down the centre of Baker Street it had been ploughed into a brown crumbly band by the traffic, but at either side and on the heaped-up edges of the foot-paths it still lay as white as when it fell. The grey pavement had been cleaned and scraped, but was still dangerously slippery, so that there were fewer passengers than usual. Indeed, from the direction of the Metropolitan Station no one was coming save the single gentleman whose eccentric conduct had drawn my attention.\n\nHe was a man of about fifty, tall, portly, and imposing, with a massive, strongly marked face and a commanding figure. He was dressed in a sombre yet rich style, in black frock-coat, shining hat, neat brown gaiters, and well-cut pearl-grey trousers. Yet his actions were in absurd contrast to the dignity of his dress and features, for he was running hard, with occasional little springs, such as a weary man gives who is little accustomed to set any tax upon his legs. As he ran he jerked his hands up and down, waggled his head, and writhed his face into the most extraordinary contortions.\n\n\"What on earth can be the matter with him?\" I asked. \"He is looking up at the numbers of the houses.\"\n\n\"I believe that he is coming here,\" said Holmes, rubbing his hands.\n\n\"Here?\"\n\n\"Yes; I rather think he is coming to consult me professionally. I think that I recognise the symptoms. Ha! did I not tell you?\" As he spoke, the man, puffing and blowing, rushed at our door and pulled at our bell until the whole house resounded with the clanging.\n\nA few moments later he was in our room, still puffing, still gesticulating, but with so fixed a look of grief and despair in his eyes that our smiles were turned in an instant to horror and pity. For a while he could not get his words out, but swayed his body and plucked at his hair like one who has been driven to the extreme limits of his reason. Then, suddenly springing to his feet, he beat his head against the wall with such force that we both rushed upon him and tore him away to the centre of the room. Sherlock Holmes pushed him down into the easy-chair and, sitting beside him, patted his hand and chatted with him in the easy, soothing tones which he knew so well how to employ.\n\n\"You have come to me to tell your story, have you not?\" said he. \"You are fatigued with your haste. Pray wait until you have recovered yourself, and then I shall be most happy to look into any little problem which you may submit to me.\"\n\nThe man sat for a minute or more with a heaving chest, fighting against his emotion. Then he passed his handkerchief over his brow, set his lips tight, and turned his face towards us.\n\n\"No doubt you think me mad?\" said he.\n\n\"I see that you have had some great trouble,\" responded Holmes.\n\n\"God knows I have!--a trouble which is enough to unseat my reason, so sudden and so terrible is it. Public disgrace I might have faced, although I am a man whose character has never yet borne a stain. Private affliction also is the lot of every man; but the two coming together, and in so frightful a form, have been enough to shake my very soul. Besides, it is not I alone. The very noblest in the land may suffer unless some way be found out of this horrible affair.\"\n\n\"Pray compose yourself, sir,\" said Holmes, \"and let me have a clear account of who you are and what it is that has befallen you.\"\n\n\"My name,\" answered our visitor, \"is probably familiar to your ears. I am Alexander Holder, of the banking firm of Holder & Stevenson, of Threadneedle Street.\"\n\nThe name was indeed well known to us as belonging to the senior partner in the second largest private banking concern in the City of London. What could have happened, then, to bring one of the foremost citizens of London to this most pitiable pass? We waited, all curiosity, until with another effort he braced himself to tell his story.\n\n\"I feel that time is of value,\" said he; \"that is why I hastened here when the police inspector suggested that I should secure your co-operation. I came to Baker Street by the Underground and hurried from there on foot, for the cabs go slowly through this snow. That is why I was so out of breath, for I am a man who takes very little exercise. I feel better now, and I will put the facts before you as shortly and yet as clearly as I can.\n\n\"It is, of course, well known to you that in a successful banking business as much depends upon our being able to find remunerative investments for our funds as upon our increasing our connection and the number of our depositors. One of our most lucrative means of laying out money is in the shape of loans, where the security is unimpeachable. We have done a good deal in this direction during the last few years, and there are many noble families to whom we have advanced large sums upon the security of their pictures, libraries, or plate.\n\n\"Yesterday morning I was seated in my office at the bank when a card was brought in to me by one of the clerks. I started when I saw the name, for it was that of none other than--well, perhaps even to you I had better say no more than that it was a name which is a household word all over the earth--one of the highest, noblest, most exalted names in England. I was overwhelmed by the honour and attempted, when he entered, to say so, but he plunged at once into business with the air of a man who wishes to hurry quickly through a disagreeable task.\n\n\" 'Mr. Holder,' said he, 'I have been informed that you are in the habit of advancing money.'\n\n\" 'The firm does so when the security is good.' I answered.\n\n\" 'It is absolutely essential to me,' said he, 'that I should have $50,000 at once. I could, of course, borrow so trifling a sum ten times over from my friends, but I much prefer to make it a matter of business and to carry out that business myself. In my position you can readily understand that it is unwise to place one's self under obligations.'\n\n\" 'For how long, may I ask, do you want this sum?' I asked.\n\n\" 'Next Monday I have a large sum due to me, and I shall then most certainly repay what you advance, with whatever interest you think it right to charge. But it is very essential to me that the money should be paid at once.'\n\n\" 'I should be happy to advance it without further parley from my own private purse,' said I, 'were it not that the strain would be rather more than it could bear. If, on the other hand, I am to do it in the name of the firm, then in justice to my partner I must insist that, even in your case, every businesslike precaution should be taken.'\n\n\" 'I should much prefer to have it so,' said he, raising up a square, black morocco case which he had laid beside his chair. 'You have doubtless heard of the Beryl Coronet?'\n\n\" 'One of the most precious public possessions of the empire,' said I.\n\n\" 'Precisely.' He opened the case, and there, imbedded in soft, flesh-coloured velvet, lay the magnificent piece of jewellery which he had named. 'There are thirty-nine enormous beryls,' said he, 'and the price of the gold chasing is incalculable. The lowest estimate would put the worth of the coronet at double the sum which I have asked. I am prepared to leave it with you as my security.'\n\n\"I took the precious case into my hands and looked in some perplexity from it to my illustrious client.\n\n\" 'You doubt its value?' he asked.\n\n\" 'Not at all. I only doubt--'\n\n\" 'The propriety of my leaving it. You may set your mind at rest about that. I should not dream of doing so were it not absolutely certain that I should be able in four days to reclaim it. It is a pure matter of form. Is the security sufficient?'\n\n\" 'Ample.'\n\n\" 'You understand, Mr. Holder, that I am giving you a strong proof of the confidence which I have in you, founded upon all that I have heard of you. I rely upon you not only to be discreet and to refrain from all gossip upon the matter but, above all, to preserve this coronet with every possible precaution because I need not say that a great public scandal would be caused if any harm were to befall it. Any injury to it would be almost as serious as its complete loss, for there are no beryls in the world to match these, and it would be impossible to replace them. I leave it with you, however, with every confidence, and I shall call for it in person on Monday morning.'\n\n\"Seeing that my client was anxious to leave, I said no more but, calling for my cashier, I ordered him to pay over fifty $1000 notes. When I was alone once more, however, with the precious case lying upon the table in front of me, I could not but think with some misgivings of the immense responsibility which it entailed upon me. There could be no doubt that, as it was a national possession, a horrible scandal would ensue if any misfortune should occur to it. I already regretted having ever consented to take charge of it. However, it was too late to alter the matter now, so I locked it up in my private safe and turned once more to my work.\n\n\"When evening came I felt that it would be an imprudence to leave so precious a thing in the office behind me. Bankers' safes had been forced before now, and why should not mine be? If so, how terrible would be the position in which I should find myself! I determined, therefore, that for the next few days I would always carry the case backward and forward with me, so that it might never be really out of my reach. With this intention, I called a cab and drove out to my house at Streatham, carrying the jewel with me. I did not breathe freely until I had taken it upstairs and locked it in the bureau of my dressing-room.\n\n\"And now a word as to my household, Mr. Holmes, for I wish you to thoroughly understand the situation. My groom and my page sleep out of the house, and may be set aside altogether. I have three maid-servants who have been with me a number of years and whose absolute reliability is quite above suspicion. Another, Lucy Parr, the second waiting-maid, has only been in my service a few months. She came with an excellent character, however, and has always given me satisfaction. She is a very pretty girl and has attracted admirers who have occasionally hung about the place. That is the only drawback which we have found to her, but we believe her to be a thoroughly good girl in every way.\n\n\"So much for the servants. My family itself is so small that it will not take me long to describe it. I am a widower and have an only son, Arthur. He has been a disappointment to me, Mr. Holmes--a grievous disappointment. I have no doubt that I am myself to blame. People tell me that I have spoiled him. Very likely I have. When my dear wife died I felt that he was all I had to love. I could not bear to see the smile fade even for a moment from his face. I have never denied him a wish. Perhaps it would have been better for both of us had I been sterner, but I meant it for the best.\n\n\"It was naturally my intention that he should succeed me in my business, but he was not of a business turn. He was wild, wayward, and, to speak the truth, I could not trust him in the handling of large sums of money. When he was young he became a member of an aristocratic club, and there, having charming manners, he was soon the intimate of a number of men with long purses and expensive habits. He learned to play heavily at cards and to squander money on the turf, until he had again and again to come to me and implore me to give him an advance upon his allowance, that he might settle his debts of honour. He tried more than once to break away from the dangerous company which he was keeping, but each time the influence of his friend, Sir George Burnwell, was enough to draw him back again.\n\n\"And, indeed, I could not wonder that such a man as Sir George Burnwell should gain an influence over him, for he has frequently brought him to my house, and I have found myself that I could hardly resist the fascination of his manner. He is older than Arthur, a man of the world to his finger-tips, one who had been everywhere, seen everything, a brilliant talker, and a man of great personal beauty. Yet when I think of him in cold blood, far away from the glamour of his presence, I am convinced from his cynical speech and the look which I have caught in his eyes that he is one who should be deeply distrusted. So I think, and so, too, thinks my little Mary, who has a woman's quick insight into character.\n\n\"And now there is only she to be described. She is my niece; but when my brother died five years ago and left her alone in the world I adopted her, and have looked upon her ever since as my daughter. She is a sunbeam in my house--sweet, loving, beautiful, a wonderful manager and housekeeper, yet as tender and quiet and gentle as a woman could be. She is my right hand. I do not know what I could do without her. In only one matter has she ever gone against my wishes. Twice my boy has asked her to marry him, for he loves her devotedly, but each time she has refused him. I think that if anyone could have drawn him into the right path it would have been she, and that his marriage might have changed his whole life; but now, alas! it is too late--forever too late!\n\n\"Now, Mr. Holmes, you know the people who live under my roof, and I shall continue with my miserable story.\n\n\"When we were taking coffee in the drawing-room that night after dinner, I told Arthur and Mary my experience, and of the precious treasure which we had under our roof, suppressing only the name of my client. Lucy Parr, who had brought in the coffee, had, I am sure, left the room; but I cannot swear that the door was closed. Mary and Arthur were much interested and wished to see the famous coronet, but I thought it better not to disturb it.\n\n\" 'Where have you put it?' asked Arthur.\n\n\" 'In my own bureau.'\n\n\" 'Well, I hope to goodness the house won't be burgled during the night.' said he.\n\n\" 'It is locked up,' I answered.\n\n\" 'Oh, any old key will fit that bureau. When I was a youngster I have opened it myself with the key of the box-room cupboard.'\n\n\"He often had a wild way of talking, so that I thought little of what he said. He followed me to my room, however, that night with a very grave face.\n\n\" 'Look here, dad,' said he with his eyes cast down, 'can you let me have $200?'\n\n\" 'No, I cannot!' I answered sharply. 'I have been far too generous with you in money matters.'\n\n\" 'You have been very kind,' said he, 'but I must have this money, or else I can never show my face inside the club again.'\n\n\" 'And a very good thing, too!' I cried.\n\n\" 'Yes, but you would not have me leave it a dishonoured man,' said he. 'I could not bear the disgrace. I must raise the money in some way, and if you will not let me have it, then I must try other means.'\n\n\"I was very angry, for this was the third demand during the month. 'You shall not have a farthing from me,' I cried, on which he bowed and left the room without another word.\n\n\"When he was gone I unlocked my bureau, made sure that my treasure was safe, and locked it again. Then I started to go round the house to see that all was secure--a duty which I usually leave to Mary but which I thought it well to perform myself that night. As I came down the stairs I saw Mary herself at the side window of the hall, which she closed and fastened as I approached.\n\n\" 'Tell me, dad,' said she, looking, I thought, a little disturbed, 'did you give Lucy, the maid, leave to go out to-night?'\n\n\" 'Certainly not.'\n\n\" 'She came in just now by the back door. I have no doubt that she has only been to the side gate to see someone, but I think that it is hardly safe and should be stopped.'\n\n\" 'You must speak to her in the morning, or I will if you prefer it. Are you sure that everything is fastened?'\n\n\" 'Quite sure, dad.'\n\n\" 'Then, good-night.' I kissed her and went up to my bedroom again, where I was soon asleep.\n\n\"I am endeavouring to tell you everything, Mr. Holmes, which may have any bearing upon the case, but I beg that you will question me upon any point which I do not make clear.\"\n\n\"On the contrary, your statement is singularly lucid.\"\n\n\"I come to a part of my story now in which I should wish to be particularly so. I am not a very heavy sleeper, and the anxiety in my mind tended, no doubt, to make me even less so than usual. About two in the morning, then, I was awakened by some sound in the house. It had ceased ere I was wide awake, but it had left an impression behind it as though a window had gently closed somewhere. I lay listening with all my ears. Suddenly, to my horror, there was a distinct sound of footsteps moving softly in the next room. I slipped out of bed, all palpitating with fear, and peeped round the corner of my dressing-room door.\n\n\" 'Arthur!' I screamed, 'you villain! you thief! How dare you touch that coronet?'\n\n\"The gas was half up, as I had left it, and my unhappy boy, dressed only in his shirt and trousers, was standing beside the light, holding the coronet in his hands. He appeared to be wrenching at it, or bending it with all his strength. At my cry he dropped it from his grasp and turned as pale as death. I snatched it up and examined it. One of the gold corners, with three of the beryls in it, was missing.\n\n\" 'You blackguard!' I shouted, beside myself with rage. 'You have destroyed it! You have dishonoured me forever! Where are the jewels which you have stolen?'\n\n\" 'Stolen!' he cried.\n\n\" 'Yes, thief!' I roared, shaking him by the shoulder.\n\n\" 'There are none missing. There cannot be any missing,' said he.\n\n\" 'There are three missing. And you know where they are. Must I call you a liar as well as a thief? Did I not see you trying to tear off another piece?'\n\n\" 'You have called me names enough,' said he, 'I will not stand it any longer. I shall not say another word about this business, since you have chosen to insult me. I will leave your house in the morning and make my own way in the world.'\n\n\" 'You shall leave it in the hands of the police!' I cried half-mad with grief and rage. 'I shall have this matter probed to the bottom.'\n\n\" 'You shall learn nothing from me,' said he with a passion such as I should not have thought was in his nature. 'If you choose to call the police, let the police find what they can.'\n\n\"By this time the whole house was astir, for I had raised my voice in my anger. Mary was the first to rush into my room, and, at the sight of the coronet and of Arthur's face, she read the whole story and, with a scream, fell down senseless on the ground. I sent the house-maid for the police and put the investigation into their hands at once. When the inspector and a constable entered the house, Arthur, who had stood sullenly with his arms folded, asked me whether it was my intention to charge him with theft. I answered that it had ceased to be a private matter, but had become a public one, since the ruined coronet was national property. I was determined that the law should have its way in everything.\n\n\" 'At least,' said he, 'you will not have me arrested at once. It would be to your advantage as well as mine if I might leave the house for five minutes.'\n\n\" 'That you may get away, or perhaps that you may conceal what you have stolen,' said I. And then, realising the dreadful position in which I was placed, I implored him to remember that not only my honour but that of one who was far greater than I was at stake; and that he threatened to raise a scandal which would convulse the nation. He might avert it all if he would but tell me what he had done with the three missing stones.\n\n\" 'You may as well face the matter,' said I; 'you have been caught in the act, and no confession could make your guilt more heinous. If you but make such reparation as is in your power, by telling us where the beryls are, all shall be forgiven and forgotten.'\n\n\" 'Keep your forgiveness for those who ask for it,' he answered, turning away from me with a sneer. I saw that he was too hardened for any words of mine to influence him. There was but one way for it. I called in the inspector and gave him into custody. A search was made at once not only of his person but of his room and of every portion of the house where he could possibly have concealed the gems; but no trace of them could be found, nor would the wretched boy open his mouth for all our persuasions and our threats. This morning he was removed to a cell, and I, after going through all the police formalities, have hurried round to you to implore you to use your skill in unravelling the matter. The police have openly confessed that they can at present make nothing of it. You may go to any expense which you think necessary. I have already offered a reward of $1000. My God, what shall I do! I have lost my honour, my gems, and my son in one night. Oh, what shall I do!\"\n\nHe put a hand on either side of his head and rocked himself to and fro, droning to himself like a child whose grief has got beyond words.\n\nSherlock Holmes sat silent for some few minutes, with his brows knitted and his eyes fixed upon the fire.\n\n\"Do you receive much company?\" he asked.\n\n\"None save my partner with his family and an occasional friend of Arthur's. Sir George Burnwell has been several times lately. No one else, I think.\"\n\n\"Do you go out much in society?\"\n\n\"Arthur does. Mary and I stay at home. We neither of us care for it.\"\n\n\"That is unusual in a young girl.\"\n\n\"She is of a quiet nature. Besides, she is not so very young. She is four-and-twenty.\"\n\n\"This matter, from what you say, seems to have been a shock to her also.\"\n\n\"Terrible! She is even more affected than I.\"\n\n\"You have neither of you any doubt as to your son's guilt?\"\n\n\"How can we have when I saw him with my own eyes with the coronet in his hands.\"\n\n\"I hardly consider that a conclusive proof. Was the remainder of the coronet at all injured?\"\n\n\"Yes, it was twisted.\"\n\n\"Do you not think, then, that he might have been trying to straighten it?\"\n\n\"God bless you! You are doing what you can for him and for me. But it is too heavy a task. What was he doing there at all? If his purpose were innocent, why did he not say so?\"\n\n\"Precisely. And if it were guilty, why did he not invent a lie? His silence appears to me to cut both ways. There are several singular points about the case. What did the police think of the noise which awoke you from your sleep?\"\n\n\"They considered that it might be caused by Arthur's closing his bedroom door.\"\n\n\"A likely story! As if a man bent on felony would slam his door so as to wake a household. What did they say, then, of the disappearance of these gems?\"\n\n\"They are still sounding the planking and probing the furniture in the hope of finding them.\"\n\n\"Have they thought of looking outside the house?\"\n\n\"Yes, they have shown extraordinary energy. The whole garden has already been minutely examined.\"\n\n\"Now, my dear sir,\" said Holmes. \"is it not obvious to you now that this matter really strikes very much deeper than either you or the police were at first inclined to think? It appeared to you to be a simple case; to me it seems exceedingly complex. Consider what is involved by your theory. You suppose that your son came down from his bed, went, at great risk, to your dressing-room, opened your bureau, took out your coronet, broke off by main force a small portion of it, went off to some other place, concealed three gems out of the thirty-nine, with such skill that nobody can find them, and then returned with the other thirty-six into the room in which he exposed himself to the greatest danger of being discovered. I ask you now, is such a theory tenable?\"\n\n\"But what other is there?\" cried the banker with a gesture of despair. \"If his motives were innocent, why does he not explain them?\"\n\n\"It is our task to find that out,\" replied Holmes; \"so now, if you please, Mr. Holder, we will set off for Streatham together, and devote an hour to glancing a little more closely into details.\"\n\nMy friend insisted upon my accompanying them in their expedition, which I was eager enough to do, for my curiosity and sympathy were deeply stirred by the story to which we had listened. I confess that the guilt of the banker's son appeared to me to be as obvious as it did to his unhappy father, but still I had such faith in Holmes' judgment that I felt that there must be some grounds for hope as long as he was dissatisfied with the accepted explanation. He hardly spoke a word the whole way out to the southern suburb, but sat with his chin upon his breast and his hat drawn over his eyes, sunk in the deepest thought. Our client appeared to have taken fresh heart at the little glimpse of hope which had been presented to him, and he even broke into a desultory chat with me over his business affairs. A short railway journey and a shorter walk brought us to Fairbank, the modest residence of the great financier.\n\nFairbank was a good-sized square house of white stone, standing back a little from the road. A double carriage-sweep, with a snow-clad lawn, stretched down in front to two large iron gates which closed the entrance. On the right side was a small wooden thicket, which led into a narrow path between two neat hedges stretching from the road to the kitchen door, and forming the tradesmen's entrance. On the left ran a lane which led to the stables, and was not itself within the grounds at all, being a public, though little used, thoroughfare. Holmes left us standing at the door and walked slowly all round the house, across the front, down the tradesmen's path, and so round by the garden behind into the stable lane. So long was he that Mr. Holder and I went into the dining-room and waited by the fire until he should return. We were sitting there in silence when the door opened and a young lady came in. She was rather above the middle height, slim, with dark hair and eyes, which seemed the darker against the absolute pallor of her skin. I do not think that I have ever seen such deadly paleness in a woman's face. Her lips, too, were bloodless, but her eyes were flushed with crying. As she swept silently into the room she impressed me with a greater sense of grief than the banker had done in the morning, and it was the more striking in her as she was evidently a woman of strong character, with immense capacity for self-restraint. Disregarding my presence, she went straight to her uncle and passed her hand over his head with a sweet womanly caress.\n\n\"You have given orders that Arthur should be liberated, have you not, dad?\" she asked.\n\n\"No, no, my girl, the matter must be probed to the bottom.\"\n\n\"But I am so sure that he is innocent. You know what woman's instincts are. I know that he has done no harm and that you will be sorry for having acted so harshly.\"\n\n\"Why is he silent, then, if he is innocent?\"\n\n\"Who knows? Perhaps because he was so angry that you should suspect him.\"\n\n\"How could I help suspecting him, when I actually saw him with the coronet in his hand?\"\n\n\"Oh, but he had only picked it up to look at it. Oh, do, do take my word for it that he is innocent. Let the matter drop and say no more. It is so dreadful to think of our dear Arthur in prison!\"\n\n\"I shall never let it drop until the gems are found--never, Mary! Your affection for Arthur blinds you as to the awful consequences to me. Far from hushing the thing up, I have brought a gentleman down from London to inquire more deeply into it.\"\n\n\"This gentleman?\" she asked, facing round to me.\n\n\"No, his friend. He wished us to leave him alone. He is round in the stable lane now.\"\n\n\"The stable lane?\" She raised her dark eyebrows. \"What can he hope to find there? Ah! this, I suppose, is he. I trust, sir, that you will succeed in proving, what I feel sure is the truth, that my cousin Arthur is innocent of this crime.\"\n\n\"I fully share your opinion, and I trust, with you, that we may prove it,\" returned Holmes, going back to the mat to knock the snow from his shoes. \"I believe I have the honour of addressing Miss Mary Holder. Might I ask you a question or two?\"\n\n\"Pray do, sir, if it may help to clear this horrible affair up.\"\n\n\"You heard nothing yourself last night?\"\n\n\"Nothing, until my uncle here began to speak loudly. I heard that, and I came down.\"\n\n\"You shut up the windows and doors the night before. Did you fasten all the windows?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Were they all fastened this morning?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"You have a maid who has a sweetheart? I think that you remarked to your uncle last night that she had been out to see him?\"\n\n\"Yes, and she was the girl who waited in the drawing-room, and who may have heard uncle's remarks about the coronet.\"\n\n\"I see. You infer that she may have gone out to tell her sweetheart, and that the two may have planned the robbery.\"\n\n\"But what is the good of all these vague theories,\" cried the banker impatiently, \"when I have told you that I saw Arthur with the coronet in his hands?\"\n\n\"Wait a little, Mr. Holder. We must come back to that. About this girl, Miss Holder. You saw her return by the kitchen door, I presume?\"\n\n\"Yes; when I went to see if the door was fastened for the night I met her slipping in. I saw the man, too, in the gloom.\"\n\n\"Do you know him?\"\n\n\"Oh, yes! he is the green-grocer who brings our vegetables round. His name is Francis Prosper.\"\n\n\"He stood,\" said Holmes, \"to the left of the door--that is to say, farther up the path than is necessary to reach the door?\"\n\n\"Yes, he did.\"\n\n\"And he is a man with a wooden leg?\"\n\nSomething like fear sprang up in the young lady's expressive black eyes. \"Why, you are like a magician,\" said she. \"How do you know that?\" She smiled, but there was no answering smile in Holmes' thin, eager face.\n\n\"I should be very glad now to go upstairs,\" said he. \"I shall probably wish to go over the outside of the house again. Perhaps I had better take a look at the lower windows before I go up.\"\n\nHe walked swiftly round from one to the other, pausing only at the large one which looked from the hall onto the stable lane. This he opened and made a very careful examination of the sill with his powerful magnifying lens. \"Now we shall go upstairs,\" said he at last.\n\nThe banker's dressing-room was a plainly furnished little chamber, with a grey carpet, a large bureau, and a long mirror. Holmes went to the bureau first and looked hard at the lock.\n\n\"Which key was used to open it?\" he asked.\n\n\"That which my son himself indicated--that of the cupboard of the lumber-room.\"\n\n\"Have you it here?\"\n\n\"That is it on the dressing-table.\"\n\nSherlock Holmes took it up and opened the bureau.\n\n\"It is a noiseless lock,\" said he. \"It is no wonder that it did not wake you. This case, I presume, contains the coronet. We must have a look at it.\" He opened the case, and taking out the diadem he laid it upon the table. It was a magnificent specimen of the jeweller's art, and the thirty-six stones were the finest that I have ever seen. At one side of the coronet was a cracked edge, where a corner holding three gems had been torn away.\n\n\"Now, Mr. Holder,\" said Holmes, \"here is the corner which corresponds to that which has been so unfortunately lost. Might I beg that you will break it off.\"\n\nThe banker recoiled in horror. \"I should not dream of trying,\" said he.\n\n\"Then I will.\" Holmes suddenly bent his strength upon it, but without result. \"I feel it give a little,\" said he; \"but, though I am exceptionally strong in the fingers, it would take me all my time to break it. An ordinary man could not do it. Now, what do you think would happen if I did break it, Mr. Holder? There would be a noise like a pistol shot. Do you tell me that all this happened within a few yards of your bed and that you heard nothing of it?\"\n\n\"I do not know what to think. It is all dark to me.\"\n\n\"But perhaps it may grow lighter as we go. What do you think, Miss Holder?\"\n\n\"I confess that I still share my uncle's perplexity.\"\n\n\"Your son had no shoes or slippers on when you saw him?\"\n\n\"He had nothing on save only his trousers and shirt.\"\n\n\"Thank you. We have certainly been favoured with extraordinary luck during this inquiry, and it will be entirely our own fault if we do not succeed in clearing the matter up. With your permission, Mr. Holder, I shall now continue my investigations outside.\"\n\nHe went alone, at his own request, for he explained that any unnecessary footmarks might make his task more difficult. For an hour or more he was at work, returning at last with his feet heavy with snow and his features as inscrutable as ever.\n\n\"I think that I have seen now all that there is to see, Mr. Holder,\" said he; \"I can serve you best by returning to my rooms.\"\n\n\"But the gems, Mr. Holmes. Where are they?\"\n\n\"I cannot tell.\"\n\nThe banker wrung his hands. \"I shall never see them again!\" he cried. \"And my son? You give me hopes?\"\n\n\"My opinion is in no way altered.\"\n\n\"Then, for God's sake, what was this dark business which was acted in my house last night?\"\n\n\"If you can call upon me at my Baker Street rooms to-morrow morning between nine and ten I shall be happy to do what I can to make it clearer. I understand that you give me carte blanche to act for you, provided only that I get back the gems, and that you place no limit on the sum I may draw.\"\n\n\"I would give my fortune to have them back.\"\n\n\"Very good. I shall look into the matter between this and then. Good-bye; it is just possible that I may have to come over here again before evening.\"\n\nIt was obvious to me that my companion's mind was now made up about the case, although what his conclusions were was more than I could even dimly imagine. Several times during our homeward journey I endeavoured to sound him upon the point, but he always glided away to some other topic, until at last I gave it over in despair. It was not yet three when we found ourselves in our rooms once more. He hurried to his chamber and was down again in a few minutes dressed as a common loafer. With his collar turned up, his shiny, seedy coat, his red cravat, and his worn boots, he was a perfect sample of the class.\n\n\"I think that this should do,\" said he, glancing into the glass above the fireplace. \"I only wish that you could come with me, Watson, but I fear that it won't do. I may be on the trail in this matter, or I may be following a will-o'-the-wisp, but I shall soon know which it is. I hope that I may be back in a few hours.\" He cut a slice of beef from the joint upon the sideboard, sandwiched it between two rounds of bread, and thrusting this rude meal into his pocket he started off upon his expedition.\n\nI had just finished my tea when he returned, evidently in excellent spirits, swinging an old elastic-sided boot in his hand. He chucked it down into a corner and helped himself to a cup of tea.\n\n\"I only looked in as I passed,\" said he. \"I am going right on.\"\n\n\"Where to?\"\n\n\"Oh, to the other side of the West End. It may be some time before I get back. Don't wait up for me in case I should be late.\"\n\n\"How are you getting on?\"\n\n\"Oh, so so. Nothing to complain of. I have been out to Streatham since I saw you last, but I did not call at the house. It is a very sweet little problem, and I would not have missed it for a good deal. However, I must not sit gossiping here, but must get these disreputable clothes off and return to my highly respectable self.\"\n\nI could see by his manner that he had stronger reasons for satisfaction than his words alone would imply. His eyes twinkled, and there was even a touch of colour upon his sallow cheeks. He hastened upstairs, and a few minutes later I heard the slam of the hall door, which told me that he was off once more upon his congenial hunt.\n\nI waited until midnight, but there was no sign of his return, so I retired to my room. It was no uncommon thing for him to be away for days and nights on end when he was hot upon a scent, so that his lateness caused me no surprise. I do not know at what hour he came in, but when I came down to breakfast in the morning there he was with a cup of coffee in one hand and the paper in the other, as fresh and trim as possible.\n\n\"You will excuse my beginning without you, Watson,\" said he, \"but you remember that our client has rather an early appointment this morning.\"\n\n\"Why, it is after nine now,\" I answered. \"I should not be surprised if that were he. I thought I heard a ring.\"\n\nIt was, indeed, our friend the financier. I was shocked by the change which had come over him, for his face which was naturally of a broad and massive mould, was now pinched and fallen in, while his hair seemed to me at least a shade whiter. He entered with a weariness and lethargy which was even more painful than his violence of the morning before, and he dropped heavily into the armchair which I pushed forward for him.\n\n\"I do not know what I have done to be so severely tried,\" said he. \"Only two days ago I was a happy and prosperous man, without a care in the world. Now I am left to a lonely and dishonoured age. One sorrow comes close upon the heels of another. My niece, Mary, has deserted me.\"\n\n\"Deserted you?\"\n\n\"Yes. Her bed this morning had not been slept in, her room was empty, and a note for me lay upon the hall table. I had said to her last night, in sorrow and not in anger, that if she had married my boy all might have been well with him. Perhaps it was thoughtless of me to say so. It is to that remark that she refers in this note:\n\n\" 'MY DEAREST UNCLE:--I feel that I have brought trouble upon you, and that if I had acted differently this terrible misfortune might never have occurred. I cannot, with this thought in my mind, ever again be happy under your roof, and I feel that I must leave you forever. Do not worry about my future, for that is provided for; and, above all, do not search for me, for it will be fruitless labour and an ill-service to me. In life or in death, I am ever your loving\n\n\n\" 'MARY.'\n\n\"What could she mean by that note, Mr. Holmes? Do you think it points to suicide?\"\n\n\"No, no, nothing of the kind. It is perhaps the best possible solution. I trust, Mr. Holder, that you are nearing the end of your troubles.\"\n\n\"Ha! You say so! You have heard something, Mr. Holmes; you have learned something! Where are the gems?\"\n\n\"You would not think $1000 apiece an excessive sum for them?\"\n\n\"I would pay ten.\"\n\n\"That would be unnecessary. Three thousand will cover the matter. And there is a little reward, I fancy. Have you your check-book? Here is a pen. Better make it out for $4000.\"\n\nWith a dazed face the banker made out the required check. Holmes walked over to his desk, took out a little triangular piece of gold with three gems in it, and threw it down upon the table.\n\nWith a shriek of joy our client clutched it up.\n\n\"You have it!\" he gasped. \"I am saved! I am saved!\"\n\nThe reaction of joy was as passionate as his grief had been, and he hugged his recovered gems to his bosom.\n\n\"There is one other thing you owe, Mr. Holder,\" said Sherlock Holmes rather sternly.\n\n\"Owe!\" He caught up a pen. \"Name the sum, and I will pay it.\"\n\n\"No, the debt is not to me. You owe a very humble apology to that noble lad, your son, who has carried himself in this matter as I should be proud to see my own son do, should I ever chance to have one.\"\n\n\"Then it was not Arthur who took them?\"\n\n\"I told you yesterday, and I repeat to-day, that it was not.\"\n\n\"You are sure of it! Then let us hurry to him at once to let him know that the truth is known.\"\n\n\"He knows it already. When I had cleared it all up I had an interview with him, and finding that he would not tell me the story, I told it to him, on which he had to confess that I was right and to add the very few details which were not yet quite clear to me. Your news of this morning, however, may open his lips.\"\n\n\"For heaven's sake, tell me, then, what is this extraordinary mystery!\"\n\n\"I will do so, and I will show you the steps by which I reached it. And let me say to you, first, that which it is hardest for me to say and for you to hear: there has been an understanding between Sir George Burnwell and your niece Mary. They have now fled together.\"\n\n\"My Mary? Impossible!\"\n\n\"It is unfortunately more than possible; it is certain. Neither you nor your son knew the true character of this man when you admitted him into your family circle. He is one of the most dangerous men in England--a ruined gambler, an absolutely desperate villain, a man without heart or conscience. Your niece knew nothing of such men. When he breathed his vows to her, as he had done to a hundred before her, she flattered herself that she alone had touched his heart. The devil knows best what he said, but at least she became his tool and was in the habit of seeing him nearly every evening.\"\n\n\"I cannot, and I will not, believe it!\" cried the banker with an ashen face.\n\n\"I will tell you, then, what occurred in your house last night. Your niece, when you had, as she thought, gone to your room, slipped down and talked to her lover through the window which leads into the stable lane. His footmarks had pressed right through the snow, so long had he stood there. She told him of the coronet. His wicked lust for gold kindled at the news, and he bent her to his will. I have no doubt that she loved you, but there are women in whom the love of a lover extinguishes all other loves, and I think that she must have been one. She had hardly listened to his instructions when she saw you coming downstairs, on which she closed the window rapidly and told you about one of the servants' escapade with her wooden-legged lover, which was all perfectly true.\n\n\"Your boy, Arthur, went to bed after his interview with you but he slept badly on account of his uneasiness about his club debts. In the middle of the night he heard a soft tread pass his door, so he rose and, looking out, was surprised to see his cousin walking very stealthily along the passage until she disappeared into your dressing-room. Petrified with astonishment, the lad slipped on some clothes and waited there in the dark to see what would come of this strange affair. Presently she emerged from the room again, and in the light of the passage-lamp your son saw that she carried the precious coronet in her hands. She passed down the stairs, and he, thrilling with horror, ran along and slipped behind the curtain near your door, whence he could see what passed in the hall beneath. He saw her stealthily open the window, hand out the coronet to someone in the gloom, and then closing it once more hurry back to her room, passing quite close to where he stood hid behind the curtain.\n\n\"As long as she was on the scene he could not take any action without a horrible exposure of the woman whom he loved. But the instant that she was gone he realised how crushing a misfortune this would be for you, and how all-important it was to set it right. He rushed down, just as he was, in his bare feet, opened the window, sprang out into the snow, and ran down the lane, where he could see a dark figure in the moonlight. Sir George Burnwell tried to get away, but Arthur caught him, and there was a struggle between them, your lad tugging at one side of the coronet, and his opponent at the other. In the scuffle, your son struck Sir George and cut him over the eye. Then something suddenly snapped, and your son, finding that he had the coronet in his hands, rushed back, closed the window, ascended to your room, and had just observed that the coronet had been twisted in the struggle and was endeavouring to straighten it when you appeared upon the scene.\"\n\n\"Is it possible?\" gasped the banker.\n\n\"You then roused his anger by calling him names at a moment when he felt that he had deserved your warmest thanks. He could not explain the true state of affairs without betraying one who certainly deserved little enough consideration at his hands. He took the more chivalrous view, however, and preserved her secret.\"\n\n\"And that was why she shrieked and fainted when she saw the coronet,\" cried Mr. Holder. \"Oh, my God! what a blind fool I have been! And his asking to be allowed to go out for five minutes! The dear fellow wanted to see if the missing piece were at the scene of the struggle. How cruelly I have misjudged him!\"\n\n\"When I arrived at the house,\" continued Holmes, \"I at once went very carefully round it to observe if there were any traces in the snow which might help me. I knew that none had fallen since the evening before, and also that there had been a strong frost to preserve impressions. I passed along the tradesmen's path, but found it all trampled down and indistinguishable. Just beyond it, however, at the far side of the kitchen door, a woman had stood and talked with a man, whose round impressions on one side showed that he had a wooden leg. I could even tell that they had been disturbed, for the woman had run back swiftly to the door, as was shown by the deep toe and light heel marks, while Wooden-leg had waited a little, and then had gone away. I thought at the time that this might be the maid and her sweetheart, of whom you had already spoken to me, and inquiry showed it was so. I passed round the garden without seeing anything more than random tracks, which I took to be the police; but when I got into the stable lane a very long and complex story was written in the snow in front of me.\n\n\"There was a double line of tracks of a booted man, and a second double line which I saw with delight belonged to a man with naked feet. I was at once convinced from what you had told me that the latter was your son. The first had walked both ways, but the other had run swiftly, and as his tread was marked in places over the depression of the boot, it was obvious that he had passed after the other. I followed them up and found they led to the hall window, where Boots had worn all the snow away while waiting. Then I walked to the other end, which was a hundred yards or more down the lane. I saw where Boots had faced round, where the snow was cut up as though there had been a struggle, and, finally, where a few drops of blood had fallen, to show me that I was not mistaken. Boots had then run down the lane, and another little smudge of blood showed that it was he who had been hurt. When he came to the highroad at the other end, I found that the pavement had been cleared, so there was an end to that clue.\n\n\"On entering the house, however, I examined, as you remember, the sill and framework of the hall window with my lens, and I could at once see that someone had passed out. I could distinguish the outline of an instep where the wet foot had been placed in coming in. I was then beginning to be able to form an opinion as to what had occurred. A man had waited outside the window; someone had brought the gems; the deed had been overseen by your son; he had pursued the thief; had struggled with him; they had each tugged at the coronet, their united strength causing injuries which neither alone could have effected. He had returned with the prize, but had left a fragment in the grasp of his opponent. So far I was clear. The question now was, who was the man and who was it brought him the coronet?\n\n\"It is an old maxim of mine that when you have excluded the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth. Now, I knew that it was not you who had brought it down, so there only remained your niece and the maids. But if it were the maids, why should your son allow himself to be accused in their place? There could be no possible reason. As he loved his cousin, however, there was an excellent explanation why he should retain her secret--the more so as the secret was a disgraceful one. When I remembered that you had seen her at that window, and how she had fainted on seeing the coronet again, my conjecture became a certainty.\n\n\"And who could it be who was her confederate? A lover evidently, for who else could outweigh the love and gratitude which she must feel to you? I knew that you went out little, and that your circle of friends was a very limited one. But among them was Sir George Burnwell. I had heard of him before as being a man of evil reputation among women. It must have been he who wore those boots and retained the missing gems. Even though he knew that Arthur had discovered him, he might still flatter himself that he was safe, for the lad could not say a word without compromising his own family.\n\n\"Well, your own good sense will suggest what measures I took next. I went in the shape of a loafer to Sir George's house, managed to pick up an acquaintance with his valet, learned that his master had cut his head the night before, and, finally, at the expense of six shillings, made all sure by buying a pair of his cast-off shoes. With these I journeyed down to Streatham and saw that they exactly fitted the tracks.\"\n\n\"I saw an ill-dressed vagabond in the lane yesterday evening,\" said Mr. Holder.\n\n\"Precisely. It was I. I found that I had my man, so I came home and changed my clothes. It was a delicate part which I had to play then, for I saw that a prosecution must be avoided to avert scandal, and I knew that so astute a villain would see that our hands were tied in the matter. I went and saw him. At first, of course, he denied everything. But when I gave him every particular that had occurred, he tried to bluster and took down a life-preserver from the wall. I knew my man, however, and I clapped a pistol to his head before he could strike. Then he became a little more reasonable. I told him that we would give him a price for the stones he held--$1000 apiece. That brought out the first signs of grief that he had shown. 'Why, dash it all!' said he, 'I've let them go at six hundred for the three!' I soon managed to get the address of the receiver who had them, on promising him that there would be no prosecution. Off I set to him, and after much chaffering I got our stones at $1000 apiece. Then I looked in upon your son, told him that all was right, and eventually got to my bed about two o'clock, after what I may call a really hard day's work.\"\n\n\"A day which has saved England from a great public scandal,\" said the banker, rising. \"Sir, I cannot find words to thank you, but you shall not find me ungrateful for what you have done. Your skill has indeed exceeded all that I have heard of it. And now I must fly to my dear boy to apologise to him for the wrong which I have done him. As to what you tell me of poor Mary, it goes to my very heart. Not even your skill can inform me where she is now.\"\n\n\"I think that we may safely say,\" returned Holmes, \"that she is wherever Sir George Burnwell is. It is equally certain, too, that whatever her sins are, they will soon receive a more than sufficient punishment.\"\n\nXII. THE ADVENTURE OF THE COPPER BEECHES\n\n\n\"To the man who loves art for its own sake,\" remarked Sherlock Holmes, tossing aside the advertisement sheet of the Daily Telegraph, \"it is frequently in its least important and lowliest manifestations that the keenest pleasure is to be derived. It is pleasant to me to observe, Watson, that you have so far grasped this truth that in these little records of our cases which you have been good enough to draw up, and, I am bound to say, occasionally to embellish, you have given prominence not so much to the many causes celebres and sensational trials in which I have figured but rather to those incidents which may have been trivial in themselves, but which have given room for those faculties of deduction and of logical synthesis which I have made my special province.\"\n\n\"And yet,\" said I, smiling, \"I cannot quite hold myself absolved from the charge of sensationalism which has been urged against my records.\"\n\n\"You have erred, perhaps,\" he observed, taking up a glowing cinder with the tongs and lighting with it the long cherry-wood pipe which was wont to replace his clay when he was in a disputatious rather than a meditative mood--\"you have erred perhaps in attempting to put colour and life into each of your statements instead of confining yourself to the task of placing upon record that severe reasoning from cause to effect which is really the only notable feature about the thing.\"\n\n\"It seems to me that I have done you full justice in the matter,\" I remarked with some coldness, for I was repelled by the egotism which I had more than once observed to be a strong factor in my friend's singular character.\n\n\"No, it is not selfishness or conceit,\" said he, answering, as was his wont, my thoughts rather than my words. \"If I claim full justice for my art, it is because it is an impersonal thing--a thing beyond myself. Crime is common. Logic is rare. Therefore it is upon the logic rather than upon the crime that you should dwell. You have degraded what should have been a course of lectures into a series of tales.\"\n\nIt was a cold morning of the early spring, and we sat after breakfast on either side of a cheery fire in the old room at Baker Street. A thick fog rolled down between the lines of dun-coloured houses, and the opposing windows loomed like dark, shapeless blurs through the heavy yellow wreaths. Our gas was lit and shone on the white cloth and glimmer of china and metal, for the table had not been cleared yet. Sherlock Holmes had been silent all the morning, dipping continuously into the advertisement columns of a succession of papers until at last, having apparently given up his search, he had emerged in no very sweet temper to lecture me upon my literary shortcomings.\n\n\"At the same time,\" he remarked after a pause, during which he had sat puffing at his long pipe and gazing down into the fire, \"you can hardly be open to a charge of sensationalism, for out of these cases which you have been so kind as to interest yourself in, a fair proportion do not treat of crime, in its legal sense, at all. The small matter in which I endeavoured to help the King of Bohemia, the singular experience of Miss Mary Sutherland, the problem connected with the man with the twisted lip, and the incident of the noble bachelor, were all matters which are outside the pale of the law. But in avoiding the sensational, I fear that you may have bordered on the trivial.\"\n\n\"The end may have been so,\" I answered, \"but the methods I hold to have been novel and of interest.\"\n\n\"Pshaw, my dear fellow, what do the public, the great unobservant public, who could hardly tell a weaver by his tooth or a compositor by his left thumb, care about the finer shades of analysis and deduction! But, indeed, if you are trivial. I cannot blame you, for the days of the great cases are past. Man, or at least criminal man, has lost all enterprise and originality. As to my own little practice, it seems to be degenerating into an agency for recovering lost lead pencils and giving advice to young ladies from boarding-schools. I think that I have touched bottom at last, however. This note I had this morning marks my zero-point, I fancy. Read it!\" He tossed a crumpled letter across to me.\n\nIt was dated from Montague Place upon the preceding evening, and ran thus:\n\n\"DEAR MR. HOLMES:--I am very anxious to consult you as to whether I should or should not accept a situation which has been offered to me as governess. I shall call at half-past ten to-morrow if I do not inconvenience you. Yours faithfully,\n\n\n\"VIOLET HUNTER.\"\n\n\"Do you know the young lady?\" I asked.\n\n\"Not I.\"\n\n\"It is half-past ten now.\"\n\n\"Yes, and I have no doubt that is her ring.\"\n\n\"It may turn out to be of more interest than you think. You remember that the affair of the blue carbuncle, which appeared to be a mere whim at first, developed into a serious investigation. It may be so in this case, also.\"\n\n\"Well, let us hope so. But our doubts will very soon be solved, for here, unless I am much mistaken, is the person in question.\"\n\nAs he spoke the door opened and a young lady entered the room. She was plainly but neatly dressed, with a bright, quick face, freckled like a plover's egg, and with the brisk manner of a woman who has had her own way to make in the world.\n\n\"You will excuse my troubling you, I am sure,\" said she, as my companion rose to greet her, \"but I have had a very strange experience, and as I have no parents or relations of any sort from whom I could ask advice, I thought that perhaps you would be kind enough to tell me what I should do.\"\n\n\"Pray take a seat, Miss Hunter. I shall be happy to do anything that I can to serve you.\"\n\nI could see that Holmes was favourably impressed by the manner and speech of his new client. He looked her over in his searching fashion, and then composed himself, with his lids drooping and his finger-tips together, to listen to her story.\n\n\"I have been a governess for five years,\" said she, \"in the family of Colonel Spence Munro, but two months ago the colonel received an appointment at Halifax, in Nova Scotia, and took his children over to America with him, so that I found myself without a situation. I advertised, and I answered advertisements, but without success. At last the little money which I had saved began to run short, and I was at my wit's end as to what I should do.\n\n\"There is a well-known agency for governesses in the West End called Westaway's, and there I used to call about once a week in order to see whether anything had turned up which might suit me. Westaway was the name of the founder of the business, but it is really managed by Miss Stoper. She sits in her own little office, and the ladies who are seeking employment wait in an anteroom, and are then shown in one by one, when she consults her ledgers and sees whether she has anything which would suit them.\n\n\"Well, when I called last week I was shown into the little office as usual, but I found that Miss Stoper was not alone. A prodigiously stout man with a very smiling face and a great heavy chin which rolled down in fold upon fold over his throat sat at her elbow with a pair of glasses on his nose, looking very earnestly at the ladies who entered. As I came in he gave quite a jump in his chair and turned quickly to Miss Stoper.\n\n\" 'That will do,' said he; 'I could not ask for anything better. Capital! capital!' He seemed quite enthusiastic and rubbed his hands together in the most genial fashion. He was such a comfortable-looking man that it was quite a pleasure to look at him.\n\n\" 'You are looking for a situation, miss?' he asked.\n\n\" 'Yes, sir.'\n\n\" 'As governess?'\n\n\" 'Yes, sir.'\n\n\" 'And what salary do you ask?'\n\n\" 'I had $4 a month in my last place with Colonel Spence Munro.'\n\n\" 'Oh, tut, tut! sweating--rank sweating!' he cried, throwing his fat hands out into the air like a man who is in a boiling passion. 'How could anyone offer so pitiful a sum to a lady with such attractions and accomplishments?'\n\n\" 'My accomplishments, sir, may be less than you imagine,' said I. 'A little French, a little German, music, and drawing--'\n\n\" 'Tut, tut!' he cried. 'This is all quite beside the question. The point is, have you or have you not the bearing and deportment of a lady? There it is in a nutshell. If you have not, you are not fitted for the rearing of a child who may some day play a considerable part in the history of the country. But if you have why, then, how could any gentleman ask you to condescend to accept anything under the three figures? Your salary with me, madam, would commence at $100 a year.'\n\n\"You may imagine, Mr. Holmes, that to me, destitute as I was, such an offer seemed almost too good to be true. The gentleman, however, seeing perhaps the look of incredulity upon my face, opened a pocket-book and took out a note.\n\n\" 'It is also my custom,' said he, smiling in the most pleasant fashion until his eyes were just two little shining slits amid the white creases of his face, 'to advance to my young ladies half their salary beforehand, so that they may meet any little expenses of their journey and their wardrobe.'\n\n\"It seemed to me that I had never met so fascinating and so thoughtful a man. As I was already in debt to my tradesmen, the advance was a great convenience, and yet there was something unnatural about the whole transaction which made me wish to know a little more before I quite committed myself.\n\n\" 'May I ask where you live, sir?' said I.\n\n\" 'Hampshire. Charming rural place. The Copper Beeches, five miles on the far side of Winchester. It is the most lovely country, my dear young lady, and the dearest old country-house.'\n\n\" 'And my duties, sir? I should be glad to know what they would be.'\n\n\" 'One child--one dear little romper just six years old. Oh, if you could see him killing cockroaches with a slipper! Smack! smack! smack! Three gone before you could wink!' He leaned back in his chair and laughed his eyes into his head again.\n\n\"I was a little startled at the nature of the child's amusement, but the father's laughter made me think that perhaps he was joking.\n\n\" 'My sole duties, then,' I asked, 'are to take charge of a single child?'\n\n\" 'No, no, not the sole, not the sole, my dear young lady,' he cried. 'Your duty would be, as I am sure your good sense would suggest, to obey any little commands my wife might give, provided always that they were such commands as a lady might with propriety obey. You see no difficulty, heh?'\n\n\" 'I should be happy to make myself useful.'\n\n\" 'Quite so. In dress now, for example. We are faddy people, you know--faddy but kind-hearted. If you were asked to wear any dress which we might give you, you would not object to our little whim. Heh?'\n\n\" 'No,' said I, considerably astonished at his words.\n\n\" 'Or to sit here, or sit there, that would not be offensive to you?'\n\n\" 'Oh, no.'\n\n\" 'Or to cut your hair quite short before you come to us?'\n\n\"I could hardly believe my ears. As you may observe, Mr. Holmes, my hair is somewhat luxuriant, and of a rather peculiar tint of chestnut. It has been considered artistic. I could not dream of sacrificing it in this offhand fashion.\n\n\" 'I am afraid that that is quite impossible,' said I. He had been watching me eagerly out of his small eyes, and I could see a shadow pass over his face as I spoke.\n\n\" 'I am afraid that it is quite essential,' said he. 'It is a little fancy of my wife's, and ladies' fancies, you know, madam, ladies' fancies must be consulted. And so you won't cut your hair?'\n\n\" 'No, sir, I really could not,' I answered firmly.\n\n\" 'Ah, very well; then that quite settles the matter. It is a pity, because in other respects you would really have done very nicely. In that case, Miss Stoper, I had best inspect a few more of your young ladies.'\n\n\"The manageress had sat all this while busy with her papers without a word to either of us, but she glanced at me now with so much annoyance upon her face that I could not help suspecting that she had lost a handsome commission through my refusal.\n\n\" 'Do you desire your name to be kept upon the books?' she asked.\n\n\" 'If you please, Miss Stoper.'\n\n\" 'Well, really, it seems rather useless, since you refuse the most excellent offers in this fashion,' said she sharply. 'You can hardly expect us to exert ourselves to find another such opening for you. Good-day to you, Miss Hunter.' She struck a gong upon the table, and I was shown out by the page.\n\n\"Well, Mr. Holmes, when I got back to my lodgings and found little enough in the cupboard, and two or three bills upon the table. I began to ask myself whether I had not done a very foolish thing. After all, if these people had strange fads and expected obedience on the most extraordinary matters, they were at least ready to pay for their eccentricity. Very few governesses in England are getting $100 a year. Besides, what use was my hair to me? Many people are improved by wearing it short and perhaps I should be among the number. Next day I was inclined to think that I had made a mistake, and by the day after I was sure of it. I had almost overcome my pride so far as to go back to the agency and inquire whether the place was still open when I received this letter from the gentleman himself. I have it here and I will read it to you:\n\n\n\" 'The Copper Beeches, near Winchester.\n\n\" 'DEAR MISS HUNTER:--Miss Stoper has very kindly given me your address, and I write from here to ask you whether you have reconsidered your decision. My wife is very anxious that you should come, for she has been much attracted by my description of you. We are willing to give $30 a quarter, or $120 a year, so as to recompense you for any little inconvenience which our fads may cause you. They are not very exacting, after all. My wife is fond of a particular shade of electric blue and would like you to wear such a dress indoors in the morning. You need not, however, go to the expense of purchasing one, as we have one belonging to my dear daughter Alice (now in Philadelphia), which would, I should think, fit you very well. Then, as to sitting here or there, or amusing yourself in any manner indicated, that need cause you no inconvenience. As regards your hair, it is no doubt a pity, especially as I could not help remarking its beauty during our short interview, but I am afraid that I must remain firm upon this point, and I only hope that the increased salary may recompense you for the loss. Your duties, as far as the child is concerned, are very light. Now do try to come, and I shall meet you with the dog-cart at Winchester. Let me know your train. Yours faithfully,\n\n\n\" 'JEPHRO RUCASTLE.'\n\n\"That is the letter which I have just received, Mr. Holmes, and my mind is made up that I will accept it. I thought, however, that before taking the final step I should like to submit the whole matter to your consideration.\"\n\n\"Well, Miss Hunter, if your mind is made up, that settles the question,\" said Holmes, smiling.\n\n\"But you would not advise me to refuse?\"\n\n\"I confess that it is not the situation which I should like to see a sister of mine apply for.\"\n\n\"What is the meaning of it all, Mr. Holmes?\"\n\n\"Ah, I have no data. I cannot tell. Perhaps you have yourself formed some opinion?\"\n\n\"Well, there seems to me to be only one possible solution. Mr. Rucastle seemed to be a very kind, good-natured man. Is it not possible that his wife is a lunatic, that he desires to keep the matter quiet for fear she should be taken to an asylum, and that he humours her fancies in every way in order to prevent an outbreak?\"\n\n\"That is a possible solution--in fact, as matters stand, it is the most probable one. But in any case it does not seem to be a nice household for a young lady.\"\n\n\"But the money, Mr. Holmes, the money!\"\n\n\"Well, yes, of course the pay is good--too good. That is what makes me uneasy. Why should they give you $120 a year, when they could have their pick for $40? There must be some strong reason behind.\"\n\n\"I thought that if I told you the circumstances you would understand afterwards if I wanted your help. I should feel so much stronger if I felt that you were at the back of me.\"\n\n\"Oh, you may carry that feeling away with you. I assure you that your little problem promises to be the most interesting which has come my way for some months. There is something distinctly novel about some of the features. If you should find yourself in doubt or in danger--\"\n\n\"Danger! What danger do you foresee?\"\n\nHolmes shook his head gravely. \"It would cease to be a danger if we could define it,\" said he. \"But at any time, day or night, a telegram would bring me down to your help.\"\n\n\"That is enough.\" She rose briskly from her chair with the anxiety all swept from her face. \"I shall go down to Hampshire quite easy in my mind now. I shall write to Mr. Rucastle at once, sacrifice my poor hair to-night, and start for Winchester to-morrow.\" With a few grateful words to Holmes she bade us both good-night and bustled off upon her way.\n\n\"At least,\" said I as we heard her quick, firm steps descending the stairs, \"she seems to be a young lady who is very well able to take care of herself.\"\n\n\"And she would need to be,\" said Holmes gravely. \"I am much mistaken if we do not hear from her before many days are past.\"\n\nIt was not very long before my friend's prediction was fulfilled. A fortnight went by, during which I frequently found my thoughts turning in her direction and wondering what strange side-alley of human experience this lonely woman had strayed into. The unusual salary, the curious conditions, the light duties, all pointed to something abnormal, though whether a fad or a plot, or whether the man were a philanthropist or a villain, it was quite beyond my powers to determine. As to Holmes, I observed that he sat frequently for half an hour on end, with knitted brows and an abstracted air, but he swept the matter away with a wave of his hand when I mentioned it. \"Data! data! data!\" he cried impatiently. \"I can't make bricks without clay.\" And yet he would always wind up by muttering that no sister of his should ever have accepted such a situation.\n\nThe telegram which we eventually received came late one night just as I was thinking of turning in and Holmes was settling down to one of those all-night chemical researches which he frequently indulged in, when I would leave him stooping over a retort and a test-tube at night and find him in the same position when I came down to breakfast in the morning. He opened the yellow envelope, and then, glancing at the message, threw it across to me.\n\n\"Just look up the trains in Bradshaw,\" said he, and turned back to his chemical studies.\n\nThe summons was a brief and urgent one.\n\n\"Please be at the Black Swan Hotel at Winchester at midday to-morrow,\" it said. \"Do come! I am at my wit's end.\n\n\n\"HUNTER.\"\n\n\"Will you come with me?\" asked Holmes, glancing up.\n\n\"I should wish to.\"\n\n\"Just look it up, then.\"\n\n\"There is a train at half-past nine,\" said I, glancing over my Bradshaw. \"It is due at Winchester at 11:30.\"\n\n\"That will do very nicely. Then perhaps I had better postpone my analysis of the acetones, as we may need to be at our best in the morning.\"\n\nBy eleven o'clock the next day we were well upon our way to the old English capital. Holmes had been buried in the morning papers all the way down, but after we had passed the Hampshire border he threw them down and began to admire the scenery. It was an ideal spring day, a light blue sky, flecked with little fleecy white clouds drifting across from west to east. The sun was shining very brightly, and yet there was an exhilarating nip in the air, which set an edge to a man's energy. All over the countryside, away to the rolling hills around Aldershot, the little red and grey roofs of the farm-steadings peeped out from amid the light green of the new foliage.\n\n\"Are they not fresh and beautiful?\" I cried with all the enthusiasm of a man fresh from the fogs of Baker Street.\n\nBut Holmes shook his head gravely.\n\n\"Do you know, Watson,\" said he, \"that it is one of the curses of a mind with a turn like mine that I must look at everything with reference to my own special subject. You look at these scattered houses, and you are impressed by their beauty. I look at them, and the only thought which comes to me is a feeling of their isolation and of the impunity with which crime may be committed there.\"\n\n\"Good heavens!\" I cried. \"Who would associate crime with these dear old homesteads?\"\n\n\"They always fill me with a certain horror. It is my belief, Watson, founded upon my experience, that the lowest and vilest alleys in London do not present a more dreadful record of sin than does the smiling and beautiful countryside.\"\n\n\"You horrify me!\"\n\n\"But the reason is very obvious. The pressure of public opinion can do in the town what the law cannot accomplish. There is no lane so vile that the scream of a tortured child, or the thud of a drunkard's blow, does not beget sympathy and indignation among the neighbours, and then the whole machinery of justice is ever so close that a word of complaint can set it going, and there is but a step between the crime and the dock. But look at these lonely houses, each in its own fields, filled for the most part with poor ignorant folk who know little of the law. Think of the deeds of hellish cruelty, the hidden wickedness which may go on, year in, year out, in such places, and none the wiser. Had this lady who appeals to us for help gone to live in Winchester, I should never have had a fear for her. It is the five miles of country which makes the danger. Still, it is clear that she is not personally threatened.\"\n\n\"No. If she can come to Winchester to meet us she can get away.\"\n\n\"Quite so. She has her freedom.\"\n\n\"What can be the matter, then? Can you suggest no explanation?\"\n\n\"I have devised seven separate explanations, each of which would cover the facts as far as we know them. But which of these is correct can only be determined by the fresh information which we shall no doubt find waiting for us. Well, there is the tower of the cathedral, and we shall soon learn all that Miss Hunter has to tell.\"\n\nThe Black Swan is an inn of repute in the High Street, at no distance from the station, and there we found the young lady waiting for us. She had engaged a sitting-room, and our lunch awaited us upon the table.\n\n\"I am so delighted that you have come,\" she said earnestly. \"It is so very kind of you both; but indeed I do not know what I should do. Your advice will be altogether invaluable to me.\"\n\n\"Pray tell us what has happened to you.\"\n\n\"I will do so, and I must be quick, for I have promised Mr. Rucastle to be back before three. I got his leave to come into town this morning, though he little knew for what purpose.\"\n\n\"Let us have everything in its due order.\" Holmes thrust his long thin legs out towards the fire and composed himself to listen.\n\n\"In the first place, I may say that I have met, on the whole, with no actual ill-treatment from Mr. and Mrs. Rucastle. It is only fair to them to say that. But I cannot understand them, and I am not easy in my mind about them.\"\n\n\"What can you not understand?\"\n\n\"Their reasons for their conduct. But you shall have it all just as it occurred. When I came down, Mr. Rucastle met me here and drove me in his dog-cart to the Copper Beeches. It is, as he said, beautifully situated, but it is not beautiful in itself, for it is a large square block of a house, whitewashed, but all stained and streaked with damp and bad weather. There are grounds round it, woods on three sides, and on the fourth a field which slopes down to the Southampton highroad, which curves past about a hundred yards from the front door. This ground in front belongs to the house, but the woods all round are part of Lord Southerton's preserves. A clump of copper beeches immediately in front of the hall door has given its name to the place.\n\n\"I was driven over by my employer, who was as amiable as ever, and was introduced by him that evening to his wife and the child. There was no truth, Mr. Holmes, in the conjecture which seemed to us to be probable in your rooms at Baker Street. Mrs. Rucastle is not mad. I found her to be a silent, pale-faced woman, much younger than her husband, not more than thirty, I should think, while he can hardly be less than forty-five. From their conversation I have gathered that they have been married about seven years, that he was a widower, and that his only child by the first wife was the daughter who has gone to Philadelphia. Mr. Rucastle told me in private that the reason why she had left them was that she had an unreasoning aversion to her stepmother. As the daughter could not have been less than twenty, I can quite imagine that her position must have been uncomfortable with her father's young wife.\n\n\"Mrs. Rucastle seemed to me to be colourless in mind as well as in feature. She impressed me neither favourably nor the reverse. She was a nonentity. It was easy to see that she was passionately devoted both to her husband and to her little son. Her light grey eyes wandered continually from one to the other, noting every little want and forestalling it if possible. He was kind to her also in his bluff, boisterous fashion, and on the whole they seemed to be a happy couple. And yet she had some secret sorrow, this woman. She would often be lost in deep thought, with the saddest look upon her face. More than once I have surprised her in tears. I have thought sometimes that it was the disposition of her child which weighed upon her mind, for I have never met so utterly spoiled and so ill-natured a little creature. He is small for his age, with a head which is quite disproportionately large. His whole life appears to be spent in an alternation between savage fits of passion and gloomy intervals of sulking. Giving pain to any creature weaker than himself seems to be his one idea of amusement, and he shows quite remarkable talent in planning the capture of mice, little birds, and insects. But I would rather not talk about the creature, Mr. Holmes, and, indeed, he has little to do with my story.\"\n\n\"I am glad of all details,\" remarked my friend, \"whether they seem to you to be relevant or not.\"\n\n\"I shall try not to miss anything of importance. The one unpleasant thing about the house, which struck me at once, was the appearance and conduct of the servants. There are only two, a man and his wife. Toller, for that is his name, is a rough, uncouth man, with grizzled hair and whiskers, and a perpetual smell of drink. Twice since I have been with them he has been quite drunk, and yet Mr. Rucastle seemed to take no notice of it. His wife is a very tall and strong woman with a sour face, as silent as Mrs. Rucastle and much less amiable. They are a most unpleasant couple, but fortunately I spend most of my time in the nursery and my own room, which are next to each other in one corner of the building.\n\n\"For two days after my arrival at the Copper Beeches my life was very quiet; on the third, Mrs. Rucastle came down just after breakfast and whispered something to her husband.\n\n\" 'Oh, yes,' said he, turning to me, 'we are very much obliged to you, Miss Hunter, for falling in with our whims so far as to cut your hair. I assure you that it has not detracted in the tiniest iota from your appearance. We shall now see how the electric-blue dress will become you. You will find it laid out upon the bed in your room, and if you would be so good as to put it on we should both be extremely obliged.'\n\n\"The dress which I found waiting for me was of a peculiar shade of blue. It was of excellent material, a sort of beige, but it bore unmistakable signs of having been worn before. It could not have been a better fit if I had been measured for it. Both Mr. and Mrs. Rucastle expressed a delight at the look of it, which seemed quite exaggerated in its vehemence. They were waiting for me in the drawing-room, which is a very large room, stretching along the entire front of the house, with three long windows reaching down to the floor. A chair had been placed close to the central window, with its back turned towards it. In this I was asked to sit, and then Mr. Rucastle, walking up and down on the other side of the room, began to tell me a series of the funniest stories that I have ever listened to. You cannot imagine how comical he was, and I laughed until I was quite weary. Mrs. Rucastle, however, who has evidently no sense of humour, never so much as smiled, but sat with her hands in her lap, and a sad, anxious look upon her face. After an hour or so, Mr. Rucastle suddenly remarked that it was time to commence the duties of the day, and that I might change my dress and go to little Edward in the nursery.\n\n\"Two days later this same performance was gone through under exactly similar circumstances. Again I changed my dress, again I sat in the window, and again I laughed very heartily at the funny stories of which my employer had an immense repertoire, and which he told inimitably. Then he handed me a yellow-backed novel, and moving my chair a little sideways, that my own shadow might not fall upon the page, he begged me to read aloud to him. I read for about ten minutes, beginning in the heart of a chapter, and then suddenly, in the middle of a sentence, he ordered me to cease and to change my dress.\n\n\"You can easily imagine, Mr. Holmes, how curious I became as to what the meaning of this extraordinary performance could possibly be. They were always very careful, I observed, to turn my face away from the window, so that I became consumed with the desire to see what was going on behind my back. At first it seemed to be impossible, but I soon devised a means. My hand-mirror had been broken, so a happy thought seized me, and I concealed a piece of the glass in my handkerchief. On the next occasion, in the midst of my laughter, I put my handkerchief up to my eyes, and was able with a little management to see all that there was behind me. I confess that I was disappointed. There was nothing. At least that was my first impression. At the second glance, however, I perceived that there was a man standing in the Southampton Road, a small bearded man in a grey suit, who seemed to be looking in my direction. The road is an important highway, and there are usually people there. This man, however, was leaning against the railings which bordered our field and was looking earnestly up. I lowered my handkerchief and glanced at Mrs. Rucastle to find her eyes fixed upon me with a most searching gaze. She said nothing, but I am convinced that she had divined that I had a mirror in my hand and had seen what was behind me. She rose at once.\n\n\" 'Jephro,' said she, 'there is an impertinent fellow upon the road there who stares up at Miss Hunter.'\n\n\" 'No friend of yours, Miss Hunter?' he asked.\n\n\" 'No, I know no one in these parts.'\n\n\" 'Dear me! How very impertinent! Kindly turn round and motion to him to go away.'\n\n\" 'Surely it would be better to take no notice.'\n\n\" 'No, no, we should have him loitering here always. Kindly turn round and wave him away like that.'\n\n\"I did as I was told, and at the same instant Mrs. Rucastle drew down the blind. That was a week ago, and from that time I have not sat again in the window, nor have I worn the blue dress, nor seen the man in the road.\"\n\n\"Pray continue,\" said Holmes. \"Your narrative promises to be a most interesting one.\"\n\n\"You will find it rather disconnected, I fear, and there may prove to be little relation between the different incidents of which I speak. On the very first day that I was at the Copper Beeches, Mr. Rucastle took me to a small outhouse which stands near the kitchen door. As we approached it I heard the sharp rattling of a chain, and the sound as of a large animal moving about.\n\n\" 'Look in here!' said Mr. Rucastle, showing me a slit between two planks. 'Is he not a beauty?'\n\n\"I looked through and was conscious of two glowing eyes, and of a vague figure huddled up in the darkness.\n\n\" 'Don't be frightened,' said my employer, laughing at the start which I had given. 'It's only Carlo, my mastiff. I call him mine, but really old Toller, my groom, is the only man who can do anything with him. We feed him once a day, and not too much then, so that he is always as keen as mustard. Toller lets him loose every night, and God help the trespasser whom he lays his fangs upon. For goodness' sake don't you ever on any pretext set your foot over the threshold at night, for it's as much as your life is worth.'\n\n\"The warning was no idle one, for two nights later I happened to look out of my bedroom window about two o'clock in the morning. It was a beautiful moonlight night, and the lawn in front of the house was silvered over and almost as bright as day. I was standing, rapt in the peaceful beauty of the scene, when I was aware that something was moving under the shadow of the copper beeches. As it emerged into the moonshine I saw what it was. It was a giant dog, as large as a calf, tawny tinted, with hanging jowl, black muzzle, and huge projecting bones. It walked slowly across the lawn and vanished into the shadow upon the other side. That dreadful sentinel sent a chill to my heart which I do not think that any burglar could have done.\n\n\"And now I have a very strange experience to tell you. I had, as you know, cut off my hair in London, and I had placed it in a great coil at the bottom of my trunk. One evening, after the child was in bed, I began to amuse myself by examining the furniture of my room and by rearranging my own little things. There was an old chest of drawers in the room, the two upper ones empty and open, the lower one locked. I had filled the first two with my linen, and as I had still much to pack away I was naturally annoyed at not having the use of the third drawer. It struck me that it might have been fastened by a mere oversight, so I took out my bunch of keys and tried to open it. The very first key fitted to perfection, and I drew the drawer open. There was only one thing in it, but I am sure that you would never guess what it was. It was my coil of hair.\n\n\"I took it up and examined it. It was of the same peculiar tint, and the same thickness. But then the impossibility of the thing obtruded itself upon me. How could my hair have been locked in the drawer? With trembling hands I undid my trunk, turned out the contents, and drew from the bottom my own hair. I laid the two tresses together, and I assure you that they were identical. Was it not extraordinary? Puzzle as I would, I could make nothing at all of what it meant. I returned the strange hair to the drawer, and I said nothing of the matter to the Rucastles as I felt that I had put myself in the wrong by opening a drawer which they had locked.\n\n\"I am naturally observant, as you may have remarked, Mr. Holmes, and I soon had a pretty good plan of the whole house in my head. There was one wing, however, which appeared not to be inhabited at all. A door which faced that which led into the quarters of the Tollers opened into this suite, but it was invariably locked. One day, however, as I ascended the stair, I met Mr. Rucastle coming out through this door, his keys in his hand, and a look on his face which made him a very different person to the round, jovial man to whom I was accustomed. His cheeks were red, his brow was all crinkled with anger, and the veins stood out at his temples with passion. He locked the door and hurried past me without a word or a look.\n\n\"This aroused my curiosity, so when I went out for a walk in the grounds with my charge, I strolled round to the side from which I could see the windows of this part of the house. There were four of them in a row, three of which were simply dirty, while the fourth was shuttered up. They were evidently all deserted. As I strolled up and down, glancing at them occasionally, Mr. Rucastle came out to me, looking as merry and jovial as ever.\n\n\" 'Ah!' said he, 'you must not think me rude if I passed you without a word, my dear young lady. I was preoccupied with business matters.'\n\n\"I assured him that I was not offended. 'By the way,' said I, 'you seem to have quite a suite of spare rooms up there, and one of them has the shutters up.'\n\n\"He looked surprised and, as it seemed to me, a little startled at my remark.\n\n\" 'Photography is one of my hobbies,' said he. 'I have made my dark room up there. But, dear me! what an observant young lady we have come upon. Who would have believed it? Who would have ever believed it?' He spoke in a jesting tone, but there was no jest in his eyes as he looked at me. I read suspicion there and annoyance, but no jest.\n\n\"Well, Mr. Holmes, from the moment that I understood that there was something about that suite of rooms which I was not to know, I was all on fire to go over them. It was not mere curiosity, though I have my share of that. It was more a feeling of duty--a feeling that some good might come from my penetrating to this place. They talk of woman's instinct; perhaps it was woman's instinct which gave me that feeling. At any rate, it was there, and I was keenly on the lookout for any chance to pass the forbidden door.\n\n\"It was only yesterday that the chance came. I may tell you that, besides Mr. Rucastle, both Toller and his wife find something to do in these deserted rooms, and I once saw him carrying a large black linen bag with him through the door. Recently he has been drinking hard, and yesterday evening he was very drunk; and when I came upstairs there was the key in the door. I have no doubt at all that he had left it there. Mr. and Mrs. Rucastle were both downstairs, and the child was with them, so that I had an admirable opportunity. I turned the key gently in the lock, opened the door, and slipped through.\n\n\"There was a little passage in front of me, unpapered and uncarpeted, which turned at a right angle at the farther end. Round this corner were three doors in a line, the first and third of which were open. They each led into an empty room, dusty and cheerless, with two windows in the one and one in the other, so thick with dirt that the evening light glimmered dimly through them. The centre door was closed, and across the outside of it had been fastened one of the broad bars of an iron bed, padlocked at one end to a ring in the wall, and fastened at the other with stout cord. The door itself was locked as well, and the key was not there. This barricaded door corresponded clearly with the shuttered window outside, and yet I could see by the glimmer from beneath it that the room was not in darkness. Evidently there was a skylight which let in light from above. As I stood in the passage gazing at the sinister door and wondering what secret it might veil, I suddenly heard the sound of steps within the room and saw a shadow pass backward and forward against the little slit of dim light which shone out from under the door. A mad, unreasoning terror rose up in me at the sight, Mr. Holmes. My overstrung nerves failed me suddenly, and I turned and ran--ran as though some dreadful hand were behind me clutching at the skirt of my dress. I rushed down the passage, through the door, and straight into the arms of Mr. Rucastle, who was waiting outside.\n\n\" 'So,' said he, smiling, 'it was you, then. I thought that it must be when I saw the door open.'\n\n\" 'Oh, I am so frightened!' I panted.\n\n\" 'My dear young lady! my dear young lady!'--you cannot think how caressing and soothing his manner was--'and what has frightened you, my dear young lady?'\n\n\"But his voice was just a little too coaxing. He overdid it. I was keenly on my guard against him.\n\n\" 'I was foolish enough to go into the empty wing,' I answered. 'But it is so lonely and eerie in this dim light that I was frightened and ran out again. Oh, it is so dreadfully still in there!'\n\n\" 'Only that?' said he, looking at me keenly.\n\n\" 'Why, what did you think?' I asked.\n\n\" 'Why do you think that I lock this door?'\n\n\" 'I am sure that I do not know.'\n\n\" 'It is to keep people out who have no business there. Do you see?' He was still smiling in the most amiable manner.\n\n\" 'I am sure if I had known--'\n\n\" 'Well, then, you know now. And if you ever put your foot over that threshold again'--here in an instant the smile hardened into a grin of rage, and he glared down at me with the face of a demon--'I'll throw you to the mastiff.'\n\n\"I was so terrified that I do not know what I did. I suppose that I must have rushed past him into my room. I remember nothing until I found myself lying on my bed trembling all over. Then I thought of you, Mr. Holmes. I could not live there longer without some advice. I was frightened of the house, of the man, of the woman, of the servants, even of the child. They were all horrible to me. If I could only bring you down all would be well. Of course I might have fled from the house, but my curiosity was almost as strong as my fears. My mind was soon made up. I would send you a wire. I put on my hat and cloak, went down to the office, which is about half a mile from the house, and then returned, feeling very much easier. A horrible doubt came into my mind as I approached the door lest the dog might be loose, but I remembered that Toller had drunk himself into a state of insensibility that evening, and I knew that he was the only one in the household who had any influence with the savage creature, or who would venture to set him free. I slipped in in safety and lay awake half the night in my joy at the thought of seeing you. I had no difficulty in getting leave to come into Winchester this morning, but I must be back before three o'clock, for Mr. and Mrs. Rucastle are going on a visit, and will be away all the evening, so that I must look after the child. Now I have told you all my adventures, Mr. Holmes, and I should be very glad if you could tell me what it all means, and, above all, what I should do.\"\n\nHolmes and I had listened spellbound to this extraordinary story. My friend rose now and paced up and down the room, his hands in his pockets, and an expression of the most profound gravity upon his face.\n\n\"Is Toller still drunk?\" he asked.\n\n\"Yes. I heard his wife tell Mrs. Rucastle that she could do nothing with him.\"\n\n\"That is well. And the Rucastles go out to-night?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Is there a cellar with a good strong lock?\"\n\n\"Yes, the wine-cellar.\"\n\n\"You seem to me to have acted all through this matter like a very brave and sensible girl, Miss Hunter. Do you think that you could perform one more feat? I should not ask it of you if I did not think you a quite exceptional woman.\"\n\n\"I will try. What is it?\"\n\n\"We shall be at the Copper Beeches by seven o'clock, my friend and I. The Rucastles will be gone by that time, and Toller will, we hope, be incapable. There only remains Mrs. Toller, who might give the alarm. If you could send her into the cellar on some errand, and then turn the key upon her, you would facilitate matters immensely.\"\n\n\"I will do it.\"\n\n\"Excellent! We shall then look thoroughly into the affair. Of course there is only one feasible explanation. You have been brought there to personate someone, and the real person is imprisoned in this chamber. That is obvious. As to who this prisoner is, I have no doubt that it is the daughter, Miss Alice Rucastle, if I remember right, who was said to have gone to America. You were chosen, doubtless, as resembling her in height, figure, and the colour of your hair. Hers had been cut off, very possibly in some illness through which she has passed, and so, of course, yours had to be sacrificed also. By a curious chance you came upon her tresses. The man in the road was undoubtedly some friend of hers--possibly her fiance--and no doubt, as you wore the girl's dress and were so like her, he was convinced from your laughter, whenever he saw you, and afterwards from your gesture, that Miss Rucastle was perfectly happy, and that she no longer desired his attentions. The dog is let loose at night to prevent him from endeavouring to communicate with her. So much is fairly clear. The most serious point in the case is the disposition of the child.\"\n\n\"What on earth has that to do with it?\" I ejaculated.\n\n\"My dear Watson, you as a medical man are continually gaining light as to the tendencies of a child by the study of the parents. Don't you see that the converse is equally valid. I have frequently gained my first real insight into the character of parents by studying their children. This child's disposition is abnormally cruel, merely for cruelty's sake, and whether he derives this from his smiling father, as I should suspect, or from his mother, it bodes evil for the poor girl who is in their power.\"\n\n\"I am sure that you are right, Mr. Holmes,\" cried our client. \"A thousand things come back to me which make me certain that you have hit it. Oh, let us lose not an instant in bringing help to this poor creature.\"\n\n\"We must be circumspect, for we are dealing with a very cunning man. We can do nothing until seven o'clock. At that hour we shall be with you, and it will not be long before we solve the mystery.\"\n\nWe were as good as our word, for it was just seven when we reached the Copper Beeches, having put up our trap at a wayside public-house. The group of trees, with their dark leaves shining like burnished metal in the light of the setting sun, were sufficient to mark the house even had Miss Hunter not been standing smiling on the door-step.\n\n\"Have you managed it?\" asked Holmes.\n\nA loud thudding noise came from somewhere downstairs. \"That is Mrs. Toller in the cellar,\" said she. \"Her husband lies snoring on the kitchen rug. Here are his keys, which are the duplicates of Mr. Rucastle's.\"\n\n\"You have done well indeed!\" cried Holmes with enthusiasm. \"Now lead the way, and we shall soon see the end of this black business.\"\n\nWe passed up the stair, unlocked the door, followed on down a passage, and found ourselves in front of the barricade which Miss Hunter had described. Holmes cut the cord and removed the transverse bar. Then he tried the various keys in the lock, but without success. No sound came from within, and at the silence Holmes' face clouded over.\n\n\"I trust that we are not too late,\" said he. \"I think, Miss Hunter, that we had better go in without you. Now, Watson, put your shoulder to it, and we shall see whether we cannot make our way in.\"\n\nIt was an old rickety door and gave at once before our united strength. Together we rushed into the room. It was empty. There was no furniture save a little pallet bed, a small table, and a basketful of linen. The skylight above was open, and the prisoner gone.\n\n\"There has been some villainy here,\" said Holmes; \"this beauty has guessed Miss Hunter's intentions and has carried his victim off.\"\n\n\"But how?\"\n\n\"Through the skylight. We shall soon see how he managed it.\" He swung himself up onto the roof. \"Ah, yes,\" he cried, \"here's the end of a long light ladder against the eaves. That is how he did it.\"\n\n\"But it is impossible,\" said Miss Hunter; \"the ladder was not there when the Rucastles went away.\"\n\n\"He has come back and done it. I tell you that he is a clever and dangerous man. I should not be very much surprised if this were he whose step I hear now upon the stair. I think, Watson, that it would be as well for you to have your pistol ready.\"\n\nThe words were hardly out of his mouth before a man appeared at the door of the room, a very fat and burly man, with a heavy stick in his hand. Miss Hunter screamed and shrunk against the wall at the sight of him, but Sherlock Holmes sprang forward and confronted him.\n\n\"You villain!\" said he, \"where's your daughter?\"\n\nThe fat man cast his eyes round, and then up at the open skylight.\n\n\"It is for me to ask you that,\" he shrieked, \"you thieves! Spies and thieves! I have caught you, have I? You are in my power. I'll serve you!\" He turned and clattered down the stairs as hard as he could go.\n\n\"He's gone for the dog!\" cried Miss Hunter.\n\n\"I have my revolver,\" said I.\n\n\"Better close the front door,\" cried Holmes, and we all rushed down the stairs together. We had hardly reached the hall when we heard the baying of a hound, and then a scream of agony, with a horrible worrying sound which it was dreadful to listen to. An elderly man with a red face and shaking limbs came staggering out at a side door.\n\n\"My God!\" he cried. \"Someone has loosed the dog. It's not been fed for two days. Quick, quick, or it'll be too late!\"\n\nHolmes and I rushed out and round the angle of the house, with Toller hurrying behind us. There was the huge famished brute, its black muzzle buried in Rucastle's throat, while he writhed and screamed upon the ground. Running up, I blew its brains out, and it fell over with its keen white teeth still meeting in the great creases of his neck. With much labour we separated them and carried him, living but horribly mangled, into the house. We laid him upon the drawing-room sofa, and having dispatched the sobered Toller to bear the news to his wife, I did what I could to relieve his pain. We were all assembled round him when the door opened, and a tall, gaunt woman entered the room.\n\n\"Mrs. Toller!\" cried Miss Hunter.\n\n\"Yes, miss. Mr. Rucastle let me out when he came back before he went up to you. Ah, miss, it is a pity you didn't let me know what you were planning, for I would have told you that your pains were wasted.\"\n\n\"Ha!\" said Holmes, looking keenly at her. \"It is clear that Mrs. Toller knows more about this matter than anyone else.\"\n\n\"Yes, sir, I do, and I am ready enough to tell what I know.\"\n\n\"Then, pray, sit down, and let us hear it for there are several points on which I must confess that I am still in the dark.\"\n\n\"I will soon make it clear to you,\" said she; \"and I'd have done so before now if I could ha' got out from the cellar. If there's police-court business over this, you'll remember that I was the one that stood your friend, and that I was Miss Alice's friend too.\n\n\"She was never happy at home, Miss Alice wasn't, from the time that her father married again. She was slighted like and had no say in anything, but it never really became bad for her until after she met Mr. Fowler at a friend's house. As well as I could learn, Miss Alice had rights of her own by will, but she was so quiet and patient, she was, that she never said a word about them but just left everything in Mr. Rucastle's hands. He knew he was safe with her; but when there was a chance of a husband coming forward, who would ask for all that the law would give him, then her father thought it time to put a stop on it. He wanted her to sign a paper, so that whether she married or not, he could use her money. When she wouldn't do it, he kept on worrying her until she got brain-fever, and for six weeks was at death's door. Then she got better at last, all worn to a shadow, and with her beautiful hair cut off; but that didn't make no change in her young man, and he stuck to her as true as man could be.\"\n\n\"Ah,\" said Holmes, \"I think that what you have been good enough to tell us makes the matter fairly clear, and that I can deduce all that remains. Mr. Rucastle then, I presume, took to this system of imprisonment?\"\n\n\"Yes, sir.\"\n\n\"And brought Miss Hunter down from London in order to get rid of the disagreeable persistence of Mr. Fowler.\"\n\n\"That was it, sir.\"\n\n\"But Mr. Fowler being a persevering man, as a good seaman should be, blockaded the house, and having met you succeeded by certain arguments, metallic or otherwise, in convincing you that your interests were the same as his.\"\n\n\"Mr. Fowler was a very kind-spoken, free-handed gentleman,\" said Mrs. Toller serenely.\n\n\"And in this way he managed that your good man should have no want of drink, and that a ladder should be ready at the moment when your master had gone out.\"\n\n\"You have it, sir, just as it happened.\"\n\n\"I am sure we owe you an apology, Mrs. Toller,\" said Holmes, \"for you have certainly cleared up everything which puzzled us. And here comes the country surgeon and Mrs. Rucastle, so I think, Watson, that we had best escort Miss Hunter back to Winchester, as it seems to me that our locus standi now is rather a questionable one.\"\n\nAnd thus was solved the mystery of the sinister house with the copper beeches in front of the door. Mr. Rucastle survived, but was always a broken man, kept alive solely through the care of his devoted wife. They still live with their old servants, who probably know so much of Rucastle's past life that he finds it difficult to part from them. Mr. Fowler and Miss Rucastle were married, by special license, in Southampton the day after their flight, and he is now the holder of a government appointment in the island of Mauritius. As to Miss Violet Hunter, my friend Holmes, rather to my disappointment, manifested no further interest in her when once she had ceased to be the centre of one of his problems, and she is now the head of a private school at Walsall, where I believe that she has met with considerable success.\n\n*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE ADVENTURES OF SHERLOCK HOLMES ***\n\nThis file should be named advsh12h.htm or advsh12h.zip\nCorrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, advsh13h.txt\nVERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, advsh12ah.txt\n\nProject Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed\neditions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US\nunless a copyright notice is included. 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Beard\n\nRelease Date: October 28, 2005 [EBook #16960]\n\nLanguage: English\n\nCharacter set encoding: ISO-8859-1\n\n*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ***\n\n\n\n\nProduced by Curtis Weyant, M and the Online Distributed\nProofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nHISTORY\n\nOF THE\n\nUNITED STATES\n\n\nBY\n\n\nCHARLES A. BEARD\n\nAND\n\nMARY R. BEARD\n\n\n\nNew York\n\nTHE MACMILLAN COMPANY\n\n1921\n\n_All rights reserved_\n\nCOPYRIGHT, 1921,\n\nBY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.\n\n\nSet up and electrotyped. Published March, 1921.\n\n\n\n\nNorwood Press\n\nJ.S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.\n\nNORWOOD, MASS., U.S.A.\n\n\n\n\nPREFACE\n\n\nAs things now stand, the course of instruction in American history in\nour public schools embraces three distinct treatments of the subject.\nThree separate books are used. First, there is the primary book, which\nis usually a very condensed narrative with emphasis on biographies and\nanecdotes. Second, there is the advanced text for the seventh or eighth\ngrade, generally speaking, an expansion of the elementary book by the\naddition of forty or fifty thousand words. Finally, there is the high\nschool manual. This, too, ordinarily follows the beaten path, giving\nfuller accounts of the same events and characters. To put it bluntly, we\ndo not assume that our children obtain permanent possessions from their\nstudy of history in the lower grades. If mathematicians followed the\nsame method, high school texts on algebra and geometry would include the\nmultiplication table and fractions.\n\nThere is, of course, a ready answer to the criticism advanced above. It\nis that teachers have learned from bitter experience how little history\ntheir pupils retain as they pass along the regular route. No teacher of\nhistory will deny this. Still it is a standing challenge to existing\nmethods of historical instruction. If the study of history cannot be\nmade truly progressive like the study of mathematics, science, and\nlanguages, then the historians assume a grave responsibility in adding\ntheir subject to the already overloaded curriculum. If the successive\nhistorical texts are only enlarged editions of the first text--more\nfacts, more dates, more words--then history deserves most of the sharp\ncriticism which it is receiving from teachers of science, civics, and\neconomics.\n\nIn this condition of affairs we find our justification for offering a\nnew high school text in American history. Our first contribution is one\nof omission. The time-honored stories of exploration and the\nbiographies of heroes are left out. We frankly hold that, if pupils know\nlittle or nothing about Columbus, Cortes, Magellan, or Captain John\nSmith by the time they reach the high school, it is useless to tell the\nsame stories for perhaps the fourth time. It is worse than useless. It\nis an offense against the teachers of those subjects that are\ndemonstrated to be progressive in character.\n\nIn the next place we have omitted all descriptions of battles. Our\nreasons for this are simple. The strategy of a campaign or of a single\nbattle is a highly technical, and usually a highly controversial, matter\nabout which experts differ widely. In the field of military and naval\noperations most writers and teachers of history are mere novices. To\ndispose of Gettysburg or the Wilderness in ten lines or ten pages is\nequally absurd to the serious student of military affairs. Any one who\ncompares the ordinary textbook account of a single Civil War campaign\nwith the account given by Ropes, for instance, will ask for no further\ncomment. No youth called upon to serve our country in arms would think\nof turning to a high school manual for information about the art of\nwarfare. The dramatic scene or episode, so useful in arousing the\ninterest of the immature pupil, seems out of place in a book that\ndeliberately appeals to boys and girls on the very threshold of life's\nserious responsibilities.\n\nIt is not upon negative features, however, that we rest our case. It is\nrather upon constructive features.\n\n_First._ We have written a topical, not a narrative, history. We have\ntried to set forth the important aspects, problems, and movements of\neach period, bringing in the narrative rather by way of illustration.\n\n_Second._ We have emphasized those historical topics which help to\nexplain how our nation has come to be what it is to-day.\n\n_Third._ We have dwelt fully upon the social and economic aspects of our\nhistory, especially in relation to the politics of each period.\n\n_Fourth._ We have treated the causes and results of wars, the problems\nof financing and sustaining armed forces, rather than military strategy.\nThese are the subjects which belong to a history for civilians. These\nare matters which civilians can understand--matters which they must\nunderstand, if they are to play well their part in war and peace.\n\n_Fifth._ By omitting the period of exploration, we have been able to\nenlarge the treatment of our own time. We have given special attention\nto the history of those current questions which must form the subject\nmatter of sound instruction in citizenship.\n\n_Sixth._ We have borne in mind that America, with all her unique\ncharacteristics, is a part of a general civilization. Accordingly we\nhave given diplomacy, foreign affairs, world relations, and the\nreciprocal influences of nations their appropriate place.\n\n_Seventh._ We have deliberately aimed at standards of maturity. The\nstudy of a mere narrative calls mainly for the use of the memory. We\nhave aimed to stimulate habits of analysis, comparison, association,\nreflection, and generalization--habits calculated to enlarge as well as\ninform the mind. We have been at great pains to make our text clear,\nsimple, and direct; but we have earnestly sought to stretch the\nintellects of our readers--to put them upon their mettle. Most of them\nwill receive the last of their formal instruction in the high school.\nThe world will soon expect maturity from them. Their achievements will\ndepend upon the possession of other powers than memory alone. The\neffectiveness of their citizenship in our republic will be measured by\nthe excellence of their judgment as well as the fullness of their\ninformation.\n\n C.A.B.\n M.R.B.\n\n NEW YORK CITY,\n February 8, 1921.\n\n\n\n\n=A SMALL LIBRARY IN AMERICAN HISTORY=\n\n\n_=SINGLE VOLUMES:=_\n\nBASSETT, J.S. _A Short History of the United States_\nELSON, H.W. _History of the United States of America_\n\n\n_=SERIES:=_\n\n\"EPOCHS OF AMERICAN HISTORY,\" EDITED BY A.B. HART\n\nHART, A.B. _Formation of the Union_\nTHWAITES, R.G. _The Colonies_\nWILSON, WOODROW. _Division and Reunion_\n\n\"RIVERSIDE SERIES,\" EDITED BY W.E. DODD\n\nBECKER, C.L. _Beginnings of the American People_\nDODD, W.E. _Expansion and Conflict_\nJOHNSON, A. _Union and Democracy_\nPAXSON, F.L. _The New Nation_\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS\n\n\nPART I. THE COLONIAL PERIOD\n\nCHAPTER PAGE\n I. THE GREAT MIGRATION TO AMERICA 1\n The Agencies of American Colonization 2\n The Colonial Peoples 6\n The Process of Colonization 12\n\n II. COLONIAL AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE 20\n The Land and the Westward Movement 20\n Industrial and Commercial Development 28\n\n III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PROGRESS 38\n The Leadership of the Churches 39\n Schools and Colleges 43\n The Colonial Press 46\n The Evolution in Political Institutions 48\n\n IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLONIAL NATIONALISM 56\n Relations with the Indians and the French 57\n The Effects of Warfare on the Colonies 61\n Colonial Relations with the British Government 64\n Summary of Colonial Period 73\n\n\nPART II. CONFLICT AND INDEPENDENCE\n\n V. THE NEW COURSE IN BRITISH IMPERIAL POLICY 77\n George III and His System 77\n George III's Ministers and Their Colonial Policies 79\n Colonial Resistance Forces Repeal 83\n Resumption of British Revenue and Commercial Policies 87\n Renewed Resistance in America 90\n Retaliation by the British Government 93\n From Reform to Revolution in America 95\n\n VI. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 99\n Resistance and Retaliation 99\n American Independence 101\n The Establishment of Government and the New Allegiance 108\n Military Affairs 116\n The Finances of the Revolution 125\n The Diplomacy of the Revolution 127\n Peace at Last 132\n Summary of the Revolutionary Period 135\n\n\nPART III. FOUNDATIONS OF THE UNION AND NATIONAL POLITICS\n\n VII. THE FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION 139\n The Promise and the Difficulties of America 139\n The Calling of a Constitutional Convention 143\n The Framing of the Constitution 146\n The Struggle over Ratification 157\n\n VIII. THE CLASH OF POLITICAL PARTIES 162\n The Men and Measures of the New Government 162\n The Rise of Political Parties 168\n Foreign Influences and Domestic Politics 171\n\n IX. THE JEFFERSONIAN REPUBLICANS IN POWER 186\n Republican Principles and Policies 186\n The Republicans and the Great West 188\n The Republican War for Commercial Independence 193\n The Republicans Nationalized 201\n The National Decisions of Chief Justice Marshall 208\n Summary of Union and National Politics 212\n\n\nPART IV. THE WEST AND JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY\n\n X. THE FARMERS BEYOND THE APPALACHIANS 217\n Preparation for Western Settlement 217\n The Western Migration and New States 221\n The Spirit of the Frontier 228\n The West and the East Meet 230\n\n XI. JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY 238\n The Democratic Movement in the East 238\n The New Democracy Enters the Arena 244\n The New Democracy at Washington 250\n The Rise of the Whigs 260\n The Interaction of American and European Opinion 265\n\n XII. THE MIDDLE BORDER AND THE GREAT WEST 271\n The Advance of the Middle Border 271\n On to the Pacific--Texas and the Mexican War 276\n The Pacific Coast and Utah 284\n Summary of Western Development and National Politics 292\n\n\nPART V. SECTIONAL CONFLICT AND RECONSTRUCTION\n\n XIII. THE RISE OF THE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM 295\n The Industrial Revolution 296\n The Industrial Revolution and National Politics 307\n\n XIV. THE PLANTING SYSTEM AND NATIONAL POLITICS 316\n Slavery--North and South 316\n Slavery in National Politics 324\n The Drift of Events toward the Irrepressible Conflict 332\n\n XV. THE CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION 344\n The Southern Confederacy 344\n The War Measures of the Federal Government 350\n The Results of the Civil War 365\n Reconstruction in the South 370\n Summary of the Sectional Conflict 375\n\n\nPART VI. NATIONAL GROWTH AND WORLD POLITICS\n\n XVI. THE POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC EVOLUTION OF THE SOUTH 379\n The South at the Close of the War 379\n The Restoration of White Supremacy 382\n The Economic Advance of the South 389\n\n XVII. BUSINESS ENTERPRISE AND THE REPUBLICAN PARTY 401\n Railways and Industry 401\n The Supremacy of the Republican Party (1861-1885) 412\n The Growth of Opposition to Republican Rule 417\n\nXVIII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREAT WEST 425\n The Railways as Trail Blazers 425\n The Evolution of Grazing and Agriculture 431\n Mining and Manufacturing in the West 436\n The Admission of New States 440\n The Influence of the Far West on National Life 443\n\n XIX. DOMESTIC ISSUES BEFORE THE COUNTRY (1865-1897) 451\n The Currency Question 452\n The Protective Tariff and Taxation 459\n The Railways and Trusts 460\n The Minor Parties and Unrest 462\n The Sound Money Battle of 1896 466\n Republican Measures and Results 472\n\n XX. AMERICA A WORLD POWER (1865-1900) 477\n American Foreign Relations (1865-1898) 478\n Cuba and the Spanish War 485\n American Policies in the Philippines and the Orient 497\n Summary of National Growth and World Politics 504\n\n\nPART VII. PROGRESSIVE DEMOCRACY AND THE WORLD WAR\n\n XXI. THE EVOLUTION OF REPUBLICAN POLICIES (1901-1913) 507\n Foreign Affairs 508\n Colonial Administration 515\n The Roosevelt Domestic Policies 519\n Legislative and Executive Activities 523\n The Administration of President Taft 527\n Progressive Insurgency and the Election of 1912 530\n\n XXII. THE SPIRIT OF REFORM IN AMERICA 536\n An Age of Criticism 536\n Political Reforms 538\n Measures of Economic Reform 546\n\nXXIII. THE NEW POLITICAL DEMOCRACY 554\n The Rise of the Woman Movement 555\n The National Struggle for Woman Suffrage 562\n\n XXIV. INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY 570\n Cooperation between Employers and Employees 571\n The Rise and Growth of Organized Labor 575\n The Wider Relations of Organized Labor 577\n Immigration and Americanization 582\n\n XXV. PRESIDENT WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR 588\n Domestic Legislation 588\n Colonial and Foreign Policies 592\n The United States and the European War 596\n The United States at War 604\n The Settlement at Paris 612\n Summary of Democracy and the World War 620\n\nAPPENDIX 627\n\nA TOPICAL SYLLABUS 645\n\nINDEX 655\n\n\n\n\nMAPS\n\n\n PAGE\nThe Original Grants (color map) _Facing_ 4\n\nGerman and Scotch-Irish Settlements 8\n\nDistribution of Population in 1790 27\n\nEnglish, French, and Spanish Possessions in America, 1750\n (color map) _Facing_ 59\n\nThe Colonies at the Time of the Declaration of Independence\n (color map) _Facing_ 108\n\nNorth America according to the Treaty of 1783\n (color map) _Facing_ 134\n\nThe United States in 1805 (color map) _Facing_ 193\n\nRoads and Trails into Western Territory (color map) _Facing_ 224\n\nThe Cumberland Road 233\n\nDistribution of Population in 1830 235\n\nTexas and the Territory in Dispute 282\n\nThe Oregon Country and the Disputed Boundary 285\n\nThe Overland Trails 287\n\nDistribution of Slaves in Southern States 323\n\nThe Missouri Compromise 326\n\nSlave and Free Soil on the Eve of the Civil War 335\n\nThe United States in 1861 (color map) _Facing_ 345\n\nRailroads of the United States in 1918 405\n\nThe United States in 1870 (color map) _Facing_ 427\n\nThe United States in 1912 (color map) _Facing_ 443\n\nAmerican Dominions in the Pacific (color map) _Facing_ 500\n\nThe Caribbean Region (color map) _Facing_ 592\n\nBattle Lines of the Various Years of the World War 613\n\nEurope in 1919 (color map) _Between_ 618-619\n\n \"THE NATIONS OF THE WEST\" (popularly called \"The\n Pioneers\"), designed by A. Stirling Calder and modeled by\n Mr. Calder, F.G.R. Roth, and Leo Lentelli, topped the Arch\n of the Setting Sun at the Panama-Pacific Exposition held at\n San Francisco in 1915. Facing the Court of the Universe\n moves a group of men and women typical of those who have\n made our civilization. From left to right appear the\n French-Canadian, the Alaskan, the Latin-American, the\n German, the Italian, the Anglo-American, and the American\n Indian, squaw and warrior. In the place of honor in the\n center of the group, standing between the oxen on the tongue\n of the prairie schooner, is a figure, beautiful and almost\n girlish, but strong, dignified, and womanly, the Mother of\n To-morrow. Above the group rides the Spirit of Enterprise,\n flanked right and left by the Hopes of the Future in the\n person of two boys. The group as a whole is beautifully\n symbolic of the westward march of American civilization.\n\n[Illustration: _Photograph by Cardinell-Vincent Co., San Francisco_\n\n\"THE NATIONS OF THE WEST\"]\n\n\n\n\nHISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES\n\n\n\n\nPART I. THE COLONIAL PERIOD\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I\n\nTHE GREAT MIGRATION TO AMERICA\n\n\nThe tide of migration that set in toward the shores of North America\nduring the early years of the seventeenth century was but one phase in\nthe restless and eternal movement of mankind upon the surface of the\nearth. The ancient Greeks flung out their colonies in every direction,\nwestward as far as Gaul, across the Mediterranean, and eastward into\nAsia Minor, perhaps to the very confines of India. The Romans, supported\nby their armies and their government, spread their dominion beyond the\nnarrow lands of Italy until it stretched from the heather of Scotland to\nthe sands of Arabia. The Teutonic tribes, from their home beyond the\nDanube and the Rhine, poured into the empire of the Caesars and made the\nbeginnings of modern Europe. Of this great sweep of races and empires\nthe settlement of America was merely a part. And it was, moreover, only\none aspect of the expansion which finally carried the peoples, the\ninstitutions, and the trade of Europe to the very ends of the earth.\n\nIn one vital point, it must be noted, American colonization differed\nfrom that of the ancients. The Greeks usually carried with them\naffection for the government they left behind and sacred fire from the\naltar of the parent city; but thousands of the immigrants who came to\nAmerica disliked the state and disowned the church of the mother\ncountry. They established compacts of government for themselves and set\nup altars of their own. They sought not only new soil to till but also\npolitical and religious liberty for themselves and their children.\n\n\nTHE AGENCIES OF AMERICAN COLONIZATION\n\nIt was no light matter for the English to cross three thousand miles of\nwater and found homes in the American wilderness at the opening of the\nseventeenth century. Ships, tools, and supplies called for huge outlays\nof money. Stores had to be furnished in quantities sufficient to sustain\nthe life of the settlers until they could gather harvests of their own.\nArtisans and laborers of skill and industry had to be induced to risk\nthe hazards of the new world. Soldiers were required for defense and\nmariners for the exploration of inland waters. Leaders of good judgment,\nadept in managing men, had to be discovered. Altogether such an\nenterprise demanded capital larger than the ordinary merchant or\ngentleman could amass and involved risks more imminent than he dared to\nassume. Though in later days, after initial tests had been made, wealthy\nproprietors were able to establish colonies on their own account, it was\nthe corporation that furnished the capital and leadership in the\nbeginning.\n\n=The Trading Company.=--English pioneers in exploration found an\ninstrument for colonization in companies of merchant adventurers, which\nhad long been employed in carrying on commerce with foreign countries.\nSuch a corporation was composed of many persons of different ranks of\nsociety--noblemen, merchants, and gentlemen--who banded together for a\nparticular undertaking, each contributing a sum of money and sharing in\nthe profits of the venture. It was organized under royal authority; it\nreceived its charter, its grant of land, and its trading privileges from\nthe king and carried on its operations under his supervision and\ncontrol. The charter named all the persons originally included in the\ncorporation and gave them certain powers in the management of its\naffairs, including the right to admit new members. The company was in\nfact a little government set up by the king. When the members of the\ncorporation remained in England, as in the case of the Virginia Company,\nthey operated through agents sent to the colony. When they came over the\nseas themselves and settled in America, as in the case of Massachusetts,\nthey became the direct government of the country they possessed. The\nstockholders in that instance became the voters and the governor, the\nchief magistrate.\n\n[Illustration: JOHN WINTHROP, GOVERNOR OF THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY\nCOMPANY]\n\nFour of the thirteen colonies in America owed their origins to the\ntrading corporation. It was the London Company, created by King James I,\nin 1606, that laid during the following year the foundations of Virginia\nat Jamestown. It was under the auspices of their West India Company,\nchartered in 1621, that the Dutch planted the settlements of the New\nNetherland in the valley of the Hudson. The founders of Massachusetts\nwere Puritan leaders and men of affairs whom King Charles I incorporated\nin 1629 under the title: \"The governor and company of the Massachusetts\nBay in New England.\" In this case the law did but incorporate a group\ndrawn together by religious ties. \"We must be knit together as one man,\"\nwrote John Winthrop, the first Puritan governor in America. Far to the\nsouth, on the banks of the Delaware River, a Swedish commercial company\nin 1638 made the beginnings of a settlement, christened New Sweden; it\nwas destined to pass under the rule of the Dutch, and finally under the\nrule of William Penn as the proprietary colony of Delaware.\n\nIn a certain sense, Georgia may be included among the \"company\ncolonies.\" It was, however, originally conceived by the moving spirit,\nJames Oglethorpe, as an asylum for poor men, especially those imprisoned\nfor debt. To realize this humane purpose, he secured from King George\nII, in 1732, a royal charter uniting several gentlemen, including\nhimself, into \"one body politic and corporate,\" known as the \"Trustees\nfor establishing the colony of Georgia in America.\" In the structure of\ntheir organization and their methods of government, the trustees did not\ndiffer materially from the regular companies created for trade and\ncolonization. Though their purposes were benevolent, their transactions\nhad to be under the forms of law and according to the rules of business.\n\n=The Religious Congregation.=--A second agency which figured largely in\nthe settlement of America was the religious brotherhood, or\ncongregation, of men and women brought together in the bonds of a common\nreligious faith. By one of the strange fortunes of history, this\ninstitution, founded in the early days of Christianity, proved to be a\npotent force in the origin and growth of self-government in a land far\naway from Galilee. \"And the multitude of them that believed were of one\nheart and of one soul,\" we are told in the Acts describing the Church at\nJerusalem. \"We are knit together as a body in a most sacred covenant of\nthe Lord ... by virtue of which we hold ourselves strictly tied to all\ncare of each other's good and of the whole,\" wrote John Robinson, a\nleader among the Pilgrims who founded their tiny colony of Plymouth in\n1620. The Mayflower Compact, so famous in American history, was but a\nwritten and signed agreement, incorporating the spirit of obedience to\nthe common good, which served as a guide to self-government until\nPlymouth was annexed to Massachusetts in 1691.\n\n[Illustration: THE ORIGINAL GRANTS]\n\nThree other colonies, all of which retained their identity until the eve\nof the American Revolution, likewise sprang directly from the\ncongregations of the faithful: Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New\nHampshire, mainly offshoots from Massachusetts. They were founded by\nsmall bodies of men and women, \"united in solemn covenants with the\nLord,\" who planted their settlements in the wilderness. Not until many a\nyear after Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson conducted their followers\nto the Narragansett country was Rhode Island granted a charter of\nincorporation (1663) by the crown. Not until long after the congregation\nof Thomas Hooker from Newtown blazed the way into the Connecticut River\nValley did the king of England give Connecticut a charter of its own\n(1662) and a place among the colonies. Half a century elapsed before the\ntowns laid out beyond the Merrimac River by emigrants from Massachusetts\nwere formed into the royal province of New Hampshire in 1679.\n\nEven when Connecticut was chartered, the parchment and sealing wax of\nthe royal lawyers did but confirm rights and habits of self-government\nand obedience to law previously established by the congregations. The\ntowns of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield had long lived happily\nunder their \"Fundamental Orders\" drawn up by themselves in 1639; so had\nthe settlers dwelt peacefully at New Haven under their \"Fundamental\nArticles\" drafted in the same year. The pioneers on the Connecticut\nshore had no difficulty in agreeing that \"the Scriptures do hold forth a\nperfect rule for the direction and government of all men.\"\n\n=The Proprietor.=--A third and very important colonial agency was the\nproprietor, or proprietary. As the name, associated with the word\n\"property,\" implies, the proprietor was a person to whom the king\ngranted property in lands in North America to have, hold, use, and enjoy\nfor his own benefit and profit, with the right to hand the estate down\nto his heirs in perpetual succession. The proprietor was a rich and\npowerful person, prepared to furnish or secure the capital, collect the\nships, supply the stores, and assemble the settlers necessary to found\nand sustain a plantation beyond the seas. Sometimes the proprietor\nworked alone. Sometimes two or more were associated like partners in the\ncommon undertaking.\n\nFive colonies, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and the Carolinas,\nowe their formal origins, though not always their first settlements, nor\nin most cases their prosperity, to the proprietary system. Maryland,\nestablished in 1634 under a Catholic nobleman, Lord Baltimore, and\nblessed with religious toleration by the act of 1649, flourished under\nthe mild rule of proprietors until it became a state in the American\nunion. New Jersey, beginning its career under two proprietors, Berkeley\nand Carteret, in 1664, passed under the direct government of the crown\nin 1702. Pennsylvania was, in a very large measure, the product of the\ngenerous spirit and tireless labors of its first proprietor, the leader\nof the Friends, William Penn, to whom it was granted in 1681 and in\nwhose family it remained until 1776. The two Carolinas were first\norganized as one colony in 1663 under the government and patronage of\neight proprietors, including Lord Clarendon; but after more than half a\ncentury both became royal provinces governed by the king.\n\n[Illustration: WILLIAM PENN, PROPRIETOR OF PENNSYLVANIA]\n\n\nTHE COLONIAL PEOPLES\n\n=The English.=--In leadership and origin the thirteen colonies, except\nNew York and Delaware, were English. During the early days of all, save\nthese two, the main, if not the sole, current of immigration was from\nEngland. The colonists came from every walk of life. They were men,\nwomen, and children of \"all sorts and conditions.\" The major portion\nwere yeomen, or small land owners, farm laborers, and artisans. With\nthem were merchants and gentlemen who brought their stocks of goods or\ntheir fortunes to the New World. Scholars came from Oxford and\nCambridge to preach the gospel or to teach. Now and then the son of an\nEnglish nobleman left his baronial hall behind and cast his lot with\nAmerica. The people represented every religious faith--members of the\nEstablished Church of England; Puritans who had labored to reform that\nchurch; Separatists, Baptists, and Friends, who had left it altogether;\nand Catholics, who clung to the religion of their fathers.\n\nNew England was almost purely English. During the years between 1629 and\n1640, the period of arbitrary Stuart government, about twenty thousand\nPuritans emigrated to America, settling in the colonies of the far\nNorth. Although minor additions were made from time to time, the greater\nportion of the New England people sprang from this original stock.\nVirginia, too, for a long time drew nearly all her immigrants from\nEngland alone. Not until the eve of the Revolution did other\nnationalities, mainly the Scotch-Irish and Germans, rival the English in\nnumbers.\n\nThe populations of later English colonies--the Carolinas, New York,\nPennsylvania, and Georgia--while receiving a steady stream of\nimmigration from England, were constantly augmented by wanderers from\nthe older settlements. New York was invaded by Puritans from New England\nin such numbers as to cause the Anglican clergymen there to lament that\n\"free thinking spreads almost as fast as the Church.\" North Carolina was\nfirst settled toward the northern border by immigrants from Virginia.\nSome of the North Carolinians, particularly the Quakers, came all the\nway from New England, tarrying in Virginia only long enough to learn how\nlittle they were wanted in that Anglican colony.\n\n=The Scotch-Irish.=--Next to the English in numbers and influence were\nthe Scotch-Irish, Presbyterians in belief, English in tongue. Both\nreligious and economic reasons sent them across the sea. Their Scotch\nancestors, in the days of Cromwell, had settled in the north of Ireland\nwhence the native Irish had been driven by the conqueror's sword. There\nthe Scotch nourished for many years enjoying in peace their own form of\nreligion and growing prosperous in the manufacture of fine linen and\nwoolen cloth. Then the blow fell. Toward the end of the seventeenth\ncentury their religious worship was put under the ban and the export of\ntheir cloth was forbidden by the English Parliament. Within two decades\ntwenty thousand Scotch-Irish left Ulster alone, for America; and all\nduring the eighteenth century the migration continued to be heavy.\nAlthough no exact record was kept, it is reckoned that the Scotch-Irish\nand the Scotch who came directly from Scotland, composed one-sixth of\nthe entire American population on the eve of the Revolution.\n\n[Illustration: SETTLEMENTS OF GERMAN AND SCOTCH-IRISH\nIMMIGRANTS]\n\nThese newcomers in America made their homes chiefly in New Jersey,\nPennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas. Coming late upon\nthe scene, they found much of the land immediately upon the seaboard\nalready taken up. For this reason most of them became frontier people\nsettling the interior and upland regions. There they cleared the land,\nlaid out their small farms, and worked as \"sturdy yeomen on the soil,\"\nhardy, industrious, and independent in spirit, sharing neither the\nluxuries of the rich planters nor the easy life of the leisurely\nmerchants. To their agriculture they added woolen and linen\nmanufactures, which, flourishing in the supple fingers of their tireless\nwomen, made heavy inroads upon the trade of the English merchants in\nthe colonies. Of their labors a poet has sung:\n\n \"O, willing hands to toil;\n Strong natures tuned to the harvest-song and bound to the kindly soil;\n Bold pioneers for the wilderness, defenders in the field.\"\n\n=The Germans.=--Third among the colonists in order of numerical\nimportance were the Germans. From the very beginning, they appeared in\ncolonial records. A number of the artisans and carpenters in the first\nJamestown colony were of German descent. Peter Minuit, the famous\ngovernor of New Motherland, was a German from Wesel on the Rhine, and\nJacob Leisler, leader of a popular uprising against the provincial\nadministration of New York, was a German from Frankfort-on-Main. The\nwholesale migration of Germans began with the founding of Pennsylvania.\nPenn was diligent in searching for thrifty farmers to cultivate his\nlands and he made a special effort to attract peasants from the Rhine\ncountry. A great association, known as the Frankfort Company, bought\nmore than twenty thousand acres from him and in 1684 established a\ncenter at Germantown for the distribution of German immigrants. In old\nNew York, Rhinebeck-on-the-Hudson became a similar center for\ndistribution. All the way from Maine to Georgia inducements were offered\nto the German farmers and in nearly every colony were to be found, in\ntime, German settlements. In fact the migration became so large that\nGerman princes were frightened at the loss of so many subjects and\nEngland was alarmed by the influx of foreigners into her overseas\ndominions. Yet nothing could stop the movement. By the end of the\ncolonial period, the number of Germans had risen to more than two\nhundred thousand.\n\nThe majority of them were Protestants from the Rhine region, and South\nGermany. Wars, religious controversies, oppression, and poverty drove\nthem forth to America. Though most of them were farmers, there were also\namong them skilled artisans who contributed to the rapid growth of\nindustries in Pennsylvania. Their iron, glass, paper, and woolen mills,\ndotted here and there among the thickly settled regions, added to the\nwealth and independence of the province.\n\n[Illustration: _From an old print_\n\nA GLIMPSE OF OLD GERMANTOWN]\n\nUnlike the Scotch-Irish, the Germans did not speak the language of the\noriginal colonists or mingle freely with them. They kept to themselves,\nbuilt their own schools, founded their own newspapers, and published\ntheir own books. Their clannish habits often irritated their neighbors\nand led to occasional agitations against \"foreigners.\" However, no\nserious collisions seem to have occurred; and in the days of the\nRevolution, German soldiers from Pennsylvania fought in the patriot\narmies side by side with soldiers from the English and Scotch-Irish\nsections.\n\n=Other Nationalities.=--Though the English, the Scotch-Irish, and the\nGermans made up the bulk of the colonial population, there were other\nracial strains as well, varying in numerical importance but contributing\ntheir share to colonial life.\n\nFrom France came the Huguenots fleeing from the decree of the king which\ninflicted terrible penalties upon Protestants.\n\nFrom \"Old Ireland\" came thousands of native Irish, Celtic in race and\nCatholic in religion. Like their Scotch-Irish neighbors to the north,\nthey revered neither the government nor the church of England imposed\nupon them by the sword. How many came we do not know, but shipping\nrecords of the colonial period show that boatload after boatload left\nthe southern and eastern shores of Ireland for the New World.\nUndoubtedly thousands of their passengers were Irish of the native\nstock. This surmise is well sustained by the constant appearance of\nCeltic names in the records of various colonies.\n\n[Illustration:_From an old print_\n\nOLD DUTCH FORT AND ENGLISH CHURCH NEAR ALBANY]\n\nThe Jews, then as ever engaged in their age-long battle for religious\nand economic toleration, found in the American colonies, not complete\nliberty, but certainly more freedom than they enjoyed in England,\nFrance, Spain, or Portugal. The English law did not actually recognize\ntheir right to live in any of the dominions, but owing to the easy-going\nhabits of the Americans they were allowed to filter into the seaboard\ntowns. The treatment they received there varied. On one occasion the\nmayor and council of New York forbade them to sell by retail and on\nanother prohibited the exercise of their religious worship. Newport,\nPhiladelphia, and Charleston were more hospitable, and there large\nJewish colonies, consisting principally of merchants and their families,\nflourished in spite of nominal prohibitions of the law.\n\nThough the small Swedish colony in Delaware was quickly submerged\nbeneath the tide of English migration, the Dutch in New York continued\nto hold their own for more than a hundred years after the English\nconquest in 1664. At the end of the colonial period over one-half of the\n170,000 inhabitants of the province were descendants of the original\nDutch--still distinct enough to give a decided cast to the life and\nmanners of New York. Many of them clung as tenaciously to their mother\ntongue as they did to their capacious farmhouses or their Dutch ovens;\nbut they were slowly losing their identity as the English pressed in\nbeside them to farm and trade.\n\nThe melting pot had begun its historic mission.\n\n\nTHE PROCESS OF COLONIZATION\n\nConsidered from one side, colonization, whatever the motives of the\nemigrants, was an economic matter. It involved the use of capital to pay\nfor their passage, to sustain them on the voyage, and to start them on\nthe way of production. Under this stern economic necessity, Puritans,\nScotch-Irish, Germans, and all were alike laid.\n\n=Immigrants Who Paid Their Own Way.=--Many of the immigrants to America\nin colonial days were capitalists themselves, in a small or a large way,\nand paid their own passage. What proportion of the colonists were able\nto finance their voyage across the sea is a matter of pure conjecture.\nUndoubtedly a very considerable number could do so, for we can trace the\nfamily fortunes of many early settlers. Henry Cabot Lodge is authority\nfor the statement that \"the settlers of New England were drawn from the\ncountry gentlemen, small farmers, and yeomanry of the mother\ncountry.... Many of the emigrants were men of wealth, as the old lists\nshow, and all of them, with few exceptions, were men of property and\ngood standing. They did not belong to the classes from which emigration\nis usually supplied, for they all had a stake in the country they left\nbehind.\" Though it would be interesting to know how accurate this\nstatement is or how applicable to the other colonies, no study has as\nyet been made to gratify that interest. For the present it is an\nunsolved problem just how many of the colonists were able to bear the\ncost of their own transfer to the New World.\n\n=Indentured Servants.=--That at least tens of thousands of immigrants\nwere unable to pay for their passage is established beyond the shadow of\na doubt by the shipping records that have come down to us. The great\nbarrier in the way of the poor who wanted to go to America was the cost\nof the sea voyage. To overcome this difficulty a plan was worked out\nwhereby shipowners and other persons of means furnished the passage\nmoney to immigrants in return for their promise, or bond, to work for a\nterm of years to repay the sum advanced. This system was called\nindentured servitude.\n\nIt is probable that the number of bond servants exceeded the original\ntwenty thousand Puritans, the yeomen, the Virginia gentlemen, and the\nHuguenots combined. All the way down the coast from Massachusetts to\nGeorgia were to be found in the fields, kitchens, and workshops, men,\nwomen, and children serving out terms of bondage generally ranging from\nfive to seven years. In the proprietary colonies the proportion of bond\nservants was very high. The Baltimores, Penns, Carterets, and other\npromoters anxiously sought for workers of every nationality to till\ntheir fields, for land without labor was worth no more than land in the\nmoon. Hence the gates of the proprietary colonies were flung wide open.\nEvery inducement was offered to immigrants in the form of cheap land,\nand special efforts were made to increase the population by importing\nservants. In Pennsylvania, it was not uncommon to find a master with\nfifty bond servants on his estate. It has been estimated that two-thirds\nof all the immigrants into Pennsylvania between the opening of the\neighteenth century and the outbreak of the Revolution were in bondage.\nIn the other Middle colonies the number was doubtless not so large; but\nit formed a considerable part of the population.\n\nThe story of this traffic in white servants is one of the most striking\nthings in the history of labor. Bondmen differed from the serfs of the\nfeudal age in that they were not bound to the soil but to the master.\nThey likewise differed from the negro slaves in that their servitude had\na time limit. Still they were subject to many special disabilities. It\nwas, for instance, a common practice to impose on them penalties far\nheavier than were imposed upon freemen for the same offense. A free\ncitizen of Pennsylvania who indulged in horse racing and gambling was\nlet off with a fine; a white servant guilty of the same unlawful conduct\nwas whipped at the post and fined as well.\n\nThe ordinary life of the white servant was also severely restricted. A\nbondman could not marry without his master's consent; nor engage in\ntrade; nor refuse work assigned to him. For an attempt to escape or\nindeed for any infraction of the law, the term of service was extended.\nThe condition of white bondmen in Virginia, according to Lodge, \"was\nlittle better than that of slaves. Loose indentures and harsh laws put\nthem at the mercy of their masters.\" It would not be unfair to add that\nsuch was their lot in all other colonies. Their fate depended upon the\ntemper of their masters.\n\nCruel as was the system in many ways, it gave thousands of people in the\nOld World a chance to reach the New--an opportunity to wrestle with fate\nfor freedom and a home of their own. When their weary years of servitude\nwere over, if they survived, they might obtain land of their own or\nsettle as free mechanics in the towns. For many a bondman the gamble\nproved to be a losing venture because he found himself unable to rise\nout of the state of poverty and dependence into which his servitude\ncarried him. For thousands, on the contrary, bondage proved to be a real\navenue to freedom and prosperity. Some of the best citizens of America\nhave the blood of indentured servants in their veins.\n\n=The Transported--Involuntary Servitude.=--In their anxiety to secure\nsettlers, the companies and proprietors having colonies in America\neither resorted to or connived at the practice of kidnapping men, women,\nand children from the streets of English cities. In 1680 it was\nofficially estimated that \"ten thousand persons were spirited away\" to\nAmerica. Many of the victims of the practice were young children, for\nthe traffic in them was highly profitable. Orphans and dependents were\nsometimes disposed of in America by relatives unwilling to support them.\nIn a single year, 1627, about fifteen hundred children were shipped to\nVirginia.\n\nIn this gruesome business there lurked many tragedies, and very few\nromances. Parents were separated from their children and husbands from\ntheir wives. Hundreds of skilled artisans--carpenters, smiths, and\nweavers--utterly disappeared as if swallowed up by death. A few thus\ndragged off to the New World to be sold into servitude for a term of\nfive or seven years later became prosperous and returned home with\nfortunes. In one case a young man who was forcibly carried over the sea\nlived to make his way back to England and establish his claim to a\npeerage.\n\nAkin to the kidnapped, at least in economic position, were convicts\ndeported to the colonies for life in lieu of fines and imprisonment. The\nAmericans protested vigorously but ineffectually against this practice.\nIndeed, they exaggerated its evils, for many of the \"criminals\" were\nonly mild offenders against unduly harsh and cruel laws. A peasant\ncaught shooting a rabbit on a lord's estate or a luckless servant girl\nwho purloined a pocket handkerchief was branded as a criminal along with\nsturdy thieves and incorrigible rascals. Other transported offenders\nwere \"political criminals\"; that is, persons who criticized or opposed\nthe government. This class included now Irish who revolted against\nBritish rule in Ireland; now Cavaliers who championed the king against\nthe Puritan revolutionists; Puritans, in turn, dispatched after the\nmonarchy was restored; and Scotch and English subjects in general who\njoined in political uprisings against the king.\n\n=The African Slaves.=--Rivaling in numbers, in the course of time, the\nindentured servants and whites carried to America against their will\nwere the African negroes brought to America and sold into slavery. When\nthis form of bondage was first introduced into Virginia in 1619, it was\nlooked upon as a temporary necessity to be discarded with the increase\nof the white population. Moreover it does not appear that those planters\nwho first bought negroes at the auction block intended to establish a\nsystem of permanent bondage. Only by a slow process did chattel slavery\ntake firm root and become recognized as the leading source of the labor\nsupply. In 1650, thirty years after the introduction of slavery, there\nwere only three hundred Africans in Virginia.\n\nThe great increase in later years was due in no small measure to the\ninordinate zeal for profits that seized slave traders both in Old and in\nNew England. Finding it relatively easy to secure negroes in Africa,\nthey crowded the Southern ports with their vessels. The English Royal\nAfrican Company sent to America annually between 1713 and 1743 from five\nto ten thousand slaves. The ship owners of New England were not far\nbehind their English brethren in pushing this extraordinary traffic.\n\nAs the proportion of the negroes to the free white population steadily\nrose, and as whole sections were overrun with slaves and slave traders,\nthe Southern colonies grew alarmed. In 1710, Virginia sought to curtail\nthe importation by placing a duty of $5 on each slave. This effort was\nfutile, for the royal governor promptly vetoed it. From time to time\nsimilar bills were passed, only to meet with royal disapproval. South\nCarolina, in 1760, absolutely prohibited importation; but the measure\nwas killed by the British crown. As late as 1772, Virginia, not daunted\nby a century of rebuffs, sent to George III a petition in this vein:\n\"The importation of slaves into the colonies from the coast of Africa\nhath long been considered as a trade of great inhumanity and under its\npresent encouragement, we have too much reason to fear, will endanger\nthe very existence of Your Majesty's American dominions.... Deeply\nimpressed with these sentiments, we most humbly beseech Your Majesty to\nremove all those restraints on Your Majesty's governors of this colony\nwhich inhibit their assenting to such laws as might check so very\npernicious a commerce.\"\n\nAll such protests were without avail. The negro population grew by leaps\nand bounds, until on the eve of the Revolution it amounted to more than\nhalf a million. In five states--Maryland, Virginia, the two Carolinas,\nand Georgia--the slaves nearly equalled or actually exceeded the whites\nin number. In South Carolina they formed almost two-thirds of the\npopulation. Even in the Middle colonies of Delaware and Pennsylvania\nabout one-fifth of the inhabitants were from Africa. To the North, the\nproportion of slaves steadily diminished although chattel servitude was\non the same legal footing as in the South. In New York approximately one\nin six and in New England one in fifty were negroes, including a few\nfreedmen.\n\nThe climate, the soil, the commerce, and the industry of the North were\nall unfavorable to the growth of a servile population. Still, slavery,\nthough sectional, was a part of the national system of economy. Northern\nships carried slaves to the Southern colonies and the produce of the\nplantations to Europe. \"If the Northern states will consult their\ninterest, they will not oppose the increase in slaves which will\nincrease the commodities of which they will become the carriers,\" said\nJohn Rutledge, of South Carolina, in the convention which framed the\nConstitution of the United States. \"What enriches a part enriches the\nwhole and the states are the best judges of their particular interest,\"\nresponded Oliver Ellsworth, the distinguished spokesman of Connecticut.\n\n=References=\n\nE. Charming, _History of the United States_, Vols. I and II.\n\nJ.A. Doyle, _The English Colonies in America_ (5 vols.).\n\nJ. Fiske, _Old Virginia and Her Neighbors_ (2 vols.).\n\nA.B. Faust, _The German Element in the United States_ (2 vols.).\n\nH.J. Ford, _The Scotch-Irish in America_.\n\nL. Tyler, _England in America_ (American Nation Series).\n\nR. Usher, _The Pilgrims and Their History_.\n\n\n=Questions=\n\n1. America has been called a nation of immigrants. Explain why.\n\n2. Why were individuals unable to go alone to America in the beginning?\nWhat agencies made colonization possible? Discuss each of them.\n\n3. Make a table of the colonies, showing the methods employed in their\nsettlement.\n\n4. Why were capital and leadership so very important in early\ncolonization?\n\n5. What is meant by the \"melting pot\"? What nationalities were\nrepresented among the early colonists?\n\n6. Compare the way immigrants come to-day with the way they came in\ncolonial times.\n\n7. Contrast indentured servitude with slavery and serfdom.\n\n8. Account for the anxiety of companies and proprietors to secure\ncolonists.\n\n9. What forces favored the heavy importation of slaves?\n\n10. In what way did the North derive advantages from slavery?\n\n\n=Research Topics=\n\n=The Chartered Company.=--Compare the first and third charters of\nVirginia in Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book of American History_,\n1606-1898, pp. 1-14. Analyze the first and second Massachusetts charters\nin Macdonald, pp. 22-84. Special reference: W.A.S. Hewins, _English\nTrading Companies_.\n\n=Congregations and Compacts for Self-government.=--A study of the\nMayflower Compact, the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut and the\nFundamental Articles of New Haven in Macdonald, pp. 19, 36, 39.\nReference: Charles Borgeaud, _Rise of Modern Democracy_, and C.S.\nLobingier, _The People's Law_, Chaps. I-VII.\n\n=The Proprietary System.=--Analysis of Penn's charter of 1681, in\nMacdonald, p. 80. Reference: Lodge, _Short History of the English\nColonies in America_, p. 211.\n\n=Studies of Individual Colonies.=--Review of outstanding events in\nhistory of each colony, using Elson, _History of the United States_, pp.\n55-159, as the basis.\n\n=Biographical Studies.=--John Smith, John Winthrop, William Penn, Lord\nBaltimore, William Bradford, Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson, Thomas\nHooker, and Peter Stuyvesant, using any good encyclopedia.\n\n=Indentured Servitude.=--In Virginia, Lodge, _Short History_, pp. 69-72;\nin Pennsylvania, pp. 242-244. Contemporary account in Callender,\n_Economic History of the United States_, pp. 44-51. Special reference:\nKarl Geiser, _Redemptioners and Indentured Servants_ (Yale Review, X,\nNo. 2 Supplement).\n\n=Slavery.=--In Virginia, Lodge, _Short History_, pp. 67-69; in the\nNorthern colonies, pp. 241, 275, 322, 408, 442.\n\n=The People of the Colonies.=--Virginia, Lodge, _Short History_, pp.\n67-73; New England, pp. 406-409, 441-450; Pennsylvania, pp. 227-229,\n240-250; New York, pp. 312-313, 322-335.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER II\n\nCOLONIAL AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY, AND COMMERCE\n\nTHE LAND AND THE WESTWARD MOVEMENT\n\n\n=The Significance of Land Tenure.=--The way in which land may be\nacquired, held, divided among heirs, and bought and sold exercises a\ndeep influence on the life and culture of a people. The feudal and\naristocratic societies of Europe were founded on a system of landlordism\nwhich was characterized by two distinct features. In the first place,\nthe land was nearly all held in great estates, each owned by a single\nproprietor. In the second place, every estate was kept intact under the\nlaw of primogeniture, which at the death of a lord transferred all his\nlanded property to his eldest son. This prevented the subdivision of\nestates and the growth of a large body of small farmers or freeholders\nowning their own land. It made a form of tenantry or servitude\ninevitable for the mass of those who labored on the land. It also\nenabled the landlords to maintain themselves in power as a governing\nclass and kept the tenants and laborers subject to their economic and\npolitical control. If land tenure was so significant in Europe, it was\nequally important in the development of America, where practically all\nthe first immigrants were forced by circumstances to derive their\nlivelihood from the soil.\n\n=Experiments in Common Tillage.=--In the New World, with its broad\nextent of land awaiting the white man's plow, it was impossible to\nintroduce in its entirety and over the whole area the system of lords\nand tenants that existed across the sea. So it happened that almost\nevery kind of experiment in land tenure, from communism to feudalism,\nwas tried. In the early days of the Jamestown colony, the land, though\nowned by the London Company, was tilled in common by the settlers. No\nman had a separate plot of his own. The motto of the community was:\n\"Labor and share alike.\" All were supposed to work in the fields and\nreceive an equal share of the produce. At Plymouth, the Pilgrims\nattempted a similar experiment, laying out the fields in common and\ndistributing the joint produce of their labor with rough equality among\nthe workers.\n\nIn both colonies the communistic experiments were failures. Angry at the\nlazy men in Jamestown who idled their time away and yet expected regular\nmeals, Captain John Smith issued a manifesto: \"Everyone that gathereth\nnot every day as much as I do, the next day shall be set beyond the\nriver and forever banished from the fort and live there or starve.\" Even\nthis terrible threat did not bring a change in production. Not until\neach man was given a plot of his own to till, not until each gathered\nthe fruits of his own labor, did the colony prosper. In Plymouth, where\nthe communal experiment lasted for five years, the results were similar\nto those in Virginia, and the system was given up for one of separate\nfields in which every person could \"set corn for his own particular.\"\nSome other New England towns, refusing to profit by the experience of\ntheir Plymouth neighbor, also made excursions into common ownership and\nlabor, only to abandon the idea and go in for individual ownership of\nthe land. \"By degrees it was seen that even the Lord's people could not\ncarry the complicated communist legislation into perfect and wholesome\npractice.\"\n\n=Feudal Elements in the Colonies--Quit Rents, Manors, and\nPlantations.=--At the other end of the scale were the feudal elements of\nland tenure found in the proprietary colonies, in the seaboard regions\nof the South, and to some extent in New York. The proprietor was in fact\na powerful feudal lord, owning land granted to him by royal charter. He\ncould retain any part of it for his personal use or dispose of it all in\nlarge or small lots. While he generally kept for himself an estate of\nbaronial proportions, it was impossible for him to manage directly any\nconsiderable part of the land in his dominion. Consequently he either\nsold it in parcels for lump sums or granted it to individuals on\ncondition that they make to him an annual payment in money, known as\n\"quit rent.\" In Maryland, the proprietor sometimes collected as high as\n$9000 (equal to about $500,000 to-day) in a single year from this\nsource. In Pennsylvania, the quit rents brought a handsome annual\ntribute into the exchequer of the Penn family. In the royal provinces,\nthe king of England claimed all revenues collected in this form from the\nland, a sum amounting to $19,000 at the time of the Revolution. The quit\nrent,--\"really a feudal payment from freeholders,\"--was thus a material\nsource of income for the crown as well as for the proprietors. Wherever\nit was laid, however, it proved to be a burden, a source of constant\nirritation; and it became a formidable item in the long list of\ngrievances which led to the American Revolution.\n\nSomething still more like the feudal system of the Old World appeared in\nthe numerous manors or the huge landed estates granted by the crown, the\ncompanies, or the proprietors. In the colony of Maryland alone there\nwere sixty manors of three thousand acres each, owned by wealthy men and\ntilled by tenants holding small plots under certain restrictions of\ntenure. In New York also there were many manors of wide extent, most of\nwhich originated in the days of the Dutch West India Company, when\nextensive concessions were made to patroons to induce them to bring over\nsettlers. The Van Rensselaer, the Van Cortlandt, and the Livingston\nmanors were so large and populous that each was entitled to send a\nrepresentative to the provincial legislature. The tenants on the New\nYork manors were in somewhat the same position as serfs on old European\nestates. They were bound to pay the owner a rent in money and kind; they\nground their grain at his mill; and they were subject to his judicial\npower because he held court and meted out justice, in some instances\nextending to capital punishment.\n\nThe manors of New York or Maryland were, however, of slight consequence\nas compared with the vast plantations of the Southern seaboard--huge\nestates, far wider in expanse than many a European barony and tilled by\nslaves more servile than any feudal tenants. It must not be forgotten\nthat this system of land tenure became the dominant feature of a large\nsection and gave a decided bent to the economic and political life of\nAmerica.\n\n[Illustration: SOUTHERN PLANTATION MANSION]\n\n=The Small Freehold.=--In the upland regions of the South, however, and\nthroughout most of the North, the drift was against all forms of\nservitude and tenantry and in the direction of the freehold; that is,\nthe small farm owned outright and tilled by the possessor and his\nfamily. This was favored by natural circumstances and the spirit of the\nimmigrants. For one thing, the abundance of land and the scarcity of\nlabor made it impossible for the companies, the proprietors, or the\ncrown to develop over the whole continent a network of vast estates. In\nmany sections, particularly in New England, the climate, the stony soil,\nthe hills, and the narrow valleys conspired to keep the farms within a\nmoderate compass. For another thing, the English, Scotch-Irish, and\nGerman peasants, even if they had been tenants in the Old World, did not\npropose to accept permanent dependency of any kind in the New. If they\ncould not get freeholds, they would not settle at all; thus they forced\nproprietors and companies to bid for their enterprise by selling land in\nsmall lots. So it happened that the freehold of modest proportions\nbecame the cherished unit of American farmers. The people who tilled the\nfarms were drawn from every quarter of western Europe; but the freehold\nsystem gave a uniform cast to their economic and social life in America.\n\n[Illustration: _From an old print_\n\nA NEW ENGLAND FARMHOUSE]\n\n=Social Effects of Land Tenure.=--Land tenure and the process of western\nsettlement thus developed two distinct types of people engaged in the\nsame pursuit--agriculture. They had a common tie in that they both\ncultivated the soil and possessed the local interest and independence\nwhich arise from that occupation. Their methods and their culture,\nhowever, differed widely.\n\nThe Southern planter, on his broad acres tilled by slaves, resembled the\nEnglish landlord on his estates more than he did the colonial farmer who\nlabored with his own hands in the fields and forests. He sold his rice\nand tobacco in large amounts directly to English factors, who took his\nentire crop in exchange for goods and cash. His fine clothes,\nsilverware, china, and cutlery he bought in English markets. Loving the\nripe old culture of the mother country, he often sent his sons to Oxford\nor Cambridge for their education. In short, he depended very largely for\nhis prosperity and his enjoyment of life upon close relations with the\nOld World. He did not even need market towns in which to buy native\ngoods, for they were made on his own plantation by his own artisans who\nwere usually gifted slaves.\n\nThe economic condition of the small farmer was totally different. His\ncrops were not big enough to warrant direct connection with English\nfactors or the personal maintenance of a corps of artisans. He needed\nlocal markets, and they sprang up to meet the need. Smiths, hatters,\nweavers, wagon-makers, and potters at neighboring towns supplied him\nwith the rough products of their native skill. The finer goods, bought\nby the rich planter in England, the small farmer ordinarily could not\nbuy. His wants were restricted to staples like tea and sugar, and\nbetween him and the European market stood the merchant. His community\nwas therefore more self-sufficient than the seaboard line of great\nplantations. It was more isolated, more provincial, more independent,\nmore American. The planter faced the Old East. The farmer faced the New\nWest.\n\n=The Westward Movement.=--Yeoman and planter nevertheless were alike in\none respect. Their land hunger was never appeased. Each had the eye of\nan expert for new and fertile soil; and so, north and south, as soon as\na foothold was secured on the Atlantic coast, the current of migration\nset in westward, creeping through forests, across rivers, and over\nmountains. Many of the later immigrants, in their search for cheap\nlands, were compelled to go to the border; but in a large part the path\nbreakers to the West were native Americans of the second and third\ngenerations. Explorers, fired by curiosity and the lure of the\nmysterious unknown, and hunters, fur traders, and squatters, following\ntheir own sweet wills, blazed the trail, opening paths and sending back\nstories of the new regions they traversed. Then came the regular\nsettlers with lawful titles to the lands they had purchased, sometimes\nsingly and sometimes in companies.\n\nIn Massachusetts, the westward movement is recorded in the founding of\nSpringfield in 1636 and Great Barrington in 1725. By the opening of the\neighteenth century the pioneers of Connecticut had pushed north and west\nuntil their outpost towns adjoined the Hudson Valley settlements. In New\nYork, the inland movement was directed by the Hudson River to Albany,\nand from that old Dutch center it radiated in every direction,\nparticularly westward through the Mohawk Valley. New Jersey was early\nfilled to its borders, the beginnings of the present city of New\nBrunswick being made in 1681 and those of Trenton in 1685. In\nPennsylvania, as in New York, the waterways determined the main lines of\nadvance. Pioneers, pushing up through the valley of the Schuylkill,\nspread over the fertile lands of Berks and Lancaster counties, laying\nout Reading in 1748. Another current of migration was directed by the\nSusquehanna, and, in 1726, the first farmhouse was built on the bank\nwhere Harrisburg was later founded. Along the southern tier of counties\na thin line of settlements stretched westward to Pittsburgh, reaching\nthe upper waters of the Ohio while the colony was still under the Penn\nfamily.\n\nIn the South the westward march was equally swift. The seaboard was\nquickly occupied by large planters and their slaves engaged in the\ncultivation of tobacco and rice. The Piedmont Plateau, lying back from\nthe coast all the way from Maryland to Georgia, was fed by two streams\nof migration, one westward from the sea and the other southward from the\nother colonies--Germans from Pennsylvania and Scotch-Irish furnishing\nthe main supply. \"By 1770, tide-water Virginia was full to overflowing\nand the 'back country' of the Blue Ridge and the Shenandoah was fully\noccupied. Even the mountain valleys ... were claimed by sturdy pioneers.\nBefore the Declaration of Independence, the oncoming tide of\nhome-seekers had reached the crest of the Alleghanies.\"\n\n[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION, 1790]\n\nBeyond the mountains pioneers had already ventured, harbingers of an\ninvasion that was about to break in upon Kentucky and Tennessee. As\nearly as 1769 that mighty Nimrod, Daniel Boone, curious to hunt\nbuffaloes, of which he had heard weird reports, passed through the\nCumberland Gap and brought back news of a wonderful country awaiting the\nplow. A hint was sufficient. Singly, in pairs, and in groups, settlers\nfollowed the trail he had blazed. A great land corporation, the\nTransylvania Company, emulating the merchant adventurers of earlier\ntimes, secured a huge grant of territory and sought profits in quit\nrents from lands sold to farmers. By the outbreak of the Revolution\nthere were several hundred people in the Kentucky region. Like the older\ncolonists, they did not relish quit rents, and their opposition wrecked\nthe Transylvania Company. They even carried their protests into the\nContinental Congress in 1776, for by that time they were our \"embryo\nfourteenth colony.\"\n\n\nINDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT\n\nThough the labor of the colonists was mainly spent in farming, there was\na steady growth in industrial and commercial pursuits. Most of the\nstaple industries of to-day, not omitting iron and textiles, have their\nbeginnings in colonial times. Manufacturing and trade soon gave rise to\ntowns which enjoyed an importance all out of proportion to their\nnumbers. The great centers of commerce and finance on the seaboard\noriginated in the days when the king of England was \"lord of these\ndominions.\"\n\n[Illustration: DOMESTIC INDUSTRY: DIPPING TALLOW CANDLES]\n\n=Textile Manufacture as a Domestic Industry.=--Colonial women, in\naddition to sharing every hardship of pioneering, often the heavy labor\nof the open field, developed in the course of time a national industry\nwhich was almost exclusively their own. Wool and flax were raised in\nabundance in the North and South. \"Every farm house,\" says Coman, the\neconomic historian, \"was a workshop where the women spun and wove the\nserges, kerseys, and linsey-woolseys which served for the common wear.\"\nBy the close of the seventeenth century, New England manufactured cloth\nin sufficient quantities to export it to the Southern colonies and to\nthe West Indies. As the industry developed, mills were erected for the\nmore difficult process of dyeing, weaving, and fulling, but carding and\nspinning continued to be done in the home. The Dutch of New Netherland,\nthe Swedes of Delaware, and the Scotch-Irish of the interior \"were not\none whit behind their Yankee neighbors.\"\n\nThe importance of this enterprise to British economic life can hardly be\noverestimated. For many a century the English had employed their fine\nwoolen cloth as the chief staple in a lucrative foreign trade, and the\ngovernment had come to look upon it as an object of special interest and\nprotection. When the colonies were established, both merchants and\nstatesmen naturally expected to maintain a monopoly of increasing value;\nbut before long the Americans, instead of buying cloth, especially of\nthe coarser varieties, were making it to sell. In the place of\ncustomers, here were rivals. In the place of helpless reliance upon\nEnglish markets, here was the germ of economic independence.\n\nIf British merchants had not discovered it in the ordinary course of\ntrade, observant officers in the provinces would have conveyed the news\nto them. Even in the early years of the eighteenth century the royal\ngovernor of New York wrote of the industrious Americans to his home\ngovernment: \"The consequence will be that if they can clothe themselves\nonce, not only comfortably, but handsomely too, without the help of\nEngland, they who already are not very fond of submitting to government\nwill soon think of putting in execution designs they have long harboured\nin their breasts. This will not seem strange when you consider what sort\nof people this country is inhabited by.\"\n\n=The Iron Industry.=--Almost equally widespread was the art of iron\nworking--one of the earliest and most picturesque of colonial\nindustries. Lynn, Massachusetts, had a forge and skilled artisans within\nfifteen years after the founding of Boston. The smelting of iron began\nat New London and New Haven about 1658; in Litchfield county,\nConnecticut, a few years later; at Great Barrington, Massachusetts, in\n1731; and near by at Lenox some thirty years after that. New Jersey had\niron works at Shrewsbury within ten years after the founding of the\ncolony in 1665. Iron forges appeared in the valleys of the Delaware and\nthe Susquehanna early in the following century, and iron masters then\nlaid the foundations of fortunes in a region destined to become one of\nthe great iron centers of the world. Virginia began iron working in the\nyear that saw the introduction of slavery. Although the industry soon\nlapsed, it was renewed and flourished in the eighteenth century.\nGovernor Spotswood was called the \"Tubal Cain\" of the Old Dominion\nbecause he placed the industry on a firm foundation. Indeed it seems\nthat every colony, except Georgia, had its iron foundry. Nails, wire,\nmetallic ware, chains, anchors, bar and pig iron were made in large\nquantities; and Great Britain, by an act in 1750, encouraged the\ncolonists to export rough iron to the British Islands.\n\n=Shipbuilding.=--Of all the specialized industries in the colonies,\nshipbuilding was the most important. The abundance of fir for masts, oak\nfor timbers and boards, pitch for tar and turpentine, and hemp for rope\nmade the way of the shipbuilder easy. Early in the seventeenth century a\nship was built at New Amsterdam, and by the middle of that century\nshipyards were scattered along the New England coast at Newburyport,\nSalem, New Bedford, Newport, Providence, New London, and New Haven.\nYards at Albany and Poughkeepsie in New York built ships for the trade\nof that colony with England and the Indies. Wilmington and Philadelphia\nsoon entered the race and outdistanced New York, though unable to equal\nthe pace set by New England. While Maryland, Virginia, and South\nCarolina also built ships, Southern interest was mainly confined to the\nlucrative business of producing ship materials: fir, cedar, hemp, and\ntar.\n\n=Fishing.=--The greatest single economic resource of New England outside\nof agriculture was the fisheries. This industry, started by hardy\nsailors from Europe, long before the landing of the Pilgrims, flourished\nunder the indomitable seamanship of the Puritans, who labored with the\nnet and the harpoon in almost every quarter of the Atlantic. \"Look,\"\nexclaimed Edmund Burke, in the House of Commons, \"at the manner in\nwhich the people of New England have of late carried on the whale\nfishery. Whilst we follow them among the tumbling mountains of ice and\nbehold them penetrating into the deepest frozen recesses of Hudson's Bay\nand Davis's Straits, while we are looking for them beneath the arctic\ncircle, we hear that they have pierced into the opposite region of polar\ncold, that they are at the antipodes and engaged under the frozen\nserpent of the south.... Nor is the equinoctial heat more discouraging\nto them than the accumulated winter of both poles. We know that, whilst\nsome of them draw the line and strike the harpoon on the coast of\nAfrica, others run the longitude and pursue their gigantic game along\nthe coast of Brazil. No sea but what is vexed by their fisheries. No\nclimate that is not witness to their toils. Neither the perseverance of\nHolland nor the activity of France nor the dexterous and firm sagacity\nof English enterprise ever carried this most perilous mode of hard\nindustry to the extent to which it has been pushed by this recent\npeople.\"\n\nThe influence of the business was widespread. A large and lucrative\nEuropean trade was built upon it. The better quality of the fish caught\nfor food was sold in the markets of Spain, Portugal, and Italy, or\nexchanged for salt, lemons, and raisins for the American market. The\nlower grades of fish were carried to the West Indies for slave\nconsumption, and in part traded for sugar and molasses, which furnished\nthe raw materials for the thriving rum industry of New England. These\nactivities, in turn, stimulated shipbuilding, steadily enlarging the\ndemand for fishing and merchant craft of every kind and thus keeping the\nshipwrights, calkers, rope makers, and other artisans of the seaport\ntowns rushed with work. They also increased trade with the mother\ncountry for, out of the cash collected in the fish markets of Europe and\nthe West Indies, the colonists paid for English manufactures. So an\never-widening circle of American enterprise centered around this single\nindustry, the nursery of seamanship and the maritime spirit.\n\n=Oceanic Commerce and American Merchants.=--All through the eighteenth\ncentury, the commerce of the American colonies spread in every direction\nuntil it rivaled in the number of people employed, the capital engaged,\nand the profits gleaned, the commerce of European nations. A modern\nhistorian has said: \"The enterprising merchants of New England developed\na network of trade routes that covered well-nigh half the world.\" This\ncommerce, destined to be of such significance in the conflict with the\nmother country, presented, broadly speaking, two aspects.\n\nOn the one side, it involved the export of raw materials and\nagricultural produce. The Southern colonies produced for shipping,\ntobacco, rice, tar, pitch, and pine; the Middle colonies, grain, flour,\nfurs, lumber, and salt pork; New England, fish, flour, rum, furs, shoes,\nand small articles of manufacture. The variety of products was in fact\nastounding. A sarcastic writer, while sneering at the idea of an\nAmerican union, once remarked of colonial trade: \"What sort of dish will\nyou make? New England will throw in fish and onions. The middle states,\nflax-seed and flour. Maryland and Virginia will add tobacco. North\nCarolina, pitch, tar, and turpentine. South Carolina, rice and indigo,\nand Georgia will sprinkle the whole composition with sawdust. Such an\nabsurd jumble will you make if you attempt to form a union among such\ndiscordant materials as the thirteen British provinces.\"\n\nOn the other side, American commerce involved the import trade,\nconsisting principally of English and continental manufactures, tea, and\n\"India goods.\" Sugar and molasses, brought from the West Indies,\nsupplied the flourishing distilleries of Massachusetts, Rhode Island,\nand Connecticut. The carriage of slaves from Africa to the Southern\ncolonies engaged hundreds of New England's sailors and thousands of\npounds of her capital.\n\nThe disposition of imported goods in the colonies, though in part\ncontrolled by English factors located in America, employed also a large\nand important body of American merchants like the Willings and Morrises\nof Philadelphia; the Amorys, Hancocks, and Faneuils of Boston; and the\nLivingstons and Lows of New York. In their zeal and enterprise, they\nwere worthy rivals of their English competitors, so celebrated for\nworld-wide commercial operations. Though fully aware of the advantages\nthey enjoyed in British markets and under the protection of the British\nnavy, the American merchants were high-spirited and mettlesome, ready to\ncontend with royal officers in order to shield American interests\nagainst outside interference.\n\n[Illustration: THE DUTCH WEST INDIA WAREHOUSE IN NEW AMSTERDAM\n(NEW YORK CITY)]\n\nMeasured against the immense business of modern times, colonial commerce\nseems perhaps trivial. That, however, is not the test of its\nsignificance. It must be considered in relation to the growth of English\ncolonial trade in its entirety--a relation which can be shown by a few\nstartling figures. The whole export trade of England, including that to\nthe colonies, was, in 1704, $6,509,000. On the eve of the American\nRevolution, namely, in 1772, English exports to the American colonies\nalone amounted to $6,024,000; in other words, almost as much as the\nwhole foreign business of England two generations before. At the first\ndate, colonial trade was but one-twelfth of the English export business;\nat the second date, it was considerably more than one-third. In 1704,\nPennsylvania bought in English markets goods to the value of $11,459; in\n1772 the purchases of the same colony amounted to $507,909. In short,\nPennsylvania imports increased fifty times within sixty-eight years,\namounting in 1772 to almost the entire export trade of England to the\ncolonies at the opening of the century. The American colonies were\nindeed a great source of wealth to English merchants.\n\n=Intercolonial Commerce.=--Although the bad roads of colonial times made\noverland transportation difficult and costly, the many rivers and\nharbors along the coast favored a lively water-borne trade among the\ncolonies. The Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, and Susquehanna rivers in\nthe North and the many smaller rivers in the South made it possible for\ngoods to be brought from, and carried to, the interior regions in little\nsailing vessels with comparative ease. Sloops laden with manufactures,\ndomestic and foreign, collected at some city like Providence, New York,\nor Philadelphia, skirted the coasts, visited small ports, and sailed up\nthe navigable rivers to trade with local merchants who had for exchange\nthe raw materials which they had gathered in from neighboring farms.\nLarger ships carried the grain, live stock, cloth, and hardware of New\nEngland to the Southern colonies, where they were traded for tobacco,\nleather, tar, and ship timber. From the harbors along the Connecticut\nshores there were frequent sailings down through Long Island Sound to\nMaryland, Virginia, and the distant Carolinas.\n\n=Growth of Towns.=--In connection with this thriving trade and industry\nthere grew up along the coast a number of prosperous commercial centers\nwhich were soon reckoned among the first commercial towns of the whole\nBritish empire, comparing favorably in numbers and wealth with such\nports as Liverpool and Bristol. The statistical records of that time are\nmainly guesses; but we know that Philadelphia stood first in size among\nthese towns. Serving as the port of entry for Pennsylvania, Delaware,\nand western Jersey, it had drawn within its borders, just before the\nRevolution, about 25,000 inhabitants. Boston was second in rank, with\nsomewhat more than 20,000 people. New York, the \"commercial capital of\nConnecticut and old East Jersey,\" was slightly smaller than Boston, but\ngrowing at a steady rate. The fourth town in size was Charleston, South\nCarolina, with about 10,000 inhabitants. Newport in Rhode Island, a\ncenter of rum manufacture and shipping, stood fifth, with a population\nof about 7000. Baltimore and Norfolk were counted as \"considerable\ntowns.\" In the interior, Hartford in Connecticut, Lancaster and York in\nPennsylvania, and Albany in New York, with growing populations and\nincreasing trade, gave prophecy of an urban America away from the\nseaboard. The other towns were straggling villages. Williamsburg,\nVirginia, for example, had about two hundred houses, in which dwelt a\ndozen families of the gentry and a few score of tradesmen. Inland county\nseats often consisted of nothing more than a log courthouse, a prison,\nand one wretched inn to house judges, lawyers, and litigants during the\nsessions of the court.\n\nThe leading towns exercised an influence on colonial opinion all out of\nproportion to their population. They were the centers of wealth, for one\nthing; of the press and political activity, for another. Merchants and\nartisans could readily take concerted action on public questions arising\nfrom their commercial operations. The towns were also centers for news,\ngossip, religious controversy, and political discussion. In the market\nplaces the farmers from the countryside learned of British policies and\nlaws, and so, mingling with the townsmen, were drawn into the main\ncurrents of opinion which set in toward colonial nationalism and\nindependence.\n\n\n=References=\n\nJ. Bishop, _History of American Manufactures_ (2 vols.).\n\nE.L. Bogart, _Economic History of the United States_.\n\nP.A. Bruce, _Economic History of Virginia_ (2 vols.).\n\nE. Semple, _American History and Its Geographical Conditions_.\n\nW. Weeden, _Economic and Social History of New England_. (2 vols.).\n\n\n=Questions=\n\n1. Is land in your community parceled out into small farms? Contrast the\nsystem in your community with the feudal system of land tenure.\n\n2. Are any things owned and used in common in your community? Why did\ncommon tillage fail in colonial times?\n\n3. Describe the elements akin to feudalism which were introduced in the\ncolonies.\n\n4. Explain the success of freehold tillage.\n\n5. Compare the life of the planter with that of the farmer.\n\n6. How far had the western frontier advanced by 1776?\n\n7. What colonial industry was mainly developed by women? Why was it very\nimportant both to the Americans and to the English?\n\n8. What were the centers for iron working? Ship building?\n\n9. Explain how the fisheries affected many branches of trade and\nindustry.\n\n10. Show how American trade formed a vital part of English business.\n\n11. How was interstate commerce mainly carried on?\n\n12. What were the leading towns? Did they compare in importance with\nBritish towns of the same period?\n\n\n=Research Topics=\n\n=Land Tenure.=--Coman, _Industrial History_ (rev. ed.), pp. 32-38.\nSpecial reference: Bruce, _Economic History of Virginia_, Vol. I, Chap.\nVIII.\n\n=Tobacco Planting in Virginia.=--Callender, _Economic History of the\nUnited States_, pp. 22-28.\n\n=Colonial Agriculture.=--Coman, pp. 48-63. Callender, pp. 69-74.\nReference: J.R.H. Moore, _Industrial History of the American People_,\npp. 131-162.\n\n=Colonial Manufactures.=--Coman, pp. 63-73. Callender, pp. 29-44.\nSpecial reference: Weeden, _Economic and Social History of New England_.\n\n=Colonial Commerce.=--Coman, pp. 73-85. Callender, pp. 51-63, 78-84.\nMoore, pp. 163-208. Lodge, _Short History of the English Colonies_, pp.\n409-412, 229-231, 312-314.\n\n\n\n\nChapter III\n\nSOCIAL AND POLITICAL PROGRESS\n\n\nColonial life, crowded as it was with hard and unremitting toil, left\nscant leisure for the cultivation of the arts and sciences. There was\nlittle money in private purses or public treasuries to be dedicated to\nschools, libraries, and museums. Few there were with time to read long\nand widely, and fewer still who could devote their lives to things that\ndelight the eye and the mind. And yet, poor and meager as the\nintellectual life of the colonists may seem by way of comparison, heroic\nefforts were made in every community to lift the people above the plane\nof mere existence. After the first clearings were opened in the forests\nthose efforts were redoubled, and with lengthening years told upon the\nthought and spirit of the land. The appearance, during the struggle with\nEngland, of an extraordinary group of leaders familiar with history,\npolitical philosophy, and the arts of war, government, and diplomacy\nitself bore eloquent testimony to the high quality of the American\nintellect. No one, not even the most critical, can run through the\nwritings of distinguished Americans scattered from Massachusetts to\nGeorgia--the Adamses, Ellsworth, the Morrises, the Livingstons,\nHamilton, Franklin, Washington, Madison, Marshall, Henry, the Randolphs,\nand the Pinckneys--without coming to the conclusion that there was\nsomething in American colonial life which fostered minds of depth and\npower. Women surmounted even greater difficulties than the men in the\nprocess of self-education, and their keen interest in public issues is\nevident in many a record like the _Letters_ of Mrs. John Adams to her\nhusband during the Revolution; the writings of Mrs. Mercy Otis Warren,\nthe sister of James Otis, who measured her pen with the British\npropagandists; and the patriot newspapers founded and managed by women.\n\n\nTHE LEADERSHIP OF THE CHURCHES\n\nIn the intellectual life of America, the churches assumed a role of high\nimportance. There were abundant reasons for this. In many of the\ncolonies--Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New England--the religious impulse\nhad been one of the impelling motives in stimulating immigration. In all\nthe colonies, the clergy, at least in the beginning, formed the only\nclass with any leisure to devote to matters of the spirit. They preached\non Sundays and taught school on week days. They led in the discussion of\nlocal problems and in the formation of political opinion, so much of\nwhich was concerned with the relation between church and state. They\nwrote books and pamphlets. They filled most of the chairs in the\ncolleges; under clerical guidance, intellectual and spiritual, the\nAmericans received their formal education. In several of the provinces\nthe Anglican Church was established by law. In New England the Puritans\nwere supreme, notwithstanding the efforts of the crown to overbear their\nauthority. In the Middle colonies, particularly, the multiplication of\nsects made the dominance of any single denomination impossible; and in\nall of them there was a growing diversity of faith, which promised in\ntime a separation of church and state and freedom of opinion.\n\n=The Church of England.=--Virginia was the stronghold of the English\nsystem of church and state. The Anglican faith and worship were\nprescribed by law, sustained by taxes imposed on all, and favored by the\ngovernor, the provincial councilors, and the richest planters. \"The\nEstablished Church,\" says Lodge, \"was one of the appendages of the\nVirginia aristocracy. They controlled the vestries and the ministers,\nand the parish church stood not infrequently on the estate of the\nplanter who built and managed it.\" As in England, Catholics and\nProtestant Dissenters were at first laid under heavy disabilities. Only\nslowly and on sufferance were they admitted to the province; but when\nonce they were even covertly tolerated, they pressed steadily in, until,\nby the Revolution, they outnumbered the adherents of the established\norder.\n\nThe Church was also sanctioned by law and supported by taxes in the\nCarolinas after 1704, and in Georgia after that colony passed directly\nunder the crown in 1754--this in spite of the fact that the majority of\nthe inhabitants were Dissenters. Against the protests of the Catholics\nit was likewise established in Maryland. In New York, too,\nnotwithstanding the resistance of the Dutch, the Established Church was\nfostered by the provincial officials, and the Anglicans, embracing about\none-fifteenth of the population, exerted an influence all out of\nproportion to their numbers.\n\nMany factors helped to enhance the power of the English Church in the\ncolonies. It was supported by the British government and the official\nclass sent out to the provinces. Its bishops and archbishops in England\nwere appointed by the king, and its faith and service were set forth by\nacts of Parliament. Having its seat of power in the English monarchy, it\ncould hold its clergy and missionaries loyal to the crown and so\ncounteract to some extent the independent spirit that was growing up in\nAmerica. The Church, always a strong bulwark of the state, therefore had\na political role to play here as in England. Able bishops and far-seeing\nleaders firmly grasped this fact about the middle of the eighteenth\ncentury and redoubled their efforts to augment the influence of the\nChurch in provincial affairs. Unhappily for their plans they failed to\ncalculate in advance the effect of their methods upon dissenting\nProtestants, who still cherished memories of bitter religious conflicts\nin the mother country.\n\n=Puritanism in New England.=--If the established faith made for imperial\nunity, the same could not be said of Puritanism. The Plymouth Pilgrims\nhad cast off all allegiance to the Anglican Church and established a\nseparate and independent congregation before they came to America. The\nPuritans, essaying at first the task of reformers within the Church,\nsoon after their arrival in Massachusetts, likewise flung off their yoke\nof union with the Anglicans. In each town a separate congregation was\norganized, the male members choosing the pastor, the teachers, and the\nother officers. They also composed the voters in the town meeting, where\nsecular matters were determined. The union of church and government was\nthus complete, and uniformity of faith and life prescribed by law and\nenforced by civil authorities; but this worked for local autonomy\ninstead of imperial unity.\n\nThe clergy became a powerful class, dominant through their learning and\ntheir fearful denunciations of the faithless. They wrote the books for\nthe people to read--the famous Cotton Mather having three hundred and\neighty-three books and pamphlets to his credit. In cooperation with the\ncivil officers they enforced a strict observance of the Puritan\nSabbath--a day of rest that began at six o'clock on Saturday evening and\nlasted until sunset on Sunday. All work, all trading, all amusement, and\nall worldly conversation were absolutely prohibited during those hours.\nA thoughtless maid servant who for some earthly reason smiled in church\nwas in danger of being banished as a vagabond. Robert Pike, a devout\nPuritan, thinking the sun had gone to rest, ventured forth on horseback\none Sunday evening and was luckless enough to have a ray of light strike\nhim through a rift in the clouds. The next day he was brought into court\nand fined for \"his ungodly conduct.\" With persons accused of witchcraft\nthe Puritans were still more ruthless. When a mania of persecution swept\nover Massachusetts in 1692, eighteen people were hanged, one was pressed\nto death, many suffered imprisonment, and two died in jail.\n\nJust about this time, however, there came a break in the uniformity of\nPuritan rule. The crown and church in England had long looked upon it\nwith disfavor, and in 1684 King Charles II annulled the old charter of\nthe Massachusetts Bay Company. A new document issued seven years later\nwrested from the Puritans of the colony the right to elect their own\ngovernor and reserved the power of appointment to the king. It also\nabolished the rule limiting the suffrage to church members, substituting\nfor it a simple property qualification. Thus a royal governor and an\nofficial family, certain to be Episcopalian in faith and monarchist in\nsympathies, were forced upon Massachusetts; and members of all religious\ndenominations, if they had the required amount of property, were\npermitted to take part in elections. By this act in the name of the\ncrown, the Puritan monopoly was broken down in Massachusetts, and that\nprovince was brought into line with Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New\nHampshire, where property, not religious faith, was the test for the\nsuffrage.\n\n=Growth of Religious Toleration.=--Though neither the Anglicans of\nVirginia nor the Puritans of Massachusetts believed in toleration for\nother denominations, that principle was strictly applied in Rhode\nIsland. There, under the leadership of Roger Williams, liberty in\nmatters of conscience was established in the beginning. Maryland, by\ngranting in 1649 freedom to those who professed to believe in Jesus\nChrist, opened its gates to all Christians; and Pennsylvania, true to\nthe tenets of the Friends, gave freedom of conscience to those \"who\nconfess and acknowledge the one Almighty and Eternal God to be the\ncreator, upholder, and ruler of the World.\" By one circumstance or\nanother, the Middle colonies were thus early characterized by diversity\nrather than uniformity of opinion. Dutch Protestants, Huguenots,\nQuakers, Baptists, Presbyterians, New Lights, Moravians, Lutherans,\nCatholics, and other denominations became too strongly intrenched and\ntoo widely scattered to permit any one of them to rule, if it had\ndesired to do so. There were communities and indeed whole sections where\none or another church prevailed, but in no colony was a legislature\nsteadily controlled by a single group. Toleration encouraged diversity,\nand diversity, in turn, worked for greater toleration.\n\nThe government and faith of the dissenting denominations conspired with\neconomic and political tendencies to draw America away from the English\nstate. Presbyterians, Quakers, Baptists, and Puritans had no hierarchy\nof bishops and archbishops to bind them to the seat of power in London.\nNeither did they look to that metropolis for guidance in interpreting\narticles of faith. Local self-government in matters ecclesiastical\nhelped to train them for local self-government in matters political. The\nspirit of independence which led Dissenters to revolt in the Old World,\nnourished as it was amid favorable circumstances in the New World, made\nthem all the more zealous in the defense of every right against\nauthority imposed from without.\n\n\nSCHOOLS AND COLLEGES\n\n=Religion and Local Schools.=--One of the first cares of each Protestant\ndenomination was the education of the children in the faith. In this\nwork the Bible became the center of interest. The English version was\nindeed the one book of the people. Farmers, shopkeepers, and artisans,\nwhose life had once been bounded by the daily routine of labor, found in\nthe Scriptures not only an inspiration to religious conduct, but also a\nbook of romance, travel, and history. \"Legend and annal,\" says John\nRichard Green, \"war-song and psalm, state-roll and biography, the mighty\nvoices of prophets, the parables of Evangelists, stories of mission\njourneys, of perils by sea and among the heathen, philosophic arguments,\napocalyptic visions, all were flung broadcast over minds unoccupied for\nthe most part by any rival learning.... As a mere literary monument, the\nEnglish version of the Bible remains the noblest example of the English\ntongue.\" It was the King James version just from the press that the\nPilgrims brought across the sea with them.\n\nFor the authority of the Established Church was substituted the\nauthority of the Scriptures. The Puritans devised a catechism based upon\ntheir interpretation of the Bible, and, very soon after their arrival in\nAmerica, they ordered all parents and masters of servants to be diligent\nin seeing that their children and wards were taught to read religious\nworks and give answers to the religious questions. Massachusetts was\nscarcely twenty years old before education of this character was\ndeclared to be compulsory, and provision was made for public schools\nwhere those not taught at home could receive instruction in reading and\nwriting.\n\n[Illustration: A PAGE FROM A FAMOUS SCHOOLBOOK\n\n\n A In ADAM'S Fall\n We sinned all.\n\n B Heaven to find,\n The Bible Mind.\n\n C Christ crucify'd\n For sinners dy'd.\n\n D The Deluge drown'd\n The Earth around.\n\n E ELIJAH hid\n by Ravens fed.\n\n F The judgment made\n FELIX afraid.]\n\n\n\nOutside of New England the idea of compulsory education was not regarded\nwith the same favor; but the whole land was nevertheless dotted with\nlittle schools kept by \"dames, itinerant teachers, or local parsons.\"\nWhether we turn to the life of Franklin in the North or Washington in\nthe South, we read of tiny schoolhouses, where boys, and sometimes\ngirls, were taught to read and write. Where there were no schools,\nfathers and mothers of the better kind gave their children the rudiments\nof learning. Though illiteracy was widespread, there is evidence to show\nthat the diffusion of knowledge among the masses was making steady\nprogress all through the eighteenth century.\n\n=Religion and Higher Learning.=--Religious motives entered into the\nestablishment of colleges as well as local schools. Harvard, founded in\n1636, and Yale, opened in 1718, were intended primarily to train\n\"learned and godly ministers\" for the Puritan churches of New England.\nTo the far North, Dartmouth, chartered in 1769, was designed first as a\nmission to the Indians and then as a college for the sons of New England\nfarmers preparing to preach, teach, or practice law. The College of New\nJersey, organized in 1746 and removed to Princeton eleven years later,\nwas sustained by the Presbyterians. Two colleges looked to the\nEstablished Church as their source of inspiration and support: William\nand Mary, founded in Virginia in 1693, and King's College, now Columbia\nUniversity, chartered by King George II in 1754, on an appeal from the\nNew York Anglicans, alarmed at the growth of religious dissent and the\n\"republican tendencies\" of the age. Two colleges revealed a drift away\nfrom sectarianism. Brown, established in Rhode Island in 1764, and the\nPhiladelphia Academy, forerunner of the University of Pennsylvania,\norganized by Benjamin Franklin, reflected the spirit of toleration by\ngiving representation on the board of trustees to several religious\nsects. It was Franklin's idea that his college should prepare young men\nto serve in public office as leaders of the people and ornaments to\ntheir country.\n\n=Self-education in America.=--Important as were these institutions of\nlearning, higher education was by no means confined within their walls.\nMany well-to-do families sent their sons to Oxford or Cambridge in\nEngland. Private tutoring in the home was common. In still more families\nthere were intelligent children who grew up in the great colonial school\nof adversity and who trained themselves until, in every contest of mind\nand wit, they could vie with the sons of Harvard or William and Mary or\nany other college. Such, for example, was Benjamin Franklin, whose\ncharming autobiography, in addition to being an American classic, is a\nfine record of self-education. His formal training in the classroom was\nlimited to a few years at a local school in Boston; but his\nself-education continued throughout his life. He early manifested a zeal\nfor reading, and devoured, he tells us, his father's dry library on\ntheology, Bunyan's works, Defoe's writings, Plutarch's _Lives_, Locke's\n_On the Human Understanding_, and innumerable volumes dealing with\nsecular subjects. His literary style, perhaps the best of his time,\nFranklin acquired by the diligent and repeated analysis of the\n_Spectator_. In a life crowded with labors, he found time to read widely\nin natural science and to win single-handed recognition at the hands of\nEuropean savants for his discoveries in electricity. By his own efforts\nhe \"attained an acquaintance\" with Latin, Italian, French, and Spanish,\nthus unconsciously preparing himself for the day when he was to speak\nfor all America at the court of the king of France.\n\nLesser lights than Franklin, educated by the same process, were found\nall over colonial America. From this fruitful source of native ability,\nself-educated, the American cause drew great strength in the trials of\nthe Revolution.\n\n\nTHE COLONIAL PRESS\n\n=The Rise of the Newspaper.=--The evolution of American democracy into a\ngovernment by public opinion, enlightened by the open discussion of\npolitical questions, was in no small measure aided by a free press. That\ntoo, like education, was a matter of slow growth. A printing press was\nbrought to Massachusetts in 1639, but it was put in charge of an\nofficial censor and limited to the publication of religious works. Forty\nyears elapsed before the first newspaper appeared, bearing the curious\ntitle, _Public Occurrences Both Foreign and Domestic_, and it had not\nbeen running very long before the government of Massachusetts suppressed\nit for discussing a political question.\n\nPublishing, indeed, seemed to be a precarious business; but in 1704\nthere came a second venture in journalism, _The Boston News-Letter_,\nwhich proved to be a more lasting enterprise because it refrained from\ncriticizing the authorities. Still the public interest languished. When\nFranklin's brother, James, began to issue his _New England Courant_\nabout 1720, his friends sought to dissuade him, saying that one\nnewspaper was enough for America. Nevertheless he continued it; and his\nconfidence in the future was rewarded. In nearly every colony a gazette\nor chronicle appeared within the next thirty years or more. Benjamin\nFranklin was able to record in 1771 that America had twenty-five\nnewspapers. Boston led with five. Philadelphia had three: two in English\nand one in German.\n\n=Censorship and Restraints on the Press.=--The idea of printing,\nunlicensed by the government and uncontrolled by the church, was,\nhowever, slow in taking form. The founders of the American colonies had\nnever known what it was to have the free and open publication of books,\npamphlets, broadsides, and newspapers. When the art of printing was\nfirst discovered, the control of publishing was vested in clerical\nauthorities. After the establishment of the State Church in England in\nthe reign of Elizabeth, censorship of the press became a part of royal\nprerogative. Printing was restricted to Oxford, Cambridge, and London;\nand no one could publish anything without previous approval of the\nofficial censor. When the Puritans were in power, the popular party,\nwith a zeal which rivaled that of the crown, sought, in turn, to silence\nroyalist and clerical writers by a vigorous censorship. After the\nrestoration of the monarchy, control of the press was once more placed\nin royal hands, where it remained until 1695, when Parliament, by\nfailing to renew the licensing act, did away entirely with the official\n\ncensorship. By that time political parties were so powerful and so\nactive and printing presses were so numerous that official review of all\npublished matter became a sheer impossibility.\n\nIn America, likewise, some troublesome questions arose in connection\nwith freedom of the press. The Puritans of Massachusetts were no less\nanxious than King Charles or the Archbishop of London to shut out from\nthe prying eyes of the people all literature \"not mete for them to\nread\"; and so they established a system of official licensing for\npresses, which lasted until 1755. In the other colonies where there was\nmore diversity of opinion and publishers could set up in business with\nimpunity, they were nevertheless constantly liable to arrest for\nprinting anything displeasing to the colonial governments. In 1721 the\neditor of the _Mercury_ in Philadelphia was called before the\nproprietary council and ordered to apologize for a political article,\nand for a later offense of a similar character he was thrown into jail.\nA still more famous case was that of Peter Zenger, a New York publisher,\nwho was arrested in 1735 for criticising the administration. Lawyers who\nventured to defend the unlucky editor were deprived of their licenses to\npractice, and it became necessary to bring an attorney all the way from\nPhiladelphia. By this time the tension of feeling was high, and the\napprobation of the public was forthcoming when the lawyer for the\ndefense exclaimed to the jury that the very cause of liberty itself, not\nthat of the poor printer, was on trial! The verdict for Zenger, when it\nfinally came, was the signal for an outburst of popular rejoicing.\nAlready the people of King George's province knew how precious a thing\nis the freedom of the press.\n\nThanks to the schools, few and scattered as they were, and to the\nvigilance of parents, a very large portion, perhaps nearly one-half, of\nthe colonists could read. Through the newspapers, pamphlets, and\nalmanacs that streamed from the types, the people could follow the\ncourse of public events and grasp the significance of political\narguments. An American opinion was in the process of making--an\nindependent opinion nourished by the press and enriched by discussions\naround the fireside and at the taverns. When the day of resistance to\nBritish rule came, government by opinion was at hand. For every person\nwho could hear the voice of Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams, there were a\nthousand who could see their appeals on the printed page. Men who had\nspelled out their letters while poring over Franklin's _Poor Richard's\nAlmanac_ lived to read Thomas Paine's thrilling call to arms.\n\n\nTHE EVOLUTION IN POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS\n\nTwo very distinct lines of development appeared in colonial politics.\nThe one, exalting royal rights and aristocratic privileges, was the\ndrift toward provincial government through royal officers appointed in\nEngland. The other, leading toward democracy and self-government, was\nthe growth in the power of the popular legislative assembly. Each\nmovement gave impetus to the other, with increasing force during the\npassing years, until at last the final collision between the two ideals\nof government came in the war of independence.\n\n=The Royal Provinces.=--Of the thirteen English colonies eight were\nroyal provinces in 1776, with governors appointed by the king. Virginia\npassed under the direct rule of the crown in 1624, when the charter of\nthe London Company was annulled. The Massachusetts Bay corporation lost\nits charter in 1684, and the new instrument granted seven years later\nstripped the colonists of the right to choose their chief executive. In\nthe early decades of the eighteenth century both the Carolinas were\ngiven the provincial instead of the proprietary form. New Hampshire,\nsevered from Massachusetts in 1679, and Georgia, surrendered by the\ntrustees in 1752, went into the hands of the crown. New York,\ntransferred to the Duke of York on its capture from the Dutch in 1664,\nbecame a province when he took the title of James II in 1685. New\nJersey, after remaining for nearly forty years under proprietors, was\nbrought directly under the king in 1702. Maryland, Pennsylvania, and\nDelaware, although they retained their proprietary character until the\nRevolution, were in some respects like the royal colonies, for their\ngovernors were as independent of popular choice as were the appointees\nof King George. Only two colonies, Rhode Island and Connecticut,\nretained full self-government on the eve of the Revolution. They alone\nhad governors and legislatures entirely of their own choosing.\n\nThe chief officer of the royal province was the governor, who enjoyed\nhigh and important powers which he naturally sought to augment at every\nturn. He enforced the laws and, usually with the consent of a council,\nappointed the civil and military officers. He granted pardons and\nreprieves; he was head of the highest court; he was commander-in-chief\nof the militia; he levied troops for defense and enforced martial law in\ntime of invasion, war, and rebellion. In all the provinces, except\nMassachusetts, he named the councilors who composed the upper house of\nthe legislature and was likely to choose those who favored his claims.\nHe summoned, adjourned, and dissolved the popular assembly, or the lower\nhouse; he laid before it the projects of law desired by the crown; and\nhe vetoed measures which he thought objectionable. Here were in America\nall the elements of royal prerogative against which Hampden had\nprotested and Cromwell had battled in England.\n\n[Illustration: THE ROYAL GOVERNOR'S PALACE AT NEW BERNE]\n\nThe colonial governors were generally surrounded by a body of\noffice-seekers and hunters for land grants. Some of them were noblemen\nof broken estates who had come to America to improve their fortunes. The\npretensions of this circle grated on colonial nerves, and privileges\ngranted to them, often at the expense of colonists, did much to deepen\npopular antipathy to the British government. Favors extended to\nadherents of the Established Church displeased Dissenters. The\nreappearance of this formidable union of church and state, from which\nthey had fled, stirred anew the ancient wrath against that combination.\n\n=The Colonial Assembly.=--Coincident with the drift toward\nadministration through royal governors was the second and opposite\ntendency, namely, a steady growth in the practice of self-government.\nThe voters of England had long been accustomed to share in taxation and\nlaw-making through representatives in Parliament, and the idea was early\nintroduced in America. Virginia was only twelve years old (1619) when\nits first representative assembly appeared. As the towns of\nMassachusetts multiplied and it became impossible for all the members of\nthe corporation to meet at one place, the representative idea was\nadopted, in 1633. The river towns of Connecticut formed a representative\nsystem under their \"Fundamental Orders\" of 1639, and the entire colony\nwas given a royal charter in 1662. Generosity, as well as practical\nconsiderations, induced such proprietors as Lord Baltimore and William\nPenn to invite their colonists to share in the government as soon as any\nconsiderable settlements were made. Thus by one process or another every\none of the colonies secured a popular assembly.\n\nIt is true that in the provision for popular elections, the suffrage was\nfinally restricted to property owners or taxpayers, with a leaning\ntoward the freehold qualification. In Virginia, the rural voter had to\nbe a freeholder owning at least fifty acres of land, if there was no\nhouse on it, or twenty-five acres with a house twenty-five feet square.\nIn Massachusetts, the voter for member of the assembly under the charter\nof 1691 had to be a freeholder of an estate worth forty shillings a year\nat least or of other property to the value of forty pounds sterling. In\nPennsylvania, the suffrage was granted to freeholders owning fifty acres\nor more of land well seated, twelve acres cleared, and to other persons\nworth at least fifty pounds in lawful money.\n\nRestrictions like these undoubtedly excluded from the suffrage a very\nconsiderable number of men, particularly the mechanics and artisans of\nthe towns, who were by no means content with their position.\nNevertheless, it was relatively easy for any man to acquire a small\nfreehold, so cheap and abundant was land; and in fact a large proportion\nof the colonists were land owners. Thus the assemblies, in spite of the\nlimited suffrage, acquired a democratic tone.\n\nThe popular character of the assemblies increased as they became engaged\nin battles with the royal and proprietary governors. When called upon by\nthe executive to make provision for the support of the administration,\nthe legislature took advantage of the opportunity to make terms in the\ninterest of the taxpayers. It made annual, not permanent, grants of\nmoney to pay official salaries and then insisted upon electing a\ntreasurer to dole it out. Thus the colonists learned some of the\nmysteries of public finance, as well as the management of rapacious\nofficials. The legislature also used its power over money grants to\nforce the governor to sign bills which he would otherwise have vetoed.\n\n=Contests between Legislatures and Governors.=--As may be imagined, many\nand bitter were the contests between the royal and proprietary governors\nand the colonial assemblies. Franklin relates an amusing story of how\nthe Pennsylvania assembly held in one hand a bill for the executive to\nsign and, in the other hand, the money to pay his salary. Then, with sly\nhumor, Franklin adds: \"Do not, my courteous reader, take pet at our\nproprietary constitution for these our bargain and sale proceedings in\nlegislation. It is a happy country where justice and what was your own\nbefore can be had for ready money. It is another addition to the value\nof money and of course another spur to industry. Every land is not so\nblessed.\"\n\nIt must not be thought, however, that every governor got off as easily\nas Franklin's tale implies. On the contrary, the legislatures, like\nCaesar, fed upon meat that made them great and steadily encroached upon\nexecutive prerogatives as they tried out and found their strength. If\nwe may believe contemporary laments, the power of the crown in America\nwas diminishing when it was struck down altogether. In New York, the\nfriends of the governor complained in 1747 that \"the inhabitants of\nplantations are generally educated in republican principles; upon\nrepublican principles all is conducted. Little more than a shadow of\nroyal authority remains in the Northern colonies.\" \"Here,\" echoed the\ngovernor of South Carolina, the following year, \"levelling principles\nprevail; the frame of the civil government is unhinged; a governor, if\nhe would be idolized, must betray his trust; the people have got their\nwhole administration in their hands; the election of the members of the\nassembly is by ballot; not civil posts only, but all ecclesiastical\npreferments, are in the disposal or election of the people.\"\n\nThough baffled by the \"levelling principles\" of the colonial assemblies,\nthe governors did not give up the case as hopeless. Instead they evolved\na system of policy and action which they thought could bring the\nobstinate provincials to terms. That system, traceable in their letters\nto the government in London, consisted of three parts: (1) the royal\nofficers in the colonies were to be made independent of the legislatures\nby taxes imposed by acts of Parliament; (2) a British standing army was\nto be maintained in America; (3) the remaining colonial charters were to\nbe revoked and government by direct royal authority was to be enlarged.\n\nSuch a system seemed plausible enough to King George III and to many\nministers of the crown in London. With governors, courts, and an army\nindependent of the colonists, they imagined it would be easy to carry\nout both royal orders and acts of Parliament. This reasoning seemed both\npractical and logical. Nor was it founded on theory, for it came fresh\nfrom the governors themselves. It was wanting in one respect only. It\nfailed to take account of the fact that the American people were growing\nstrong in the practice of self-government and could dispense with the\ntutelage of the British ministry, no matter how excellent it might be or\nhow benevolent its intentions.\n\n\n=References=\n\nA.M. Earle, _Home Life in Colonial Days_.\n\nA.L. Cross, _The Anglican Episcopate and the American Colonies_ (Harvard\nStudies).\n\nE.G. Dexter, _History of Education in the United States_.\n\nC.A. Duniway, _Freedom of the Press in Massachusetts_.\n\nBenjamin Franklin, _Autobiography_.\n\nE.B. Greene, _The Provincial Governor_ (Harvard Studies).\n\nA.E. McKinley, _The Suffrage Franchise in the Thirteen English Colonies_\n(Pennsylvania University Studies).\n\nM.C. Tyler, _History of American Literature during the Colonial Times_\n(2 vols.).\n\n\n=Questions=\n\n1. Why is leisure necessary for the production of art and literature?\nHow may leisure be secured?\n\n2. Explain the position of the church in colonial life.\n\n3. Contrast the political roles of Puritanism and the Established\nChurch.\n\n4. How did diversity of opinion work for toleration?\n\n5. Show the connection between religion and learning in colonial times.\n\n6. Why is a \"free press\" such an important thing to American democracy?\n\n7. Relate some of the troubles of early American publishers.\n\n8. Give the undemocratic features of provincial government.\n\n9. How did the colonial assemblies help to create an independent\nAmerican spirit, in spite of a restricted suffrage?\n\n10. Explain the nature of the contests between the governors and the\nlegislatures.\n\n\n=Research Topics=\n\n=Religious and Intellectual Life.=--Lodge, _Short History of the English\nColonies_: (1) in New England, pp. 418-438, 465-475; (2) in Virginia,\npp. 54-61, 87-89; (3) in Pennsylvania, pp. 232-237, 253-257; (4) in New\nYork, pp. 316-321. Interesting source materials in Hart, _American\nHistory Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 255-275, 276-290.\n\n=The Government of a Royal Province, Virginia.=--Lodge, pp. 43-50.\nSpecial Reference: E.B. Greene, _The Provincial Governor_ (Harvard\nStudies).\n\n=The Government of a Proprietary Colony, Pennsylvania.=--Lodge, pp.\n230-232.\n\n=Government in New England.=--Lodge, pp. 412-417.\n\n=The Colonial Press.=--Special Reference: G.H. Payne, _History of\nJournalism in the United States_ (1920).\n\n=Colonial Life in General.=--John Fiske, _Old Virginia and Her\nNeighbors_, Vol. II, pp. 174-269; Elson, _History of the United States_,\npp. 197-210.\n\n=Colonial Government in General.=--Elson, pp. 210-216.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IV\n\nTHE DEVELOPMENT OF COLONIAL NATIONALISM\n\n\nIt is one of the well-known facts of history that a people loosely\nunited by domestic ties of a political and economic nature, even a\npeople torn by domestic strife, may be welded into a solid and compact\nbody by an attack from a foreign power. The imperative call to common\ndefense, the habit of sharing common burdens, the fusing force of common\nservice--these things, induced by the necessity of resisting outside\ninterference, act as an amalgam drawing together all elements, except,\nperhaps, the most discordant. The presence of the enemy allays the most\nvirulent of quarrels, temporarily at least. \"Politics,\" runs an old\nsaying, \"stops at the water's edge.\"\n\nThis ancient political principle, so well understood in diplomatic\ncircles, applied nearly as well to the original thirteen American\ncolonies as to the countries of Europe. The necessity for common\ndefense, if not equally great, was certainly always pressing. Though it\nhas long been the practice to speak of the early settlements as founded\nin \"a wilderness,\" this was not actually the case. From the earliest\ndays of Jamestown on through the years, the American people were\nconfronted by dangers from without. All about their tiny settlements\nwere Indians, growing more and more hostile as the frontier advanced and\nas sharp conflicts over land aroused angry passions. To the south and\nwest was the power of Spain, humiliated, it is true, by the disaster to\nthe Armada, but still presenting an imposing front to the British\nempire. To the north and west were the French, ambitious, energetic,\nimperial in temper, and prepared to contest on land and water the\nadvance of British dominion in America.\n\n\nRELATIONS WITH THE INDIANS AND THE FRENCH\n\n=Indian Affairs.=--It is difficult to make general statements about the\nrelations of the colonists to the Indians. The problem was presented in\ndifferent shape in different sections of America. It was not handled\naccording to any coherent or uniform plan by the British government,\nwhich alone could speak for all the provinces at the same time. Neither\ndid the proprietors and the governors who succeeded one another, in an\nirregular train, have the consistent policy or the matured experience\nnecessary for dealing wisely with Indian matters. As the difficulties\narose mainly on the frontiers, where the restless and pushing pioneers\nwere making their way with gun and ax, nearly everything that happened\nwas the result of chance rather than of calculation. A personal quarrel\nbetween traders and an Indian, a jug of whisky, a keg of gunpowder, the\nexchange of guns for furs, personal treachery, or a flash of bad temper\noften set in motion destructive forces of the most terrible character.\n\nOn one side of the ledger may be set innumerable generous records--of\nSquanto and Samoset teaching the Pilgrims the ways of the wilds; of\nRoger Williams buying his lands from the friendly natives; or of William\nPenn treating with them on his arrival in America. On the other side of\nthe ledger must be recorded many a cruel and bloody conflict as the\nfrontier rolled westward with deadly precision. The Pequots on the\nConnecticut border, sensing their doom, fell upon the tiny settlements\nwith awful fury in 1637 only to meet with equally terrible punishment. A\ngeneration later, King Philip, son of Massasoit, the friend of the\nPilgrims, called his tribesmen to a war of extermination which brought\nthe strength of all New England to the field and ended in his own\ndestruction. In New York, the relations with the Indians, especially\nwith the Algonquins and the Mohawks, were marked by periodic and\ndesperate wars. Virginia and her Southern neighbors suffered as did New\nEngland. In 1622 Opecacano, a brother of Powhatan, the friend of the\nJamestown settlers, launched a general massacre; and in 1644 he\nattempted a war of extermination. In 1675 the whole frontier was ablaze.\nNathaniel Bacon vainly attempted to stir the colonial governor to put up\nan adequate defense and, failing in that plea, himself headed a revolt\nand a successful expedition against the Indians. As the Virginia\noutposts advanced into the Kentucky country, the strife with the natives\nwas transferred to that \"dark and bloody ground\"; while to the\nsoutheast, a desperate struggle with the Tuscaroras called forth the\ncombined forces of the two Carolinas and Virginia.\n\n[Illustration: _From an old print._\n\nVIRGINIANS DEFENDING THEMSELVES AGAINST THE INDIANS]\n\nFrom such horrors New Jersey and Delaware were saved on account of their\ngeographical location. Pennsylvania, consistently following a policy of\nconciliation, was likewise spared until her western vanguard came into\nfull conflict with the allied French and Indians. Georgia, by clever\nnegotiations and treaties of alliance, managed to keep on fair terms\nwith her belligerent Cherokees and Creeks. But neither diplomacy nor\ngenerosity could stay the inevitable conflict as the frontier advanced,\nespecially after the French soldiers enlisted the Indians in their\nimperial enterprises. It was then that desultory fighting became general\nwarfare.\n\n[Illustration: ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND SPANISH POSSESSIONS IN AMERICA,\n1750]\n\n=Early Relations with the French.=--During the first decades of French\nexploration and settlement in the St. Lawrence country, the English\ncolonies, engrossed with their own problems, gave little or no thought\nto their distant neighbors. Quebec, founded in 1608, and Montreal, in\n1642, were too far away, too small in population, and too slight in\nstrength to be much of a menace to Boston, Hartford, or New York. It was\nthe statesmen in France and England, rather than the colonists in\nAmerica, who first grasped the significance of the slowly converging\nempires in North America. It was the ambition of Louis XIV of France,\nrather than the labors of Jesuit missionaries and French rangers, that\nsounded the first note of colonial alarm.\n\nEvidence of this lies in the fact that three conflicts between the\nEnglish and the French occurred before their advancing frontiers met on\nthe Pennsylvania border. King William's War (1689-1697), Queen Anne's\nWar (1701-1713), and King George's War (1744-1748) owed their origins\nand their endings mainly to the intrigues and rivalries of European\npowers, although they all involved the American colonies in struggles\nwith the French and their savage allies.\n\n=The Clash in the Ohio Valley.=--The second of these wars had hardly\nclosed, however, before the English colonists themselves began to be\nseriously alarmed about the rapidly expanding French dominion in the\nWest. Marquette and Joliet, who opened the Lake region, and La Salle,\nwho in 1682 had gone down the Mississippi to the Gulf, had been followed\nby the builders of forts. In 1718, the French founded New Orleans, thus\ntaking possession of the gateway to the Mississippi as well as the St.\nLawrence. A few years later they built Fort Niagara; in 1731 they\noccupied Crown Point; in 1749 they formally announced their dominion\nover all the territory drained by the Ohio River. Having asserted this\nlofty claim, they set out to make it good by constructing in the years\n1752-1754 Fort Le Boeuf near Lake Erie, Fort Venango on the upper\nwaters of the Allegheny, and Fort Duquesne at the junction of the\nstreams forming the Ohio. Though they were warned by George Washington,\nin the name of the governor of Virginia, to keep out of territory \"so\nnotoriously known to be property of the crown of Great Britain,\" the\nFrench showed no signs of relinquishing their pretensions.\n\n[Illustration: _From an old print_\n\nBRADDOCK'S RETREAT]\n\n=The Final Phase--the French and Indian War.=--Thus it happened that the\nshot which opened the Seven Years' War, known in America as the French\nand Indian War, was fired in the wilds of Pennsylvania. There began the\nconflict that spread to Europe and even Asia and finally involved\nEngland and Prussia, on the one side, and France, Austria, Spain, and\nminor powers on the other. On American soil, the defeat of Braddock in\n1755 and Wolfe's exploit in capturing Quebec four years later were the\ndramatic features. On the continent of Europe, England subsidized\nPrussian arms to hold France at bay. In India, on the banks of the\nGanges, as on the banks of the St. Lawrence, British arms were\ntriumphant. Well could the historian write: \"Conquests equaling in\nrapidity and far surpassing in magnitude those of Cortes and Pizarro had\nbeen achieved in the East.\" Well could the merchants of London declare\nthat under the administration of William Pitt, the imperial genius of\nthis world-wide conflict, commerce had been \"united with and made to\nflourish by war.\"\n\nFrom the point of view of the British empire, the results of the war\nwere momentous. By the peace of 1763, Canada and the territory east of\nthe Mississippi, except New Orleans, passed under the British flag. The\nremainder of the Louisiana territory was transferred to Spain and French\nimperial ambitions on the American continent were laid to rest. In\nexchange for Havana, which the British had seized during the war, Spain\nceded to King George the colony of Florida. Not without warrant did\nMacaulay write in after years that Pitt \"was the first Englishman of his\ntime; and he had made England the first country in the world.\"\n\n\nTHE EFFECTS OF WARFARE ON THE COLONIES\n\nThe various wars with the French and the Indians, trivial in detail as\nthey seem to-day, had a profound influence on colonial life and on the\ndestiny of America. Circumstances beyond the control of popular\nassemblies, jealous of their individual powers, compelled cooperation\namong them, grudging and stingy no doubt, but still cooperation. The\nAmerican people, more eager to be busy in their fields or at their\ntrades, were simply forced to raise and support armies, to learn the\narts of warfare, and to practice, if in a small theater, the science of\nstatecraft. These forces, all cumulative, drove the colonists, so\ntenaciously provincial in their habits, in the direction of nationalism.\n\n=The New England Confederation.=--It was in their efforts to deal with\nthe problems presented by the Indian and French menace that the\nAmericans took the first steps toward union. Though there were many\ncommon ties among the settlers of New England, it required a deadly\nfear of the Indians to produce in 1643 the New England Confederation,\ncomposed of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. The\ncolonies so united were bound together in \"a firm and perpetual league\nof friendship and amity for offense and defense, mutual service and\nsuccor, upon all just occasions.\" They made provision for distributing\nthe burdens of wars among the members and provided for a congress of\ncommissioners from each colony to determine upon common policies. For\nsome twenty years the Confederation was active and it continued to hold\nmeetings until after the extinction of the Indian peril on the immediate\nborder.\n\nVirginia, no less than Massachusetts, was aware of the importance of\nintercolonial cooperation. In the middle of the seventeenth century, the\nOld Dominion began treaties of commerce and amity with New York and the\ncolonies of New England. In 1684 delegates from Virginia met at Albany\nwith the agents of New York and Massachusetts to discuss problems of\nmutual defense. A few years later the Old Dominion cooperated loyally\nwith the Carolinas in defending their borders against Indian forays.\n\n=The Albany Plan of Union.=--An attempt at a general colonial union was\nmade in 1754. On the suggestion of the Lords of Trade in England, a\nconference was held at Albany to consider Indian relations, to devise\nmeasures of defense against the French, and to enter into \"articles of\nunion and confederation for the general defense of his Majesty's\nsubjects and interests in North America as well in time of peace as of\nwar.\" New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York,\nPennsylvania, and Maryland were represented. After a long discussion, a\nplan of union, drafted mainly, it seems, by Benjamin Franklin, was\nadopted and sent to the colonies and the crown for approval. The\ncolonies, jealous of their individual rights, refused to accept the\nscheme and the king disapproved it for the reason, Franklin said, that\nit had \"too much weight in the democratic part of the constitution.\"\nThough the Albany union failed, the document is still worthy of study\nbecause it forecast many of the perplexing problems that were not solved\nuntil thirty-three years afterward, when another convention of which\nalso Franklin was a member drafted the Constitution of the United\nStates.\n\n[Illustration: BENJAMIN FRANKLIN]\n\n=The Military Education of the Colonists.=--The same wars that showed\nthe provincials the meaning of union likewise instructed them in the art\nof defending their institutions. Particularly was this true of the last\nFrench and Indian conflict, which stretched all the way from Maine to\nthe Carolinas and made heavy calls upon them all for troops. The answer,\nit is admitted, was far from satisfactory to the British government and\nthe conduct of the militiamen was far from professional; but thousands\nof Americans got a taste, a strong taste, of actual fighting in the\nfield. Men like George Washington and Daniel Morgan learned lessons that\nwere not forgotten in after years. They saw what American militiamen\ncould do under favorable circumstances and they watched British regulars\noperating on American soil. \"This whole transaction,\" shrewdly remarked\nFranklin of Braddock's campaign, \"gave us Americans the first suspicion\nthat our exalted ideas of the prowess of British regular troops had not\nbeen well founded.\" It was no mere accident that the Virginia colonel\nwho drew his sword under the elm at Cambridge and took command of the\narmy of the Revolution was the brave officer who had \"spurned the\nwhistle of bullets\" at the memorable battle in western Pennsylvania.\n\n=Financial Burdens and Commercial Disorder.=--While the provincials were\nlearning lessons in warfare they were also paying the bills. All the\nconflicts were costly in treasure as in blood. King Philip's war left\nNew England weak and almost bankrupt. The French and Indian struggle was\nespecially expensive. The twenty-five thousand men put in the field by\nthe colonies were sustained only by huge outlays of money. Paper\ncurrency streamed from the press and debts were accumulated. Commerce\nwas driven from its usual channels and prices were enhanced. When the\nend came, both England and America were staggering under heavy\nliabilities, and to make matters worse there was a fall of prices\naccompanied by a commercial depression which extended over a period of\nten years. It was in the midst of this crisis that measures of taxation\nhad to be devised to pay the cost of the war, precipitating the quarrel\nwhich led to American independence.\n\n=The Expulsion of French Power from North America.=--The effects of the\ndefeat administered to France, as time proved, were difficult to\nestimate. Some British statesmen regarded it as a happy circumstance\nthat the colonists, already restive under their administration, had no\nforeign power at hand to aid them in case they struck for independence.\nAmerican leaders, on the other hand, now that the soldiers of King Louis\nwere driven from the continent, thought that they had no other country\nto fear if they cast off British sovereignty. At all events, France,\nthough defeated, was not out of the sphere of American influence; for,\nas events proved, it was the fortunate French alliance negotiated by\nFranklin that assured the triumph of American arms in the War of the\nRevolution.\n\n\nCOLONIAL RELATIONS WITH THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT\n\nIt was neither the Indian wars nor the French wars that finally brought\nforth American nationality. That was the product of the long strife\nwith the mother country which culminated in union for the war of\nindependence. The forces that created this nation did not operate in the\ncolonies alone. The character of the English sovereigns, the course of\nevents in English domestic politics, and English measures of control\nover the colonies--executive, legislative, and judicial--must all be\ntaken into account.\n\n=The Last of the Stuarts.=--The struggles between Charles I (1625-49)\nand the parliamentary party and the turmoil of the Puritan regime\n(1649-60) so engrossed the attention of Englishmen at home that they had\nlittle time to think of colonial policies or to interfere with colonial\naffairs. The restoration of the monarchy in 1660, accompanied by\ninternal peace and the increasing power of the mercantile classes in the\nHouse of Commons, changed all that. In the reign of Charles II\n(1660-85), himself an easy-going person, the policy of regulating trade\nby act of Parliament was developed into a closely knit system and\npowerful agencies to supervise the colonies were created. At the same\ntime a system of stricter control over the dominions was ushered in by\nthe annulment of the old charter of Massachusetts which conferred so\nmuch self-government on the Puritans.\n\nCharles' successor, James II, a man of sterner stuff and jealous of his\nauthority in the colonies as well as at home, continued the policy thus\ninaugurated and enlarged upon it. If he could have kept his throne, he\nwould have bent the Americans under a harsh rule or brought on in his\ndominions a revolution like that which he precipitated at home in 1688.\nHe determined to unite the Northern colonies and introduce a more\nefficient administration based on the pattern of the royal provinces. He\nmade a martinet, Sir Edmund Andros, governor of all New England, New\nYork, and New Jersey. The charter of Massachusetts, annulled in the last\ndays of his brother's reign, he continued to ignore, and that of\nConnecticut would have been seized if it had not been spirited away and\nhidden, according to tradition, in a hollow oak.\n\nFor several months, Andros gave the Northern colonies a taste of\nill-tempered despotism. He wrung quit rents from land owners not\naccustomed to feudal dues; he abrogated titles to land where, in his\nopinion, they were unlawful; he forced the Episcopal service upon the\nOld South Church in Boston; and he denied the writ of _habeas corpus_ to\na preacher who denounced taxation without representation. In the middle\nof his arbitrary course, however, his hand was stayed. The news came\nthat King James had been dethroned by his angry subjects, and the people\nof Boston, kindling a fire on Beacon Hill, summoned the countryside to\ndispose of Andros. The response was prompt and hearty. The hated\ngovernor was arrested, imprisoned, and sent back across the sea under\nguard.\n\nThe overthrow of James, followed by the accession of William and Mary\nand by assured parliamentary supremacy, had an immediate effect in the\ncolonies. The new order was greeted with thanksgiving. Massachusetts was\ngiven another charter which, though not so liberal as the first,\nrestored the spirit if not the entire letter of self-government. In the\nother colonies where Andros had been operating, the old course of\naffairs was resumed.\n\n=The Indifference of the First Two Georges.=--On the death in 1714 of\nQueen Anne, the successor of King William, the throne passed to a\nHanoverian prince who, though grateful for English honors and revenues,\nwas more interested in Hanover than in England. George I and George II,\nwhose combined reigns extended from 1714 to 1760, never even learned to\nspeak the English language, at least without an accent. The necessity of\ntaking thought about colonial affairs bored both of them so that the\nstoutest defender of popular privileges in Boston or Charleston had no\nground to complain of the exercise of personal prerogatives by the king.\nMoreover, during a large part of this period, the direction of affairs\nwas in the hands of an astute leader, Sir Robert Walpole, who betrayed\nhis somewhat cynical view of politics by adopting as his motto: \"Let\nsleeping dogs lie.\" He revealed his appreciation of popular sentiment\nby exclaiming: \"I will not be the minister to enforce taxes at the\nexpense of blood.\" Such kings and such ministers were not likely to\narouse the slumbering resistance of the thirteen colonies across the\nsea.\n\n=Control of the Crown over the Colonies.=--While no English ruler from\nJames II to George III ventured to interfere with colonial matters\npersonally, constant control over the colonies was exercised by royal\nofficers acting under the authority of the crown. Systematic supervision\nbegan in 1660, when there was created by royal order a committee of the\nking's council to meet on Mondays and Thursdays of each week to consider\npetitions, memorials, and addresses respecting the plantations. In 1696\na regular board was established, known as the \"Lords of Trade and\nPlantations,\" which continued, until the American Revolution, to\nscrutinize closely colonial business. The chief duties of the board were\nto examine acts of colonial legislatures, to recommend measures to those\nassemblies for adoption, and to hear memorials and petitions from the\ncolonies relative to their affairs.\n\nThe methods employed by this board were varied. All laws passed by\nAmerican legislatures came before it for review as a matter of routine.\nIf it found an act unsatisfactory, it recommended to the king the\nexercise of his veto power, known as the royal disallowance. Any person\nwho believed his personal or property rights injured by a colonial law\ncould be heard by the board in person or by attorney; in such cases it\nwas the practice to hear at the same time the agent of the colony so\ninvolved. The royal veto power over colonial legislation was not,\ntherefore, a formal affair, but was constantly employed on the\nsuggestion of a highly efficient agency of the crown. All this was in\naddition to the powers exercised by the governors in the royal\nprovinces.\n\n=Judicial Control.=--Supplementing this administrative control over the\ncolonies was a constant supervision by the English courts of law. The\nking, by virtue of his inherent authority, claimed and exercised high\nappellate powers over all judicial tribunals in the empire. The right\nof appeal from local courts, expressly set forth in some charters, was,\non the eve of the Revolution, maintained in every colony. Any subject in\nEngland or America, who, in the regular legal course, was aggrieved by\nany act of a colonial legislature or any decision of a colonial court,\nhad the right, subject to certain regulations, to carry his case to the\nking in council, forcing his opponent to follow him across the sea. In\nthe exercise of appellate power, the king in council acting as a court\ncould, and frequently did, declare acts of colonial legislatures duly\nenacted and approved, null and void, on the ground that they were\ncontrary to English law.\n\n=Imperial Control in Operation.=--Day after day, week after week, year\nafter year, the machinery for political and judicial control over\ncolonial affairs was in operation. At one time the British governors in\nthe colonies were ordered not to approve any colonial law imposing a\nduty on European goods imported in English vessels. Again, when North\nCarolina laid a tax on peddlers, the council objected to it as\n\"restrictive upon the trade and dispersion of English manufactures\nthroughout the continent.\" At other times, Indian trade was regulated in\nthe interests of the whole empire or grants of lands by a colonial\nlegislature were set aside. Virginia was forbidden to close her ports to\nNorth Carolina lest there should be retaliation.\n\nIn short, foreign and intercolonial trade were subjected to a control\nhigher than that of the colony, foreshadowing a day when the\nConstitution of the United States was to commit to Congress the power to\nregulate interstate and foreign commerce and commerce with the Indians.\nA superior judicial power, towering above that of the colonies, as the\nSupreme Court at Washington now towers above the states, kept the\ncolonial legislatures within the metes and bounds of established law. In\nthe thousands of appeals, memorials, petitions, and complaints, and the\nrulings and decisions upon them, were written the real history of\nBritish imperial control over the American colonies.\n\nSo great was the business before the Lords of Trade that the colonies\nhad to keep skilled agents in London to protect their interests. As\ncommon grievances against the operation of this machinery of control\narose, there appeared in each colony a considerable body of men, with\nthe merchants in the lead, who chafed at the restraints imposed on their\nenterprise. Only a powerful blow was needed to weld these bodies into a\ncommon mass nourishing the spirit of colonial nationalism. When to the\nrepeated minor irritations were added general and sweeping measures of\nParliament applying to every colony, the rebound came in the Revolution.\n\n=Parliamentary Control over Colonial Affairs.=--As soon as Parliament\ngained in power at the expense of the king, it reached out to bring the\nAmerican colonies under its sway as well. Between the execution of\nCharles I and the accession of George III, there was enacted an immense\nbody of legislation regulating the shipping, trade, and manufactures of\nAmerica. All of it, based on the \"mercantile\" theory then prevalent in\nall countries of Europe, was designed to control the overseas\nplantations in such a way as to foster the commercial and business\ninterests of the mother country, where merchants and men of finance had\ngot the upper hand. According to this theory, the colonies of the\nBritish empire should be confined to agriculture and the production of\nraw materials, and forced to buy their manufactured goods of England.\n\n_The Navigation Acts._--In the first rank among these measures of\nBritish colonial policy must be placed the navigation laws framed for\nthe purpose of building up the British merchant marine and navy--arms so\nessential in defending the colonies against the Spanish, Dutch, and\nFrench. The beginning of this type of legislation was made in 1651 and\nit was worked out into a system early in the reign of Charles II\n(1660-85).\n\nThe Navigation Acts, in effect, gave a monopoly of colonial commerce to\nBritish ships. No trade could be carried on between Great Britain and\nher dominions save in vessels built and manned by British subjects. No\nEuropean goods could be brought to America save in the ships of the\ncountry that produced them or in English ships. These laws, which were\nalmost fatal to Dutch shipping in America, fell with severity upon the\ncolonists, compelling them to pay higher freight rates. The adverse\neffect, however, was short-lived, for the measures stimulated\nshipbuilding in the colonies, where the abundance of raw materials gave\nthe master builders of America an advantage over those of the mother\ncountry. Thus the colonists in the end profited from the restrictive\npolicy written into the Navigation Acts.\n\n_The Acts against Manufactures._--The second group of laws was\ndeliberately aimed to prevent colonial industries from competing too\nsharply with those of England. Among the earliest of these measures may\nbe counted the Woolen Act of 1699, forbidding the exportation of woolen\ngoods from the colonies and even the woolen trade between towns and\ncolonies. When Parliament learned, as the result of an inquiry, that New\nEngland and New York were making thousands of hats a year and sending\nlarge numbers annually to the Southern colonies and to Ireland, Spain,\nand Portugal, it enacted in 1732 a law declaring that \"no hats or felts,\ndyed or undyed, finished or unfinished\" should be \"put upon any vessel\nor laden upon any horse or cart with intent to export to any place\nwhatever.\" The effect of this measure upon the hat industry was almost\nruinous. A few years later a similar blow was given to the iron\nindustry. By an act of 1750, pig and bar iron from the colonies were\ngiven free entry to England to encourage the production of the raw\nmaterial; but at the same time the law provided that \"no mill or other\nengine for slitting or rolling of iron, no plating forge to work with a\ntilt hammer, and no furnace for making steel\" should be built in the\ncolonies. As for those already built, they were declared public\nnuisances and ordered closed. Thus three important economic interests of\nthe colonists, the woolen, hat, and iron industries, were laid under the\nban.\n\n_The Trade Laws._--The third group of restrictive measures passed by the\nBritish Parliament related to the sale of colonial produce. An act of\n1663 required the colonies to export certain articles to Great Britain\nor to her dominions alone; while sugar, tobacco, and ginger consigned to\nthe continent of Europe had to pass through a British port paying custom\nduties and through a British merchant's hands paying the usual\ncommission. At first tobacco was the only one of the \"enumerated\narticles\" which seriously concerned the American colonies, the rest\ncoming mainly from the British West Indies. In the course of time,\nhowever, other commodities were added to the list of enumerated\narticles, until by 1764 it embraced rice, naval stores, copper, furs,\nhides, iron, lumber, and pearl ashes. This was not all. The colonies\nwere compelled to bring their European purchases back through English\nports, paying duties to the government and commissions to merchants\nagain.\n\n_The Molasses Act._--Not content with laws enacted in the interest of\nEnglish merchants and manufacturers, Parliament sought to protect the\nBritish West Indies against competition from their French and Dutch\nneighbors. New England merchants had long carried on a lucrative trade\nwith the French islands in the West Indies and Dutch Guiana, where sugar\nand molasses could be obtained in large quantities at low prices. Acting\non the protests of English planters in the Barbadoes and Jamaica,\nParliament, in 1733, passed the famous Molasses Act imposing duties on\nsugar and molasses imported into the colonies from foreign\ncountries--rates which would have destroyed the American trade with the\nFrench and Dutch if the law had been enforced. The duties, however, were\nnot collected. The molasses and sugar trade with the foreigners went on\nmerrily, smuggling taking the place of lawful traffic.\n\n=Effect of the Laws in America.=--As compared with the strict monopoly\nof her colonial trade which Spain consistently sought to maintain, the\npolicy of England was both moderate and liberal. Furthermore, the\nrestrictive laws were supplemented by many measures intended to be\nfavorable to colonial prosperity. The Navigation Acts, for example,\nredounded to the advantage of American shipbuilders and the producers\nof hemp, tar, lumber, and ship stores in general. Favors in British\nports were granted to colonial producers as against foreign competitors\nand in some instances bounties were paid by England to encourage\ncolonial enterprise. Taken all in all, there is much justification in\nthe argument advanced by some modern scholars to the effect that the\ncolonists gained more than they lost by British trade and industrial\nlegislation. Certainly after the establishment of independence, when\nfree from these old restrictions, the Americans found themselves\nhandicapped by being treated as foreigners rather than favored traders\nand the recipients of bounties in English markets.\n\nBe that as it may, it appears that the colonists felt little irritation\nagainst the mother country on account of the trade and navigation laws\nenacted previous to the close of the French and Indian war. Relatively\nfew were engaged in the hat and iron industries as compared with those\nin farming and planting, so that England's policy of restricting America\nto agriculture did not conflict with the interests of the majority of\nthe inhabitants. The woolen industry was largely in the hands of women\nand carried on in connection with their domestic duties, so that it was\nnot the sole support of any considerable number of people.\n\nAs a matter of fact, moreover, the restrictive laws, especially those\nrelating to trade, were not rigidly enforced. Cargoes of tobacco were\nboldly sent to continental ports without even so much as a bow to the\nEnglish government, to which duties should have been paid. Sugar and\nmolasses from the French and Dutch colonies were shipped into New\nEngland in spite of the law. Royal officers sometimes protested against\nsmuggling and sometimes connived at it; but at no time did they succeed\nin stopping it. Taken all in all, very little was heard of \"the galling\nrestraints of trade\" until after the French war, when the British\ngovernment suddenly entered upon a new course.\n\n\nSUMMARY OF THE COLONIAL PERIOD\n\nIn the period between the landing of the English at Jamestown, Virginia,\nin 1607, and the close of the French and Indian war in 1763--a period of\na century and a half--a new nation was being prepared on this continent\nto take its place among the powers of the earth. It was an epoch of\nmigration. Western Europe contributed emigrants of many races and\nnationalities. The English led the way. Next to them in numerical\nimportance were the Scotch-Irish and the Germans. Into the melting pot\nwere also cast Dutch, Swedes, French, Jews, Welsh, and Irish. Thousands\nof negroes were brought from Africa to till Southern fields or labor as\ndomestic servants in the North.\n\nWhy did they come? The reasons are various. Some of them, the Pilgrims\nand Puritans of New England, the French Huguenots, Scotch-Irish and\nIrish, and the Catholics of Maryland, fled from intolerant governments\nthat denied them the right to worship God according to the dictates of\ntheir consciences. Thousands came to escape the bondage of poverty in\nthe Old World and to find free homes in America. Thousands, like the\nnegroes from Africa, were dragged here against their will. The lure of\nadventure appealed to the restless and the lure of profits to the\nenterprising merchants.\n\nHow did they come? In some cases religious brotherhoods banded together\nand borrowed or furnished the funds necessary to pay the way. In other\ncases great trading companies were organized to found colonies. Again it\nwas the wealthy proprietor, like Lord Baltimore or William Penn, who\nundertook to plant settlements. Many immigrants were able to pay their\nown way across the sea. Others bound themselves out for a term of years\nin exchange for the cost of the passage. Negroes were brought on account\nof the profits derived from their sale as slaves.\n\nWhatever the motive for their coming, however, they managed to get\nacross the sea. The immigrants set to work with a will. They cut down\nforests, built houses, and laid out fields. They founded churches,\nschools, and colleges. They set up forges and workshops. They spun and\nwove. They fashioned ships and sailed the seas. They bartered and\ntraded. Here and there on favorable harbors they established centers of\ncommerce--Boston, Providence, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and\nCharleston. As soon as a firm foothold was secured on the shore line\nthey pressed westward until, by the close of the colonial period, they\nwere already on the crest of the Alleghanies.\n\nThough they were widely scattered along a thousand miles of seacoast,\nthe colonists were united in spirit by many common ties. The major\nportion of them were Protestants. The language, the law, and the\nliterature of England furnished the basis of national unity. Most of the\ncolonists were engaged in the same hard task; that of conquering a\nwilderness. To ties of kinship and language were added ties created by\nnecessity. They had to unite in defense; first, against the Indians and\nlater against the French. They were all subjects of the same\nsovereign--the king of England. The English Parliament made laws for\nthem and the English government supervised their local affairs, their\ntrade, and their manufactures. Common forces assailed them. Common\ngrievances vexed them. Common hopes inspired them.\n\nMany of the things which tended to unite them likewise tended to throw\nthem into opposition to the British Crown and Parliament. Most of them\nwere freeholders; that is, farmers who owned their own land and tilled\nit with their own hands. A free soil nourished the spirit of freedom.\nThe majority of them were Dissenters, critics, not friends, of the\nChurch of England, that stanch defender of the British monarchy. Each\ncolony in time developed its own legislature elected by the voters; it\ngrew accustomed to making laws and laying taxes for itself. Here was a\npeople learning self-reliance and self-government. The attempts to\nstrengthen the Church of England in America and the transformation of\ncolonies into royal provinces only fanned the spirit of independence\nwhich they were designed to quench.\n\nNevertheless, the Americans owed much of their prosperity to the\nassistance of the government that irritated them. It was the protection\nof the British navy that prevented Holland, Spain, and France from\nwiping out their settlements. Though their manufacture and trade were\ncontrolled in the interests of the mother country, they also enjoyed\ngreat advantages in her markets. Free trade existed nowhere upon the\nearth; but the broad empire of Britain was open to American ships and\nmerchandise. It could be said, with good reason, that the disadvantages\nwhich the colonists suffered through British regulation of their\nindustry and trade were more than offset by the privileges they enjoyed.\nStill that is somewhat beside the point, for mere economic advantage is\nnot necessarily the determining factor in the fate of peoples. A\nthousand circumstances had helped to develop on this continent a nation,\nto inspire it with a passion for independence, and to prepare it for a\ndestiny greater than that of a prosperous dominion of the British\nempire. The economists, who tried to prove by logic unassailable that\nAmerica would be richer under the British flag, could not change the\nspirit of Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, Benjamin Franklin, or George\nWashington.\n\n\n=References=\n\nG.L. Beer, _Origin of the British Colonial System_ and _The Old Colonial\nSystem_.\n\nA. Bradley, _The Fight for Canada in North America_.\n\nC.M. Andrews, _Colonial Self-Government_ (American Nation Series).\n\nH. Egerton, _Short History of British Colonial Policy_.\n\nF. Parkman, _France and England in North America_ (12 vols.).\n\nR. Thwaites, _France in America_ (American Nation Series).\n\nJ. Winsor, _The Mississippi Valley_ and _Cartier to Frontenac_.\n\n\n=Questions=\n\n1. How would you define \"nationalism\"?\n\n2. Can you give any illustrations of the way that war promotes\nnationalism?\n\n3. Why was it impossible to establish and maintain a uniform policy in\ndealing with the Indians?\n\n4. What was the outcome of the final clash with the French?\n\n5. Enumerate the five chief results of the wars with the French and the\nIndians. Discuss each in detail.\n\n6. Explain why it was that the character of the English king mattered to\nthe colonists.\n\n7. Contrast England under the Stuarts with England under the\nHanoverians.\n\n8. Explain how the English Crown, Courts, and Parliament controlled the\ncolonies.\n\n9. Name the three important classes of English legislation affecting the\ncolonies. Explain each.\n\n10. Do you think the English legislation was beneficial or injurious to\nthe colonies? Why?\n\n\n=Research Topics=\n\n=Rise of French Power in North America.=--Special reference: Francis\nParkman, _Struggle for a Continent_.\n\n=The French and Indian Wars.=--Special reference: W.M. Sloane, _French\nWar and the Revolution_, Chaps. VI-IX. Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_,\nVol. II, pp. 195-299. Elson, _History of the United States_, pp.\n171-196.\n\n=English Navigation Acts.=--Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp.\n55, 72, 78, 90, 103. Coman, _Industrial History_, pp. 79-85.\n\n=British Colonial Policy.=--Callender, _Economic History of the United\nStates_, pp. 102-108.\n\n=The New England Confederation.=--Analyze the document in Macdonald,\n_Source Book_, p. 45. Special reference: Fiske, _Beginnings of New\nEngland_, pp. 140-198.\n\n=The Administration of Andros.=--Fiske, _Beginnings_, pp. 242-278.\n\n=Biographical Studies.=--William Pitt and Sir Robert Walpole. Consult\nGreen, _Short History of England_, on their policies, using the index.\n\n\n\n\nPART II. CONFLICT AND INDEPENDENCE\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER V\n\nTHE NEW COURSE IN BRITISH IMPERIAL POLICY\n\n\nOn October 25, 1760, King George II died and the British crown passed to\nhis young grandson. The first George, the son of the Elector of Hanover\nand Sophia the granddaughter of James I, was a thorough German who never\neven learned to speak the language of the land over which he reigned.\nThe second George never saw England until he was a man. He spoke English\nwith an accent and until his death preferred his German home. During\ntheir reign, the principle had become well established that the king did\nnot govern but acted only through ministers representing the majority in\nParliament.\n\n\nGEORGE III AND HIS SYSTEM\n\n=The Character of the New King.=--The third George rudely broke the\nGerman tradition of his family. He resented the imputation that he was a\nforeigner and on all occasions made a display of his British sympathies.\nTo the draft of his first speech to Parliament, he added the popular\nphrase: \"Born and educated in this country, I glory in the name of\nBriton.\" Macaulay, the English historian, certainly of no liking for\nhigh royal prerogative, said of George: \"The young king was a born\nEnglishman. All his tastes and habits, good and bad, were English. No\nportion of his subjects had anything to reproach him with.... His age,\nhis appearance, and all that was known of his character conciliated\npublic favor. He was in the bloom of youth; his person and address were\npleasing; scandal imputed to him no vice; and flattery might without\nglaring absurdity ascribe to him many princely virtues.\"\n\nNevertheless George III had been spoiled by his mother, his tutors, and\nhis courtiers. Under their influence he developed high and mighty\nnotions about the sacredness of royal authority and his duty to check\nthe pretensions of Parliament and the ministers dependent upon it. His\nmother had dinned into his ears the slogan: \"George, be king!\" Lord\nBute, his teacher and adviser, had told him that his honor required him\nto take an active part in the shaping of public policy and the making of\nlaws. Thus educated, he surrounded himself with courtiers who encouraged\nhim in the determination to rule as well as reign, to subdue all\nparties, and to place himself at the head of the nation and empire.\n\n[Illustration: _From an old print._\n\nGEORGE III]\n\n=Political Parties and George III.=--The state of the political parties\nfavored the plans of the king to restore some of the ancient luster of\nthe crown. The Whigs, who were composed mainly of the smaller\nfreeholders, merchants, inhabitants of towns, and Protestant\nnon-conformists, had grown haughty and overbearing through long\ncontinuance in power and had as a consequence raised up many enemies in\ntheir own ranks. Their opponents, the Tories, had by this time given up\nall hope of restoring to the throne the direct Stuart line; but they\nstill cherished their old notions about divine right. With the\naccession of George III the coveted opportunity came to them to rally\naround the throne again. George received his Tory friends with open\narms, gave them offices, and bought them seats in the House of Commons.\n\n=The British Parliamentary System.=--The peculiarities of the British\nParliament at the time made smooth the way for the king and his allies\nwith their designs for controlling the entire government. In the first\nplace, the House of Lords was composed mainly of hereditary nobles whose\nnumber the king could increase by the appointment of his favorites, as\nof old. Though the members of the House of Commons were elected by\npopular vote, they did not speak for the mass of English people. Great\ntowns like Leeds, Manchester, and Birmingham, for example, had no\nrepresentatives at all. While there were about eight million inhabitants\nin Great Britain, there were in 1768 only about 160,000 voters; that is\nto say, only about one in every ten adult males had a voice in the\ngovernment. Many boroughs returned one or more members to the Commons\nalthough they had merely a handful of voters or in some instances no\nvoters at all. Furthermore, these tiny boroughs were often controlled by\nlords who openly sold the right of representation to the highest bidder.\nThe \"rotten-boroughs,\" as they were called by reformers, were a public\nscandal, but George III readily made use of them to get his friends into\nthe House of Commons.\n\n\nGEORGE III'S MINISTERS AND THEIR COLONIAL POLICIES\n\n=Grenville and the War Debt.=--Within a year after the accession of\nGeorge III, William Pitt was turned out of office, the king treating him\nwith \"gross incivility\" and the crowds shouting \"Pitt forever!\" The\ndirection of affairs was entrusted to men enjoying the king's\nconfidence. Leadership in the House of Commons fell to George Grenville,\na grave and laborious man who for years had groaned over the increasing\ncost of government.\n\nThe first task after the conclusion of peace in 1763 was the adjustment\nof the disordered finances of the kingdom. The debt stood at the highest\npoint in the history of the country. More revenue was absolutely\nnecessary and Grenville began to search for it, turning his attention\nfinally to the American colonies. In this quest he had the aid of a\nzealous colleague, Charles Townshend, who had long been in public\nservice and was familiar with the difficulties encountered by royal\ngovernors in America. These two men, with the support of the entire\nministry, inaugurated in February, 1763, \"a new system of colonial\ngovernment. It was announced by authority that there were to be no more\nrequisitions from the king to the colonial assemblies for supplies, but\nthat the colonies were to be taxed instead by act of Parliament.\nColonial governors and judges were to be paid by the Crown; they were to\nbe supported by a standing army of twenty regiments; and all the\nexpenses of this force were to be met by parliamentary taxation.\"\n\n=Restriction of Paper Money (1763).=--Among the many complaints filed\nbefore the board of trade were vigorous protests against the issuance of\npaper money by the colonial legislatures. The new ministry provided a\nremedy in the act of 1763, which declared void all colonial laws\nauthorizing paper money or extending the life of outstanding bills. This\nlaw was aimed at the \"cheap money\" which the Americans were fond of\nmaking when specie was scarce--money which they tried to force on their\nEnglish creditors in return for goods and in payment of the interest and\nprincipal of debts. Thus the first chapter was written in the long\nbattle over sound money on this continent.\n\n=Limitation on Western Land Sales.=--Later in the same year (1763)\nGeorge III issued a royal proclamation providing, among other things,\nfor the government of the territory recently acquired by the treaty of\nParis from the French. One of the provisions in this royal decree\ntouched frontiersmen to the quick. The contests between the king's\nofficers and the colonists over the disposition of western lands had\nbeen long and sharp. The Americans chafed at restrictions on\nsettlement. The more adventurous were continually moving west and\n\"squatting\" on land purchased from the Indians or simply seized without\nauthority. To put an end to this, the king forbade all further purchases\nfrom the Indians, reserving to the crown the right to acquire such lands\nand dispose of them for settlement. A second provision in the same\nproclamation vested the power of licensing trade with the Indians,\nincluding the lucrative fur business, in the hands of royal officers in\nthe colonies. These two limitations on American freedom and enterprise\nwere declared to be in the interest of the crown and for the\npreservation of the rights of the Indians against fraud and abuses.\n\n=The Sugar Act of 1764.=--King George's ministers next turned their\nattention to measures of taxation and trade. Since the heavy debt under\nwhich England was laboring had been largely incurred in the defense of\nAmerica, nothing seemed more reasonable to them than the proposition\nthat the colonies should help to bear the burden which fell so heavily\nupon the English taxpayer. The Sugar Act of 1764 was the result of this\nreasoning. There was no doubt about the purpose of this law, for it was\nset forth clearly in the title: \"An act for granting certain duties in\nthe British colonies and plantations in America ... for applying the\nproduce of such duties ... towards defraying the expenses of defending,\nprotecting and securing the said colonies and plantations ... and for\nmore effectually preventing the clandestine conveyance of goods to and\nfrom the said colonies and plantations and improving and securing the\ntrade between the same and Great Britain.\" The old Molasses Act had been\nprohibitive; the Sugar Act of 1764 was clearly intended as a revenue\nmeasure. Specified duties were laid upon sugar, indigo, calico, silks,\nand many other commodities imported into the colonies. The enforcement\nof the Molasses Act had been utterly neglected; but this Sugar Act had\n\"teeth in it.\" Special precautions as to bonds, security, and\nregistration of ship masters, accompanied by heavy penalties, promised\na vigorous execution of the new revenue law.\n\nThe strict terms of the Sugar Act were strengthened by administrative\nmeasures. Under a law of the previous year the commanders of armed\nvessels stationed along the American coast were authorized to stop,\nsearch, and, on suspicion, seize merchant ships approaching colonial\nports. By supplementary orders, the entire British official force in\nAmerica was instructed to be diligent in the execution of all trade and\nnavigation laws. Revenue collectors, officers of the army and navy, and\nroyal governors were curtly ordered to the front to do their full duty\nin the matter of law enforcement. The ordinary motives for the discharge\nof official obligations were sharpened by an appeal to avarice, for\nnaval officers who seized offenders against the law were rewarded by\nlarge prizes out of the forfeitures and penalties.\n\n=The Stamp Act (1765).=--The Grenville-Townshend combination moved\nsteadily towards its goal. While the Sugar Act was under consideration\nin Parliament, Grenville announced a plan for a stamp bill. The next\nyear it went through both Houses with a speed that must have astounded\nits authors. The vote in the Commons stood 205 in favor to 49 against;\nwhile in the Lords it was not even necessary to go through the formality\nof a count. As George III was temporarily insane, the measure received\nroyal assent by a commission acting as a board of regency. Protests of\ncolonial agents in London were futile. \"We might as well have hindered\nthe sun's progress!\" exclaimed Franklin. Protests of a few opponents in\nthe Commons were equally vain. The ministry was firm in its course and\nfrom all appearances the Stamp Act hardly roused as much as a languid\ninterest in the city of London. In fact, it is recorded that the fateful\nmeasure attracted less notice than a bill providing for a commission to\nact for the king when he was incapacitated.\n\nThe Stamp Act, like the Sugar Act, declared the purpose of the British\ngovernment to raise revenue in America \"towards defraying the expenses\nof defending, protecting, and securing the British colonies and\nplantations in America.\" It was a long measure of more than fifty\nsections, carefully planned and skillfully drawn. By its provisions\nduties were imposed on practically all papers used in legal\ntransactions,--deeds, mortgages, inventories, writs, bail bonds,--on\nlicenses to practice law and sell liquor, on college diplomas, playing\ncards, dice, pamphlets, newspapers, almanacs, calendars, and\nadvertisements. The drag net was closely knit, for scarcely anything\nescaped.\n\n=The Quartering Act (1765).=--The ministers were aware that the Stamp\nAct would rouse opposition in America--how great they could not\nconjecture. While the measure was being debated, a friend of General\nWolfe, Colonel Barre, who knew America well, gave them an ominous\nwarning in the Commons. \"Believe me--remember I this day told you so--\"\nhe exclaimed, \"the same spirit of freedom which actuated that people at\nfirst will accompany them still ... a people jealous of their liberties\nand who will vindicate them, if ever they should be violated.\" The\nanswer of the ministry to a prophecy of force was a threat of force.\nPreparations were accordingly made to dispatch a larger number of\nsoldiers than usual to the colonies, and the ink was hardly dry on the\nStamp Act when Parliament passed the Quartering Act ordering the\ncolonists to provide accommodations for the soldiers who were to enforce\nthe new laws. \"We have the power to tax them,\" said one of the ministry,\n\"and we will tax them.\"\n\n\nCOLONIAL RESISTANCE FORCES REPEAL\n\n=Popular Opposition.=--The Stamp Act was greeted in America by an\noutburst of denunciation. The merchants of the seaboard cities took the\nlead in making a dignified but unmistakable protest, agreeing not to\nimport British goods while the hated law stood upon the books. Lawyers,\nsome of them incensed at the heavy taxes on their operations and others\nintimidated by patriots who refused to permit them to use stamped\npapers, joined with the merchants. Aristocratic colonial Whigs, who had\nlong grumbled at the administration of royal governors, protested\nagainst taxation without their consent, as the Whigs had done in old\nEngland. There were Tories, however, in the colonies as in England--many\nof them of the official class--who denounced the merchants, lawyers, and\nWhig aristocrats as \"seditious, factious and republican.\" Yet the\nopposition to the Stamp Act and its accompanying measure, the Quartering\nAct, grew steadily all through the summer of 1765.\n\nIn a little while it was taken up in the streets and along the\ncountryside. All through the North and in some of the Southern colonies,\nthere sprang up, as if by magic, committees and societies pledged to\nresist the Stamp Act to the bitter end. These popular societies were\nknown as Sons of Liberty and Daughters of Liberty: the former including\nartisans, mechanics, and laborers; and the latter, patriotic women. Both\ngroups were alike in that they had as yet taken little part in public\naffairs. Many artisans, as well as all the women, were excluded from the\nright to vote for colonial assemblymen.\n\nWhile the merchants and Whig gentlemen confined their efforts chiefly to\ndrafting well-phrased protests against British measures, the Sons of\nLiberty operated in the streets and chose rougher measures. They stirred\nup riots in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston when attempts\nwere made to sell the stamps. They sacked and burned the residences of\nhigh royal officers. They organized committees of inquisition who by\nthreats and intimidation curtailed the sale of British goods and the use\nof stamped papers. In fact, the Sons of Liberty carried their operations\nto such excesses that many mild opponents of the stamp tax were\nfrightened and drew back in astonishment at the forces they had\nunloosed. The Daughters of Liberty in a quieter way were making a very\neffective resistance to the sale of the hated goods by spurring on\ndomestic industries, their own particular province being the manufacture\nof clothing, and devising substitutes for taxed foods. They helped to\nfeed and clothe their families without buying British goods.\n\n=Legislative Action against the Stamp Act.=--Leaders in the colonial\nassemblies, accustomed to battle against British policies, supported the\npopular protest. The Stamp Act was signed on March 22, 1765. On May 30,\nthe Virginia House of Burgesses passed a set of resolutions declaring\nthat the General Assembly of the colony alone had the right to lay taxes\nupon the inhabitants and that attempts to impose them otherwise were\n\"illegal, unconstitutional, and unjust.\" It was in support of these\nresolutions that Patrick Henry uttered the immortal challenge: \"Caesar\nhad his Brutus, Charles I his Cromwell, and George III....\" Cries of\n\"Treason\" were calmly met by the orator who finished: \"George III may\nprofit by their example. If that be treason, make the most of it.\"\n\n[Illustration: PATRICK HENRY]\n\n=The Stamp Act Congress.=--The Massachusetts Assembly answered the call\nof Virginia by inviting the colonies to elect delegates to a Congress to\nbe held in New York to discuss the situation. Nine colonies responded\nand sent representatives. The delegates, while professing the warmest\naffection for the king's person and government, firmly spread on record\na series of resolutions that admitted of no double meaning. They\ndeclared that taxes could not be imposed without their consent, given\nthrough their respective colonial assemblies; that the Stamp Act showed\na tendency to subvert their rights and liberties; that the recent trade\nacts were burdensome and grievous; and that the right to petition the\nking and Parliament was their heritage. They thereupon made \"humble\nsupplication\" for the repeal of the Stamp Act.\n\nThe Stamp Act Congress was more than an assembly of protest. It marked\nthe rise of a new agency of government to express the will of America.\nIt was the germ of a government which in time was to supersede the\ngovernment of George III in the colonies. It foreshadowed the Congress\nof the United States under the Constitution. It was a successful attempt\nat union. \"There ought to be no New England men,\" declared Christopher\nGadsden, in the Stamp Act Congress, \"no New Yorkers known on the\nContinent, but all of us Americans.\"\n\n=The Repeal of the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act.=--The effect of American\nresistance on opinion in England was telling. Commerce with the colonies\nhad been effectively boycotted by the Americans; ships lay idly swinging\nat the wharves; bankruptcy threatened hundreds of merchants in London,\nBristol, and Liverpool. Workingmen in the manufacturing towns of England\nwere thrown out of employment. The government had sown folly and was\nreaping, in place of the coveted revenue, rebellion.\n\nPerplexed by the storm they had raised, the ministers summoned to the\nbar of the House of Commons, Benjamin Franklin, the agent for\nPennsylvania, who was in London. \"Do you think it right,\" asked\nGrenville, \"that America should be protected by this country and pay no\npart of the expenses?\" The answer was brief: \"That is not the case; the\ncolonies raised, clothed, and paid during the last war twenty-five\nthousand men and spent many millions.\" Then came an inquiry whether the\ncolonists would accept a modified stamp act. \"No, never,\" replied\nFranklin, \"never! They will never submit to it!\" It was next suggested\nthat military force might compel obedience to law. Franklin had a ready\nanswer. \"They cannot force a man to take stamps.... They may not find a\nrebellion; they may, indeed, make one.\"\n\nThe repeal of the Stamp Act was moved in the House of Commons a few days\nlater. The sponsor for the repeal spoke of commerce interrupted, debts\ndue British merchants placed in jeopardy, Manchester industries closed,\nworkingmen unemployed, oppression instituted, and the loss of the\ncolonies threatened. Pitt and Edmund Burke, the former near the close\nof his career, the latter just beginning his, argued cogently in favor\nof retracing the steps taken the year before. Grenville refused.\n\"America must learn,\" he wailed, \"that prayers are not to be brought to\nCaesar through riot and sedition.\" His protests were idle. The Commons\nagreed to the repeal on February 22, 1766, amid the cheers of the\nvictorious majority. It was carried through the Lords in the face of\nstrong opposition and, on March 18, reluctantly signed by the king, now\nrestored to his right mind.\n\nIn rescinding the Stamp Act, Parliament did not admit the contention of\nthe Americans that it was without power to tax them. On the contrary, it\naccompanied the repeal with a Declaratory Act. It announced that the\ncolonies were subordinate to the crown and Parliament of Great Britain;\nthat the king and Parliament therefore had undoubted authority to make\nlaws binding the colonies in all cases whatsoever; and that the\nresolutions and proceedings of the colonists denying such authority were\nnull and void.\n\nThe repeal was greeted by the colonists with great popular\ndemonstrations. Bells were rung; toasts to the king were drunk; and\ntrade resumed its normal course. The Declaratory Act, as a mere paper\nresolution, did not disturb the good humor of those who again cheered\nthe name of King George. Their confidence was soon strengthened by the\nnews that even the Sugar Act had been repealed, thus practically\nrestoring the condition of affairs before Grenville and Townshend\ninaugurated their policy of \"thoroughness.\"\n\n\nRESUMPTION OF BRITISH REVENUE AND COMMERCIAL POLICIES\n\n=The Townshend Acts (1767).=--The triumph of the colonists was brief.\nThough Pitt, the friend of America, was once more prime minister, and\nseated in the House of Lords as the Earl of Chatham, his severe illness\ngave to Townshend and the Tory party practical control over Parliament.\nUnconvinced by the experience with the Stamp Act, Townshend brought\nforward and pushed through both Houses of Parliament three measures,\nwhich to this day are associated with his name. First among his\nrestrictive laws was that of June 29, 1767, which placed the enforcement\nof the collection of duties and customs on colonial imports and exports\nin the hands of British commissioners appointed by the king, resident in\nthe colonies, paid from the British treasury, and independent of all\ncontrol by the colonists. The second measure of the same date imposed a\ntax on lead, glass, paint, tea, and a few other articles imported into\nthe colonies, the revenue derived from the duties to be applied toward\nthe payment of the salaries and other expenses of royal colonial\nofficials. A third measure was the Tea Act of July 2, 1767, aimed at the\ntea trade which the Americans carried on illegally with foreigners. This\nlaw abolished the duty which the East India Company had to pay in\nEngland on tea exported to America, for it was thought that English tea\nmerchants might thus find it possible to undersell American tea\nsmugglers.\n\n=Writs of Assistance Legalized by Parliament.=--Had Parliament been\ncontent with laying duties, just as a manifestation of power and right,\nand neglected their collection, perhaps little would have been heard of\nthe Townshend Acts. It provided, however, for the strict, even the\nharsh, enforcement of the law. It ordered customs officers to remain at\ntheir posts and put an end to smuggling. In the revenue act of June 29,\n1767, it expressly authorized the superior courts of the colonies to\nissue \"writs of assistance,\" empowering customs officers to enter \"any\nhouse, warehouse, shop, cellar, or other place in the British colonies\nor plantations in America to search for and seize\" prohibited or\nsmuggled goods.\n\nThe writ of assistance, which was a general search warrant issued to\nrevenue officers, was an ancient device hateful to a people who\ncherished the spirit of personal independence and who had made actual\ngains in the practice of civil liberty. To allow a \"minion of the law\"\nto enter a man's house and search his papers and premises, was too much\nfor the emotions of people who had fled to America in a quest for\nself-government and free homes, who had braved such hardships to\nestablish them, and who wanted to trade without official interference.\n\nThe writ of assistance had been used in Massachusetts in 1755 to prevent\nillicit trade with Canada and had aroused a violent hostility at that\ntime. In 1761 it was again the subject of a bitter controversy which\narose in connection with the application of a customs officer to a\nMassachusetts court for writs of assistance \"as usual.\" This application\nwas vainly opposed by James Otis in a speech of five hours' duration--a\nspeech of such fire and eloquence that it sent every man who heard it\naway \"ready to take up arms against writs of assistance.\" Otis denounced\nthe practice as an exercise of arbitrary power which had cost one king\nhis head and another his throne, a tyrant's device which placed the\nliberty of every man in jeopardy, enabling any petty officer to work\npossible malice on any innocent citizen on the merest suspicion, and to\nspread terror and desolation through the land. \"What a scene,\" he\nexclaimed, \"does this open! Every man, prompted by revenge, ill-humor,\nor wantonness to inspect the inside of his neighbor's house, may get a\nwrit of assistance. Others will ask it from self-defense; one arbitrary\nexertion will provoke another until society is involved in tumult and\nblood.\" He did more than attack the writ itself. He said that Parliament\ncould not establish it because it was against the British constitution.\nThis was an assertion resting on slender foundation, but it was quickly\nechoed by the people. Then and there James Otis sounded the call to\nAmerica to resist the exercise of arbitrary power by royal officers.\n\"Then and there,\" wrote John Adams, \"the child Independence was born.\"\nSuch was the hated writ that Townshend proposed to put into the hands of\ncustoms officers in his grim determination to enforce the law.\n\n=The New York Assembly Suspended.=--In the very month that Townshend's\nActs were signed by the king, Parliament took a still more drastic step.\nThe assembly of New York, protesting against the \"ruinous and\ninsupportable\" expense involved, had failed to make provision for the\ncare of British troops in accordance with the terms of the Quartering\nAct. Parliament therefore suspended the assembly until it promised to\nobey the law. It was not until a third election was held that compliance\nwith the Quartering Act was wrung from the reluctant province. In the\nmeantime, all the colonies had learned on how frail a foundation their\nrepresentative bodies rested.\n\n\nRENEWED RESISTANCE IN AMERICA\n\n=The Massachusetts Circular (1768).=--Massachusetts, under the\nleadership of Samuel Adams, resolved to resist the policy of renewed\nintervention in America. At his suggestion the assembly adopted a\nCircular Letter addressed to the assemblies of the other colonies\ninforming them of the state of affairs in Massachusetts and roundly\ncondemning the whole British program. The Circular Letter declared that\nParliament had no right to lay taxes on Americans without their consent\nand that the colonists could not, from the nature of the case, be\nrepresented in Parliament. It went on shrewdly to submit to\nconsideration the question as to whether any people could be called free\nwho were subjected to governors and judges appointed by the crown and\npaid out of funds raised independently. It invited the other colonies,\nin the most temperate tones, to take thought about the common\npredicament in which they were all placed.\n\n[Illustration: _From an old print._\n\nSAMUEL ADAMS]\n\n=The Dissolution of Assemblies.=--The governor of Massachusetts, hearing\nof the Circular Letter, ordered the assembly to rescind its appeal. On\nmeeting refusal, he promptly dissolved it. The Maryland, Georgia, and\nSouth Carolina assemblies indorsed the Circular Letter and were also\ndissolved at once. The Virginia House of Burgesses, thoroughly aroused,\npassed resolutions on May 16, 1769, declaring that the sole right of\nimposing taxes in Virginia was vested in its legislature, asserting anew\nthe right of petition to the crown, condemning the transportation of\npersons accused of crimes or trial beyond the seas, and beseeching the\nking for a redress of the general grievances. The immediate dissolution\nof the Virginia assembly, in its turn, was the answer of the royal\ngovernor.\n\n=The Boston Massacre.=--American opposition to the British authorities\nkept steadily rising as assemblies were dissolved, the houses of\ncitizens searched, and troops distributed in increasing numbers among\nthe centers of discontent. Merchants again agreed not to import British\ngoods, the Sons of Liberty renewed their agitation, and women set about\nthe patronage of home products still more loyally.\n\nOn the night of March 5, 1770, a crowd on the streets of Boston began to\njostle and tease some British regulars stationed in the town. Things\nwent from bad to worse until some \"boys and young fellows\" began to\nthrow snowballs and stones. Then the exasperated soldiers fired into the\ncrowd, killing five and wounding half a dozen more. The day after the\n\"massacre,\" a mass meeting was held in the town and Samuel Adams was\nsent to demand the withdrawal of the soldiers. The governor hesitated\nand tried to compromise. Finding Adams relentless, the governor yielded\nand ordered the regulars away.\n\nThe Boston Massacre stirred the country from New Hampshire to Georgia.\nPopular passions ran high. The guilty soldiers were charged with murder.\nTheir defense was undertaken, in spite of the wrath of the populace, by\nJohn Adams and Josiah Quincy, who as lawyers thought even the worst\n\noffenders entitled to their full rights in law. In his speech to the\njury, however, Adams warned the British government against its course,\nsaying, that \"from the nature of things soldiers quartered in a populous\ntown will always occasion two mobs where they will prevent one.\" Two of\nthe soldiers were convicted and lightly punished.\n\n=Resistance in the South.=--The year following the Boston Massacre some\ncitizens of North Carolina, goaded by the conduct of the royal governor,\nopenly resisted his authority. Many were killed as a result and seven\nwho were taken prisoners were hanged as traitors. A little later royal\ntroops and local militia met in a pitched battle near Alamance River,\ncalled the \"Lexington of the South.\"\n\n=The _Gaspee_ Affair and the Virginia Resolutions of 1773.=--On sea as\nwell as on land, friction between the royal officers and the colonists\nbroke out into overt acts. While patrolling Narragansett Bay looking for\nsmugglers one day in 1772, the armed ship, _Gaspee_, ran ashore and was\ncaught fast. During the night several men from Providence boarded the\nvessel and, after seizing the crew, set it on fire. A royal commission,\nsent to Rhode Island to discover the offenders and bring them to\naccount, failed because it could not find a single informer. The very\nappointment of such a commission aroused the patriots of Virginia to\naction; and in March, 1773, the House of Burgesses passed a resolution\ncreating a standing committee of correspondence to develop cooperation\namong the colonies in resistance to British measures.\n\n=The Boston Tea Party.=--Although the British government, finding the\nTownshend revenue act a failure, repealed in 1770 all the duties except\nthat on tea, it in no way relaxed its resolve to enforce the other\ncommercial regulations it had imposed on the colonies. Moreover,\nParliament decided to relieve the British East India Company of the\nfinancial difficulties into which it had fallen partly by reason of the\nTea Act and the colonial boycott that followed. In 1773 it agreed to\nreturn to the Company the regular import duties, levied in England, on\nall tea transshipped to America. A small impost of three pence, to be\ncollected in America, was left as a reminder of the principle laid down\nin the Declaratory Act that Parliament had the right to tax the\ncolonists.\n\nThis arrangement with the East India Company was obnoxious to the\ncolonists for several reasons. It was an act of favoritism for one\nthing, in the interest of a great monopoly. For another thing, it\npromised to dump on the American market, suddenly, an immense amount of\ncheap tea and so cause heavy losses to American merchants who had large\nstocks on hand. It threatened with ruin the business of all those who\nwere engaged in clandestine trade with the Dutch. It carried with it an\nirritating tax of three pence on imports. In Charleston, Annapolis, New\nYork, and Boston, captains of ships who brought tea under this act were\nroughly handled. One night in December, 1773, a band of Boston citizens,\ndisguised as Indians, boarded the hated tea ships and dumped the cargo\ninto the harbor. This was serious business, for it was open, flagrant,\ndetermined violation of the law. As such the British government viewed\nit.\n\n\nRETALIATION BY THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT\n\n=Reception of the News of the Tea Riot.=--The news of the tea riot in\nBoston confirmed King George in his conviction that there should be no\nsoft policy in dealing with his American subjects. \"The die is cast,\" he\nstated with evident satisfaction. \"The colonies must either triumph or\nsubmit.... If we take the resolute part, they will undoubtedly be very\nmeek.\" Lord George Germain characterized the tea party as \"the\nproceedings of a tumultuous and riotous rabble who ought, if they had\nthe least prudence, to follow their mercantile employments and not\ntrouble themselves with politics and government, which they do not\nunderstand.\" This expressed, in concise form, exactly the sentiments of\nLord North, who had then for three years been the king's chief minister.\nEven Pitt, Lord Chatham, was prepared to support the government in\nupholding its authority.\n\n=The Five Intolerable Acts.=--Parliament, beginning on March 31, 1774,\npassed five stringent measures, known in American history as the five\n\"intolerable acts.\" They were aimed at curing the unrest in America. The\n_first_ of them was a bill absolutely shutting the port of Boston to\ncommerce with the outside world. The _second_, following closely,\nrevoked the Massachusetts charter of 1691 and provided furthermore that\nthe councilors should be appointed by the king, that all judges should\nbe named by the royal governor, and that town meetings (except to elect\ncertain officers) could not be held without the governor's consent. A\n_third_ measure, after denouncing the \"utter subversion of all lawful\ngovernment\" in the provinces, authorized royal agents to transfer to\nGreat Britain or to other colonies the trials of officers or other\npersons accused of murder in connection with the enforcement of the law.\nThe _fourth_ act legalized the quartering of troops in Massachusetts\ntowns. The _fifth_ of the measures was the Quebec Act, which granted\nreligious toleration to the Catholics in Canada, extended the boundaries\nof Quebec southward to the Ohio River, and established, in this western\nregion, government by a viceroy.\n\nThe intolerable acts went through Parliament with extraordinary\ncelerity. There was an opposition, alert and informed; but it was\nineffective. Burke spoke eloquently against the Boston port bill,\ncondemning it roundly for punishing the innocent with the guilty, and\nshowing how likely it was to bring grave consequences in its train. He\nwas heard with respect and his pleas were rejected. The bill passed both\nhouses without a division, the entry \"unanimous\" being made upon their\njournals although it did not accurately represent the state of opinion.\nThe law destroying the charter of Massachusetts passed the Commons by a\nvote of three to one; and the third intolerable act by a vote of four to\none. The triumph of the ministry was complete. \"What passed in Boston,\"\nexclaimed the great jurist, Lord Mansfield, \"is the overt act of High\nTreason proceeding from our over lenity and want of foresight.\" The\ncrown and Parliament were united in resorting to punitive measures.\n\nIn the colonies the laws were received with consternation. To the\nAmerican Protestants, the Quebec Act was the most offensive. That\nproject they viewed not as an act of grace or of mercy but as a direct\nattempt to enlist French Canadians on the side of Great Britain. The\nBritish government did not grant religious toleration to Catholics\neither at home or in Ireland and the Americans could see no good motive\nin granting it in North America. The act was also offensive because\nMassachusetts, Connecticut, and Virginia had, under their charters,\nlarge claims in the territory thus annexed to Quebec.\n\nTo enforce these intolerable acts the military arm of the British\ngovernment was brought into play. The commander-in-chief of the armed\nforces in America, General Gage, was appointed governor of\nMassachusetts. Reinforcements were brought to the colonies, for now King\nGeorge was to give \"the rebels,\" as he called them, a taste of strong\nmedicine. The majesty of his law was to be vindicated by force.\n\n\nFROM REFORM TO REVOLUTION IN AMERICA\n\n=The Doctrine of Natural Rights.=--The dissolution of assemblies, the\ndestruction of charters, and the use of troops produced in the colonies\na new phase in the struggle. In the early days of the contest with the\nBritish ministry, the Americans spoke of their \"rights as Englishmen\"\nand condemned the acts of Parliament as unlawful, as violating the\nprinciples of the English constitution under which they all lived. When\nthey saw that such arguments had no effect on Parliament, they turned\nfor support to their \"natural rights.\" The latter doctrine, in the form\nin which it was employed by the colonists, was as English as the\nconstitutional argument. John Locke had used it with good effect in\ndefense of the English revolution in the seventeenth century. American\nleaders, familiar with the writings of Locke, also took up his thesis in\nthe hour of their distress. They openly declared that their rights did\nnot rest after all upon the English constitution or a charter from the\ncrown. \"Old Magna Carta was not the beginning of all things,\" retorted\nOtis when the constitutional argument failed. \"A time may come when\nParliament shall declare every American charter void, but the natural,\ninherent, and inseparable rights of the colonists as men and as citizens\nwould remain and whatever became of charters can never be abolished\nuntil the general conflagration.\" Of the same opinion was the young and\nimpetuous Alexander Hamilton. \"The sacred rights of mankind,\" he\nexclaimed, \"are not to be rummaged for among old parchments or musty\nrecords. They are written as with a sunbeam in the whole volume of human\ndestiny by the hand of divinity itself, and can never be erased or\nobscured by mortal power.\"\n\nFirm as the American leaders were in the statement and defense of their\nrights, there is every reason for believing that in the beginning they\nhoped to confine the conflict to the realm of opinion. They constantly\navowed that they were loyal to the king when protesting in the strongest\nlanguage against his policies. Even Otis, regarded by the loyalists as a\nfirebrand, was in fact attempting to avert revolution by winning\nconcessions from England. \"I argue this cause with the greater\npleasure,\" he solemnly urged in his speech against the writs of\nassistance, \"as it is in favor of British liberty ... and as it is in\nopposition to a kind of power, the exercise of which in former periods\ncost one king of England his head and another his throne.\"\n\n=Burke Offers the Doctrine of Conciliation.=--The flooding tide of\nAmerican sentiment was correctly measured by one Englishman at least,\nEdmund Burke, who quickly saw that attempts to restrain the rise of\nAmerican democracy were efforts to reverse the processes of nature. He\nsaw how fixed and rooted in the nature of things was the American\nspirit--how inevitable, how irresistible. He warned his countrymen that\nthere were three ways of handling the delicate situation--and only\nthree. One was to remove the cause of friction by changing the spirit of\nthe colonists--an utter impossibility because that spirit was grounded\nin the essential circumstances of American life. The second was to\nprosecute American leaders as criminals; of this he begged his\ncountrymen to beware lest the colonists declare that \"a government\nagainst which a claim of liberty is tantamount to high treason is a\ngovernment to which submission is equivalent to slavery.\" The third and\nright way to meet the problem, Burke concluded, was to accept the\nAmerican spirit, repeal the obnoxious measures, and receive the colonies\ninto equal partnership.\n\n=Events Produce the Great Decision.=--The right way, indicated by Burke,\nwas equally impossible to George III and the majority in Parliament. To\ntheir narrow minds, American opinion was contemptible and American\nresistance unlawful, riotous, and treasonable. The correct way, in their\nview, was to dispatch more troops to crush the \"rebels\"; and that very\nact took the contest from the realm of opinion. As John Adams said:\n\"Facts are stubborn things.\" Opinions were unseen, but marching soldiers\nwere visible to the veriest street urchin. \"Now,\" said Gouverneur\nMorris, \"the sheep, simple as they are, cannot be gulled as heretofore.\"\nIt was too late to talk about the excellence of the British\nconstitution. If any one is bewildered by the controversies of modern\nhistorians as to why the crisis came at last, he can clarify his\nunderstanding by reading again Edmund Burke's stately oration, _On\nConciliation with America_.\n\n\n=References=\n\nG.L. Beer, _British Colonial Policy_ (1754-63).\n\nE. Channing, _History of the United States_, Vol. III.\n\nR. Frothingham, _Rise of the Republic_.\n\nG.E. Howard, _Preliminaries of the Revolution_ (American Nation Series).\n\nJ.K. Hosmer, _Samuel Adams_.\n\nJ.T. Morse, _Benjamin Franklin_.\n\nM.C. Tyler, _Patrick Henry_.\n\nJ.A. Woodburn (editor), _The American Revolution_ (Selections from the\nEnglish work by Lecky).\n\n\n=Questions=\n\n1. Show how the character of George III made for trouble with the\ncolonies.\n\n2. Explain why the party and parliamentary systems of England favored\nthe plans of George III.\n\n3. How did the state of English finances affect English policy?\n\n4. Enumerate five important measures of the English government affecting\nthe colonies between 1763 and 1765. Explain each in detail.\n\n5. Describe American resistance to the Stamp Act. What was the outcome?\n\n6. Show how England renewed her policy of regulation in 1767.\n\n7. Summarize the events connected with American resistance.\n\n8. With what measures did Great Britain retaliate?\n\n9. Contrast \"constitutional\" with \"natural\" rights.\n\n10. What solution did Burke offer? Why was it rejected?\n\n\n=Research Topics=\n\n=Powers Conferred on Revenue Officers by Writs of Assistance.=--See a\nwrit in Macdonald, _Source Book_, p. 109.\n\n=The Acts of Parliament Respecting America.=--Macdonald, pp. 117-146.\nAssign one to each student for report and comment.\n\n=Source Studies on the Stamp Act.=--Hart, _American History Told by\nContemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 394-412.\n\n=Source Studies of the Townshend Acts.=--Hart, Vol. II, pp. 413-433.\n\n=American Principles.=--Prepare a table of them from the Resolutions of\nthe Stamp Act Congress and the Massachusetts Circular. Macdonald, pp.\n136-146.\n\n=An English Historian's View of the Period.=--Green, _Short History of\nEngland_, Chap. X.\n\n=English Policy Not Injurious to America.=--Callender, _Economic\nHistory_, pp. 85-121.\n\n=A Review of English Policy.=--Woodrow Wilson, _History of the American\nPeople_, Vol. II, pp. 129-170.\n\n=The Opening of the Revolution.=--Elson, _History of the United States_,\npp. 220-235.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VI\n\nTHE AMERICAN REVOLUTION\n\n\nRESISTANCE AND RETALIATION\n\n=The Continental Congress.=--When the news of the \"intolerable acts\"\nreached America, every one knew what strong medicine Parliament was\nprepared to administer to all those who resisted its authority. The\ncause of Massachusetts became the cause of all the colonies. Opposition\nto British policy, hitherto local and spasmodic, now took on a national\ncharacter. To local committees and provincial conventions was added a\nContinental Congress, appropriately called by Massachusetts on June 17,\n1774, at the instigation of Samuel Adams. The response to the summons\nwas electric. By hurried and irregular methods delegates were elected\nduring the summer, and on September 5 the Congress duly assembled in\nCarpenter's Hall in Philadelphia. Many of the greatest men in America\nwere there--George Washington and Patrick Henry from Virginia and John\nand Samuel Adams from Massachusetts. Every shade of opinion was\nrepresented. Some were impatient with mild devices; the majority favored\nmoderation.\n\nThe Congress drew up a declaration of American rights and stated in\nclear and dignified language the grievances of the colonists. It\napproved the resistance to British measures offered by Massachusetts and\npromised the united support of all sections. It prepared an address to\nKing George and another to the people of England, disavowing the idea of\nindependence but firmly attacking the policies pursued by the British\ngovernment.\n\n=The Non-Importation Agreement.=--The Congress was not content, however,\nwith professions of faith and with petitions. It took one revolutionary\nstep. It agreed to stop the importation of British goods into America,\nand the enforcement of this agreement it placed in the hands of local\n\"committees of safety and inspection,\" to be elected by the qualified\nvoters. The significance of this action is obvious. Congress threw\nitself athwart British law. It made a rule to bind American citizens and\nto be carried into effect by American officers. It set up a state within\nthe British state and laid down a test of allegiance to the new order.\nThe colonists, who up to this moment had been wavering, had to choose\none authority or the other. They were for the enforcement of the\nnon-importation agreement or they were against it. They either bought\nEnglish goods or they did not. In the spirit of the toast--\"May Britain\nbe wise and America be free\"--the first Continental Congress adjourned\nin October, having appointed the tenth of May following for the meeting\nof a second Congress, should necessity require.\n\n=Lord North's \"Olive Branch.\"=--When the news of the action of the\nAmerican Congress reached England, Pitt and Burke warmly urged a repeal\nof the obnoxious laws, but in vain. All they could wring from the prime\nminister, Lord North, was a set of \"conciliatory resolutions\" proposing\nto relieve from taxation any colony that would assume its share of\nimperial defense and make provision for supporting the local officers of\nthe crown. This \"olive branch\" was accompanied by a resolution assuring\nthe king of support at all hazards in suppressing the rebellion and by\nthe restraining act of March 30, 1775, which in effect destroyed the\ncommerce of New England.\n\n=Bloodshed at Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775).=--Meanwhile the\nBritish authorities in Massachusetts relaxed none of their efforts in\nupholding British sovereignty. General Gage, hearing that military\nstores had been collected at Concord, dispatched a small force to seize\nthem. By this act he precipitated the conflict he had sought to avoid.\nAt Lexington, on the road to Concord, occurred \"the little thing\" that\nproduced \"the great event.\" An unexpected collision beyond the thought\nor purpose of any man had transferred the contest from the forum to the\nbattle field.\n\n=The Second Continental Congress.=--Though blood had been shed and war\nwas actually at hand, the second Continental Congress, which met at\nPhiladelphia in May, 1775, was not yet convinced that conciliation was\nbeyond human power. It petitioned the king to interpose on behalf of the\ncolonists in order that the empire might avoid the calamities of civil\nwar. On the last day of July, it made a temperate but firm answer to\nLord North's offer of conciliation, stating that the proposal was\nunsatisfactory because it did not renounce the right to tax or repeal\nthe offensive acts of Parliament.\n\n=Force, the British Answer.=--Just as the representatives of America\nwere about to present the last petition of Congress to the king on\nAugust 23, 1775, George III issued a proclamation of rebellion. This\nannouncement declared that the colonists, \"misled by dangerous and\nill-designing men,\" were in a state of insurrection; it called on the\ncivil and military powers to bring \"the traitors to justice\"; and it\nthreatened with \"condign punishment the authors, perpetrators, and\nabettors of such traitorous designs.\" It closed with the usual prayer:\n\"God, save the king.\" Later in the year, Parliament passed a sweeping\nact destroying all trade and intercourse with America. Congress was\nsilent at last. Force was also America's answer.\n\n\nAMERICAN INDEPENDENCE\n\n=Drifting into War.=--Although the Congress had not given up all hope of\nreconciliation in the spring and summer of 1775, it had firmly resolved\nto defend American rights by arms if necessary. It transformed the\nmilitiamen who had assembled near Boston, after the battle of Lexington,\ninto a Continental army and selected Washington as commander-in-chief.\nIt assumed the powers of a government and prepared to raise money, wage\nwar, and carry on diplomatic relations with foreign countries.\n\n[Illustration: _From an old print_\n\nSPIRIT OF 1776]\n\nEvents followed thick and fast. On June 17, the American militia, by\nthe stubborn defense of Bunker Hill, showed that it could make British\nregulars pay dearly for all they got. On July 3, Washington took command\nof the army at Cambridge. In January, 1776, after bitter disappointments\nin drumming up recruits for its army in England, Scotland, and Ireland,\nthe British government concluded a treaty with the Landgrave of\nHesse-Cassel in Germany contracting, at a handsome figure, for thousands\nof soldiers and many pieces of cannon. This was the crowning insult to\nAmerica. Such was the view of all friends of the colonies on both sides\nof the water. Such was, long afterward, the judgment of the conservative\nhistorian Lecky: \"The conduct of England in hiring German mercenaries to\nsubdue the essentially English population beyond the Atlantic made\nreconciliation hopeless and independence inevitable.\" The news of this\nwretched transaction in German soldiers had hardly reached America\nbefore there ran all down the coast the thrilling story that Washington\nhad taken Boston, on March 17, 1776, compelling Lord Howe to sail with\nhis entire army for Halifax.\n\n=The Growth of Public Sentiment in Favor of Independence.=--Events were\nbearing the Americans away from their old position under the British\nconstitution toward a final separation. Slowly and against their\ndesires, prudent and honorable men, who cherished the ties that united\nthem to the old order and dreaded with genuine horror all thought of\nrevolution, were drawn into the path that led to the great decision. In\nall parts of the country and among all classes, the question of the hour\nwas being debated. \"American independence,\" as the historian Bancroft\nsays, \"was not an act of sudden passion nor the work of one man or one\nassembly. It had been discussed in every part of the country by farmers\nand merchants, by mechanics and planters, by the fishermen along the\ncoast and the backwoodsmen of the West; in town meetings and from the\npulpit; at social gatherings and around the camp fires; in county\nconventions and conferences or committees; in colonial congresses and\nassemblies.\"\n\n[Illustration: _From an old print_\n\nTHOMAS PAINE]\n\n=Paine's \"Commonsense.\"=--In the midst of this ferment of American\nopinion, a bold and eloquent pamphleteer broke in upon the hesitating\npublic with a program for absolute independence, without fears and\nwithout apologies. In the early days of 1776, Thomas Paine issued the\nfirst of his famous tracts, \"Commonsense,\" a passionate attack upon the\nBritish monarchy and an equally passionate plea for American liberty.\nCasting aside the language of petition with which Americans had hitherto\naddressed George III, Paine went to the other extreme and assailed him\nwith many a violent epithet. He condemned monarchy itself as a system\nwhich had laid the world \"in blood and ashes.\" Instead of praising the\nBritish constitution under which colonists had been claiming their\nrights, he brushed it aside as ridiculous, protesting that it was \"owing\nto the constitution of the people, not to the constitution of the\ngovernment, that the Crown is not as oppressive in England as in\nTurkey.\"\n\nHaving thus summarily swept away the grounds of allegiance to the old\norder, Paine proceeded relentlessly to an argument for immediate\nseparation from Great Britain. There was nothing in the sphere of\npractical interest, he insisted, which should bind the colonies to the\nmother country. Allegiance to her had been responsible for the many wars\nin which they had been involved. Reasons of trade were not less weighty\nin behalf of independence. \"Our corn will fetch its price in any market\nin Europe and our imported goods must be paid for, buy them where we\nwill.\" As to matters of government, \"it is not in the power of Britain\nto do this continent justice; the business of it will soon be too\nweighty and intricate to be managed with any tolerable degree of\nconvenience by a power so distant from us and so very ignorant of us.\"\n\nThere is accordingly no alternative to independence for America.\n\"Everything that is right or natural pleads for separation. The blood of\nthe slain, the weeping voice of nature cries ''tis time to part.' ...\nArms, the last resort, must decide the contest; the appeal was the\nchoice of the king and the continent hath accepted the challenge.... The\nsun never shone on a cause of greater worth. 'Tis not the affair of a\ncity, a county, a province or a kingdom, but of a continent.... 'Tis not\nthe concern of a day, a year or an age; posterity is involved in the\ncontest and will be more or less affected to the end of time by the\nproceedings now. Now is the seed-time of Continental union, faith, and\nhonor.... O! ye that love mankind! Ye that dare oppose not only the\ntyranny, but the tyrant, stand forth.... Let names of Whig and Tory be\nextinct. Let none other be heard among us than those of a good citizen,\nan open and resolute friend, and a virtuous supporter of the rights of\nmankind and of the free and independent states of America.\" As more than\n100,000 copies were scattered broadcast over the country, patriots\nexclaimed with Washington: \"Sound doctrine and unanswerable reason!\"\n\n=The Drift of Events toward Independence.=--Official support for the\nidea of independence began to come from many quarters. On the tenth of\nFebruary, 1776, Gadsden, in the provincial convention of South Carolina,\nadvocated a new constitution for the colony and absolute independence\nfor all America. The convention balked at the latter but went half way\nby abolishing the system of royal administration and establishing a\ncomplete plan of self-government. A month later, on April 12, the\nneighboring state of North Carolina uttered the daring phrase from which\nothers shrank. It empowered its representatives in the Congress to\nconcur with the delegates of the other colonies in declaring\nindependence. Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Virginia quickly\nresponded to the challenge. The convention of the Old Dominion, on May\n15, instructed its delegates at Philadelphia to propose the independence\nof the United Colonies and to give the assent of Virginia to the act of\nseparation. When the resolution was carried the British flag on the\nstate house was lowered for all time.\n\nMeanwhile the Continental Congress was alive to the course of events\noutside. The subject of independence was constantly being raised. \"Are\nwe rebels?\" exclaimed Wyeth of Virginia during a debate in February.\n\"No: we must declare ourselves a free people.\" Others hesitated and\nspoke of waiting for the arrival of commissioners of conciliation. \"Is\nnot America already independent?\" asked Samuel Adams a few weeks later.\n\"Why not then declare it?\" Still there was uncertainty and delegates\navoided the direct word. A few more weeks elapsed. At last, on May 10,\nCongress declared that the authority of the British crown in America\nmust be suppressed and advised the colonies to set up governments of\ntheir own.\n\n[Illustration: _From an old print_\n\nTHOMAS JEFFERSON READING HIS DRAFT OF THE DECLARATION OF\nINDEPENDENCE TO THE COMMITTEE OF CONGRESS]\n\n=Independence Declared.=--The way was fully prepared, therefore, when,\non June 7, the Virginia delegation in the Congress moved that \"these\nunited colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent\nstates.\" A committee was immediately appointed to draft a formal\ndocument setting forth the reasons for the act, and on July 2 all the\nstates save New York went on record in favor of severing their political\nconnection with Great Britain. Two days later, July 4, Jefferson's draft\nof the Declaration of Independence, changed in some slight particulars,\nwas adopted. The old bell in Independence Hall, as it is now known, rang\nout the glad tidings; couriers swiftly carried the news to the uttermost\nhamlet and farm. A new nation announced its will to have a place among\nthe powers of the world.\n\nTo some documents is given immortality. The Declaration of Independence\nis one of them. American patriotism is forever associated with it; but\npatriotism alone does not make it immortal. Neither does the vigor of\nits language or the severity of its indictment give it a secure place in\nthe records of time. The secret of its greatness lies in the simple fact\nthat it is one of the memorable landmarks in the history of a political\nideal which for three centuries has been taking form and spreading\nthroughout the earth, challenging kings and potentates, shaking down\nthrones and aristocracies, breaking the armies of irresponsible power on\nbattle fields as far apart as Marston Moor and Chateau-Thierry. That\nideal, now so familiar, then so novel, is summed up in the simple\nsentence: \"Governments derive their just powers from the consent of the\ngoverned.\"\n\nWritten in a \"decent respect for the opinions of mankind,\" to set forth\nthe causes which impelled the American colonists to separate from\nBritain, the Declaration contained a long list of \"abuses and\nusurpations\" which had induced them to throw off the government of King\nGeorge. That section of the Declaration has passed into \"ancient\"\nhistory and is seldom read. It is the part laying down a new basis for\ngovernment and giving a new dignity to the common man that has become a\nhousehold phrase in the Old World as in the New.\n\nIn the more enduring passages there are four fundamental ideas which,\nfrom the standpoint of the old system of government, were the essence of\nrevolution: (1) all men are created equal and are endowed by their\nCreator with certain unalienable rights including life, liberty, and the\npursuit of happiness; (2) the purpose of government is to secure these\nrights; (3) governments derive their just powers from the consent of the\ngoverned; (4) whenever any form of government becomes destructive of\nthese ends it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it and\ninstitute new government, laying its foundations on such principles and\norganizing its powers in such form as to them shall seem most likely to\neffect their safety and happiness. Here was the prelude to the historic\ndrama of democracy--a challenge to every form of government and every\nprivilege not founded on popular assent.\n\n\nTHE ESTABLISHMENT OF GOVERNMENT AND THE NEW ALLEGIANCE\n\n=The Committees of Correspondence.=--As soon as debate had passed into\narmed resistance, the patriots found it necessary to consolidate their\nforces by organizing civil government. This was readily effected, for\nthe means were at hand in town meetings, provincial legislatures, and\ncommittees of correspondence. The working tools of the Revolution were\nin fact the committees of correspondence--small, local, unofficial\ngroups of patriots formed to exchange views and create public sentiment.\nAs early as November, 1772, such a committee had been created in Boston\nunder the leadership of Samuel Adams. It held regular meetings, sent\nemissaries to neighboring towns, and carried on a campaign of education\nin the doctrines of liberty.\n\n[Illustration: THE COLONIES OF NORTH AMERICA AT THE TIME OF THE\nDECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE]\n\nUpon local organizations similar in character to the Boston committee\nwere built county committees and then the larger colonial committees,\ncongresses, and conventions, all unofficial and representing the\nrevolutionary elements. Ordinarily the provincial convention was merely\nthe old legislative assembly freed from all royalist sympathizers and\ncontrolled by patriots. Finally, upon these colonial assemblies was\nbuilt the Continental Congress, the precursor of union under the\nArticles of Confederation and ultimately under the Constitution of the\nUnited States. This was the revolutionary government set up within the\nBritish empire in America.\n\n=State Constitutions Framed.=--With the rise of these new assemblies of\nthe people, the old colonial governments broke down. From the royal\nprovinces the governor, the judges, and the high officers fled in haste,\nand it became necessary to substitute patriot authorities. The appeal to\nthe colonies advising them to adopt a new form of government for\nthemselves, issued by the Congress in May, 1776, was quickly acted upon.\nBefore the expiration of a year, Virginia, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,\nDelaware, Maryland, Georgia, and New York had drafted new constitutions\nas states, not as colonies uncertain of their destinies. Connecticut and\nRhode Island, holding that their ancient charters were equal to their\nneeds, merely renounced their allegiance to the king and went on as\nbefore so far as the form of government was concerned. South Carolina,\nwhich had drafted a temporary plan early in 1776, drew up a new and more\ncomplete constitution in 1778. Two years later Massachusetts with much\ndeliberation put into force its fundamental law, which in most of its\nessential features remains unchanged to-day.\n\nThe new state constitutions in their broad outlines followed colonial\nmodels. For the royal governor was substituted a governor or president\nchosen usually by the legislature; but in two instances, New York and\nMassachusetts, by popular vote. For the provincial council there was\nsubstituted, except in Georgia, a senate; while the lower house, or\nassembly, was continued virtually without change. The old property\nrestriction on the suffrage, though lowered slightly in some states, was\ncontinued in full force to the great discontent of the mechanics thus\ndeprived of the ballot. The special qualifications, laid down in several\nconstitutions, for governors, senators, and representatives, indicated\nthat the revolutionary leaders were not prepared for any radical\nexperiments in democracy. The protests of a few women, like Mrs. John\nAdams of Massachusetts and Mrs. Henry Corbin of Virginia, against a\ngovernment which excluded them from political rights were treated as\nmild curiosities of no significance, although in New Jersey women were\nallowed to vote for many years on the same terms as men.\n\nBy the new state constitutions the signs and symbols of royal power, of\nauthority derived from any source save \"the people,\" were swept aside\nand republican governments on an imposing scale presented for the first\ntime to the modern world. Copies of these remarkable documents prepared\nby plain citizens were translated into French and widely circulated in\nEurope. There they were destined to serve as a guide and inspiration to\na generation of constitution-makers whose mission it was to begin the\ndemocratic revolution in the Old World.\n\n=The Articles of Confederation.=--The formation of state constitutions\nwas an easy task for the revolutionary leaders. They had only to build\non foundations already laid. The establishment of a national system of\ngovernment was another matter. There had always been, it must be\nremembered, a system of central control over the colonies, but Americans\nhad had little experience in its operation. When the supervision of the\ncrown of Great Britain was suddenly broken, the patriot leaders,\naccustomed merely to provincial statesmanship, were poorly trained for\naction on a national stage.\n\nMany forces worked against those who, like Franklin, had a vision of\nnational destiny. There were differences in economic interest--commerce\nand industry in the North and the planting system of the South. There\nwere contests over the apportionment of taxes and the quotas of troops\nfor common defense. To these practical difficulties were added local\npride, the vested rights of state and village politicians in their\nprovincial dignity, and the scarcity of men with a large outlook upon\nthe common enterprise.\n\nNevertheless, necessity compelled them to consider some sort of\nfederation. The second Continental Congress had hardly opened its work\nbefore the most sagacious leaders began to urge the desirability of a\npermanent connection. As early as July, 1775, Congress resolved to go\ninto a committee of the whole on the state of the union, and Franklin,\nundaunted by the fate of his Albany plan of twenty years before, again\npresented a draft of a constitution. Long and desultory debates followed\nand it was not until late in 1777 that Congress presented to the states\nthe Articles of Confederation. Provincial jealousies delayed\nratification, and it was the spring of 1781, a few months before the\nsurrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, when Maryland, the last of the\nstates, approved the Articles. This plan of union, though it was all\nthat could be wrung from the reluctant states, provided for neither a\nchief executive nor a system of federal courts. It created simply a\nCongress of delegates in which each state had an equal voice and gave it\nthe right to call upon the state legislatures for the sinews of\ngovernment--money and soldiers.\n\n=The Application of Tests of Allegiance.=--As the successive steps were\ntaken in the direction of independent government, the patriots devised\nand applied tests designed to discover who were for and who were against\nthe new nation in the process of making. When the first Continental\nCongress agreed not to allow the importation of British goods, it\nprovided for the creation of local committees to enforce the rules. Such\nagencies were duly formed by the choice of men favoring the scheme, all\nopponents being excluded from the elections. Before these bodies those\nwho persisted in buying British goods were summoned and warned or\npunished according to circumstances. As soon as the new state\nconstitutions were put into effect, local committees set to work in the\nsame way to ferret out all who were not outspoken in their support of\nthe new order of things.\n\n[Illustration: MOBBING THE TORIES]\n\nThese patriot agencies, bearing different names in different sections,\nwere sometimes ruthless in their methods. They called upon all men to\nsign the test of loyalty, frequently known as the \"association test.\"\nThose who refused were promptly branded as outlaws, while some of the\nmore dangerous were thrown into jail. The prison camp in Connecticut at\none time held the former governor of New Jersey and the mayor of New\nYork. Thousands were black-listed and subjected to espionage. The\nblack-list of Pennsylvania contained the names of nearly five hundred\npersons of prominence who were under suspicion. Loyalists or Tories who\nwere bold enough to speak and write against the Revolution were\nsuppressed and their pamphlets burned. In many places, particularly in\nthe North, the property of the loyalists was confiscated and the\nproceeds applied to the cause of the Revolution.\n\nThe work of the official agencies for suppression of opposition was\nsometimes supplemented by mob violence. A few Tories were hanged without\ntrial, and others were tarred and feathered. One was placed upon a cake\nof ice and held there \"until his loyalty to King George might cool.\"\nWhole families were driven out of their homes to find their way as best\nthey could within the British lines or into Canada, where the British\ngovernment gave them lands. Such excesses were deplored by Washington,\nbut they were defended on the ground that in effect a civil war, as well\nas a war for independence, was being waged.\n\n=The Patriots and Tories.=--Thus, by one process or another, those who\nwere to be citizens of the new republic were separated from those who\npreferred to be subjects of King George. Just what proportion of the\nAmericans favored independence and what share remained loyal to the\nBritish monarchy there is no way of knowing. The question of revolution\nwas not submitted to popular vote, and on the point of numbers we have\nconflicting evidence. On the patriot side, there is the testimony of a\ncareful and informed observer, John Adams, who asserted that two-thirds\nof the people were for the American cause and not more than one-third\nopposed the Revolution at all stages.\n\nOn behalf of the loyalists, or Tories as they were popularly known,\nextravagant claims were made. Joseph Galloway, who had been a member of\nthe first Continental Congress and had fled to England when he saw its\ntemper, testified before a committee of Parliament in 1779 that not\none-fifth of the American people supported the insurrection and that\n\"many more than four-fifths of the people prefer a union with Great\nBritain upon constitutional principles to independence.\" At the same\ntime General Robertson, who had lived in America twenty-four years,\ndeclared that \"more than two-thirds of the people would prefer the\nking's government to the Congress' tyranny.\" In an address to the king\nin that year a committee of American loyalists asserted that \"the number\nof Americans in his Majesty's army exceeded the number of troops\nenlisted by Congress to oppose them.\"\n\n=The Character of the Loyalists.=--When General Howe evacuated Boston,\nmore than a thousand people fled with him. This great company, according\nto a careful historian, \"formed the aristocracy of the province by\nvirtue of their official rank; of their dignified callings and\nprofessions; of their hereditary wealth and of their culture.\" The act\nof banishment passed by Massachusetts in 1778, listing over 300 Tories,\n\"reads like the social register of the oldest and noblest families of\nNew England,\" more than one out of five being graduates of Harvard\nCollege. The same was true of New York and Philadelphia; namely, that\nthe leading loyalists were prominent officials of the old order,\nclergymen and wealthy merchants. With passion the loyalists fought\nagainst the inevitable or with anguish of heart they left as refugees\nfor a life of uncertainty in Canada or the mother country.\n\n=Tories Assail the Patriots.=--The Tories who remained in America joined\nthe British army by the thousands or in other ways aided the royal\ncause. Those who were skillful with the pen assailed the patriots in\neditorials, rhymes, satires, and political catechisms. They declared\nthat the members of Congress were \"obscure, pettifogging attorneys,\nbankrupt shopkeepers, outlawed smugglers, etc.\" The people and their\nleaders they characterized as \"wretched banditti ... the refuse and\ndregs of mankind.\" The generals in the army they sneered at as \"men of\nrank and honor nearly on a par with those of the Congress.\"\n\n=Patriot Writers Arouse the National Spirit.=--Stung by Tory taunts,\npatriot writers devoted themselves to creating and sustaining a public\nopinion favorable to the American cause. Moreover, they had to combat\nthe depression that grew out of the misfortunes in the early days of the\nwar. A terrible disaster befell Generals Arnold and Montgomery in the\nwinter of 1775 as they attempted to bring Canada into the revolution--a\ndisaster that cost 5000 men; repeated calamities harassed Washington in\n1776 as he was defeated on Long Island, driven out of New York City, and\nbeaten at Harlem Heights and White Plains. These reverses were almost\ntoo great for the stoutest patriots.\n\nPamphleteers, preachers, and publicists rose, however, to meet the needs\nof the hour. John Witherspoon, provost of the College of New Jersey,\nforsook the classroom for the field of political controversy. The poet,\nPhilip Freneau, flung taunts of cowardice at the Tories and celebrated\nthe spirit of liberty in many a stirring poem. Songs, ballads, plays,\nand satires flowed from the press in an unending stream. Fast days,\nbattle anniversaries, celebrations of important steps taken by Congress\nafforded to patriotic clergymen abundant opportunities for sermons.\n\"Does Mr. Wiberd preach against oppression?\" anxiously inquired John\nAdams in a letter to his wife. The answer was decisive. \"The clergy of\nevery denomination, not excepting the Episcopalian, thunder and lighten\nevery Sabbath. They pray for Boston and Massachusetts. They thank God\nmost explicitly and fervently for our remarkable successes. They pray\nfor the American army.\"\n\nThomas Paine never let his pen rest. He had been with the forces of\nWashington when they retreated from Fort Lee and were harried from New\nJersey into Pennsylvania. He knew the effect of such reverses on the\narmy as well as on the public. In December, 1776, he made a second great\nappeal to his countrymen in his pamphlet, \"The Crisis,\" the first part\nof which he had written while defeat and gloom were all about him. This\ntract was a cry for continued support of the Revolution. \"These are the\ntimes that try men's souls,\" he opened. \"The summer soldier and the\nsunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of his\ncountry; but he that stands it now deserves the love and thanks of men\nand women.\" Paine laid his lash fiercely on the Tories, branding every\none as a coward grounded in \"servile, slavish, self-interested fear.\" He\ndeplored the inadequacy of the militia and called for a real army. He\nrefuted the charge that the retreat through New Jersey was a disaster\nand he promised victory soon. \"By perseverance and fortitude,\" he\nconcluded, \"we have the prospect of a glorious issue; by cowardice and\nsubmission the sad choice of a variety of evils--a ravaged country, a\ndepopulated city, habitations without safety and slavery without\nhope.... Look on this picture and weep over it.\" His ringing call to\narms was followed by another and another until the long contest was\nover.\n\n\nMILITARY AFFAIRS\n\n=The Two Phases of the War.=--The war which opened with the battle of\nLexington, on April 19, 1775, and closed with the surrender of\nCornwallis at Yorktown on October 19, 1781, passed through two distinct\nphases--the first lasting until the treaty of alliance with France, in\n1778, and the second until the end of the struggle. During the first\nphase, the war was confined mainly to the North. The outstanding\nfeatures of the contest were the evacuation of Boston by the British,\nthe expulsion of American forces from New York and their retreat through\nNew Jersey, the battle of Trenton, the seizure of Philadelphia by the\nBritish (September, 1777), the invasion of New York by Burgoyne and his\ncapture at Saratoga in October, 1777, and the encampment of American\nforces at Valley Forge for the terrible winter of 1777-78.\n\nThe final phase of the war, opening with the treaty of alliance with\nFrance on February 6, 1778, was confined mainly to the Middle states,\nthe West, and the South. In the first sphere of action the chief events\nwere the withdrawal of the British from Philadelphia, the battle of\nMonmouth, and the inclosure of the British in New York by deploying\nAmerican forces from Morristown, New Jersey, up to West Point. In the\nWest, George Rogers Clark, by his famous march into the Illinois\ncountry, secured Kaskaskia and Vincennes and laid a firm grip on the\ncountry between the Ohio and the Great Lakes. In the South, the second\nperiod opened with successes for the British. They captured Savannah,\nconquered Georgia, and restored the royal governor. In 1780 they seized\nCharleston, administered a crushing defeat to the American forces under\nGates at Camden, and overran South Carolina, though meeting reverses at\nCowpens and King's Mountain. Then came the closing scenes. Cornwallis\nbegan the last of his operations. He pursued General Greene far into\nNorth Carolina, clashed with him at Guilford Court House, retired to the\ncoast, took charge of British forces engaged in plundering Virginia, and\nfortified Yorktown, where he was penned up by the French fleet from the\nsea and the combined French and American forces on land.\n\n=The Geographical Aspects of the War.=--For the British the theater of\nthe war offered many problems. From first to last it extended from\nMassachusetts to Georgia, a distance of almost a thousand miles. It was\nnearly three thousand miles from the main base of supplies and, though\nthe British navy kept the channel open, transports were constantly\nfalling prey to daring privateers and fleet American war vessels. The\nsea, on the other hand, offered an easy means of transportation between\npoints along the coast and gave ready access to the American centers of\nwealth and population. Of this the British made good use. Though early\nforced to give up Boston, they seized New York and kept it until the end\nof the war; they took Philadelphia and retained it until threatened by\nthe approach of the French fleet; and they captured and held both\nSavannah and Charleston. Wars, however, are seldom won by the conquest\nof cities.\n\nParticularly was this true in the case of the Revolution. Only a small\nportion of the American people lived in towns. Countrymen back from the\ncoast were in no way dependent upon them for a livelihood. They lived on\nthe produce of the soil, not upon the profits of trade. This very fact\ngave strength to them in the contest. Whenever the British ventured far\nfrom the ports of entry, they encountered reverses. Burgoyne was forced\nto surrender at Saratoga because he was surrounded and cut off from his\nbase of supplies. As soon as the British got away from Charleston, they\nwere harassed and worried by the guerrilla warriors of Marion, Sumter,\nand Pickens. Cornwallis could technically defeat Greene at Guilford far\nin the interior; but he could not hold the inland region he had invaded.\nSustained by their own labor, possessing the interior to which their\narmies could readily retreat, supplied mainly from native resources, the\nAmericans could not be hemmed in, penned up, and destroyed at one fell\nblow.\n\n=The Sea Power.=--The British made good use of their fleet in cutting\noff American trade, but control of the sea did not seriously affect the\nUnited States. As an agricultural country, the ruin of its commerce was\nnot such a vital matter. All the materials for a comfortable though\nsomewhat rude life were right at hand. It made little difference to a\nnation fighting for existence, if silks, fine linens, and chinaware were\ncut off. This was an evil to which submission was necessary.\n\nNor did the brilliant exploits of John Paul Jones and Captain John Barry\nmaterially change the situation. They demonstrated the skill of American\nseamen and their courage as fighting men. They raised the rates of\nBritish marine insurance, but they did not dethrone the mistress of the\nseas. Less spectacular, and more distinctive, were the deeds of the\nhundreds of privateers and minor captains who overhauled British supply\nships and kept British merchantmen in constant anxiety. Not until the\nFrench fleet was thrown into the scale, were the British compelled to\nreckon seriously with the enemy on the sea and make plans based upon the\npossibilities of a maritime disaster.\n\n=Commanding Officers.=--On the score of military leadership it is\ndifficult to compare the contending forces in the revolutionary contest.\nThere is no doubt that all the British commanders were men of experience\nin the art of warfare. Sir William Howe had served in America during the\nFrench War and was accounted an excellent officer, a strict\ndisciplinarian, and a gallant gentleman. Nevertheless he loved ease,\nsociety, and good living, and his expulsion from Boston, his failure to\noverwhelm Washington by sallies from his comfortable bases at New York\nand Philadelphia, destroyed every shred of his military reputation. John\nBurgoyne, to whom was given the task of penetrating New York from\nCanada, had likewise seen service in the French War both in America and\nEurope. He had, however, a touch of the theatrical in his nature and\nafter the collapse of his plans and the surrender of his army in 1777,\nhe devoted his time mainly to light literature. Sir Henry Clinton, who\ndirected the movement which ended in the capture of Charleston in 1780,\nhad \"learned his trade on the continent,\" and was regarded as a man of\ndiscretion and understanding in military matters. Lord Cornwallis, whose\nachievements at Camden and Guilford were blotted out by his surrender at\nYorktown, had seen service in the Seven Years' War and had undoubted\ntalents which he afterward displayed with great credit to himself in\nIndia. Though none of them, perhaps, were men of first-rate ability,\nthey all had training and experience to guide them.\n\n[Illustration: GEORGE WASHINGTON]\n\nThe Americans had a host in Washington himself. He had long been\ninterested in military strategy and had tested his coolness under fire\nduring the first clashes with the French nearly twenty years before. He\nhad no doubts about the justice of his cause, such as plagued some of\nthe British generals. He was a stern but reasonable disciplinarian. He\nwas reserved and patient, little given to exaltation at success or\ndepression at reverses. In the dark hour of the Revolution, \"what held\nthe patriot forces together?\" asks Beveridge in his _Life of John\nMarshall_. Then he answers: \"George Washington and he alone. Had he\ndied or been seriously disabled, the Revolution would have ended....\nWashington was the soul of the American cause. Washington was the\ngovernment. Washington was the Revolution.\" The weakness of Congress in\nfurnishing men and supplies, the indolence of civilians, who lived at\nease while the army starved, the intrigues of army officers against him\nsuch as the \"Conway cabal,\" the cowardice of Lee at Monmouth, even the\ntreason of Benedict Arnold, while they stirred deep emotions in his\nbreast and aroused him to make passionate pleas to his countrymen, did\nnot shake his iron will or his firm determination to see the war through\nto the bitter end. The weight of Washington's moral force was\nimmeasurable.\n\nOf the generals who served under him, none can really be said to have\nbeen experienced military men when the war opened. Benedict Arnold, the\nunhappy traitor but brave and daring soldier, was a druggist, book\nseller, and ship owner at New Haven when the news of Lexington called\nhim to battle. Horatio Gates was looked upon as a \"seasoned soldier\"\nbecause he had entered the British army as a youth, had been wounded at\nBraddock's memorable defeat, and had served with credit during the Seven\nYears' War; but he was the most conspicuous failure of the Revolution.\nThe triumph over Burgoyne was the work of other men; and his crushing\ndefeat at Camden put an end to his military pretensions. Nathanael\nGreene was a Rhode Island farmer and smith without military experience\nwho, when convinced that war was coming, read Caesar's _Commentaries_ and\ntook up the sword. Francis Marion was a shy and modest planter of South\nCarolina whose sole passage at arms had been a brief but desperate brush\nwith the Indians ten or twelve years earlier. Daniel Morgan, one of the\nheroes of Cowpens, had been a teamster with Braddock's army and had seen\nsome fighting during the French and Indian War, but his military\nknowledge, from the point of view of a trained British officer, was\nnegligible. John Sullivan was a successful lawyer at Durham, New\nHampshire, and a major in the local militia when duty summoned him to\nlay down his briefs and take up the sword. Anthony Wayne was a\nPennsylvania farmer and land surveyor who, on hearing the clash of arms,\nread a few books on war, raised a regiment, and offered himself for\nservice. Such is the story of the chief American military leaders, and\nit is typical of them all. Some had seen fighting with the French and\nIndians, but none of them had seen warfare on a large scale with regular\ntroops commanded according to the strategy evolved in European\nexperience. Courage, native ability, quickness of mind, and knowledge of\nthe country they had in abundance, and in battles such as were fought\nduring the Revolution all those qualities counted heavily in the\nbalance.\n\n=Foreign Officers in American Service.=--To native genius was added\nmilitary talent from beyond the seas. Baron Steuben, well schooled in\nthe iron regime of Frederick the Great, came over from Prussia, joined\nWashington at Valley Forge, and day after day drilled and manoeuvered the\nmen, laughing and cursing as he turned raw countrymen into regular\nsoldiers. From France came young Lafayette and the stern De Kalb, from\nPoland came Pulaski and Kosciusko;--all acquainted with the arts of war\nas waged in Europe and fitted for leadership as well as teaching.\nLafayette came early, in 1776, in a ship of his own, accompanied by\nseveral officers of wide experience, and remained loyally throughout the\nwar sharing the hardships of American army life. Pulaski fell at the\nsiege of Savannah and De Kalb at Camden. Kosciusko survived the American\nwar to defend in vain the independence of his native land. To these\ndistinguished foreigners, who freely threw in their lot with American\nrevolutionary fortunes, was due much of that spirit and discipline which\nfitted raw recruits and temperamental militiamen to cope with a military\npower of the first rank.\n\n=The Soldiers.=--As far as the British soldiers were concerned their\nannals are short and simple. The regulars from the standing army who\nwere sent over at the opening of the contest, the recruits drummed up\nby special efforts at home, and the thousands of Hessians bought\noutright by King George presented few problems of management to the\nBritish officers. These common soldiers were far away from home and\nenlisted for the war. Nearly all of them were well disciplined and many\nof them experienced in actual campaigns. The armies of King George\nfought bravely, as the records of Bunker Hill, Brandywine, and Monmouth\ndemonstrate. Many a man and subordinate officer and, for that matter,\nsome of the high officers expressed a reluctance at fighting against\ntheir own kin; but they obeyed orders.\n\nThe Americans, on the other hand, while they fought with grim\ndetermination, as men fighting for their homes, were lacking in\ndiscipline and in the experience of regular troops. When the war broke\nin upon them, there were no common preparations for it. There was no\ncontinental army; there were only local bands of militiamen, many of\nthem experienced in fighting but few of them \"regulars\" in the military\nsense. Moreover they were volunteers serving for a short time,\nunaccustomed to severe discipline, and impatient at the restraints\nimposed on them by long and arduous campaigns. They were continually\nleaving the service just at the most critical moments. \"The militia,\"\nlamented Washington, \"come in, you cannot tell how; go, you cannot tell\nwhere; consume your provisions; exhaust your stores; and leave you at\nlast at a critical moment.\"\n\nAgain and again Washington begged Congress to provide for an army of\nregulars enlisted for the war, thoroughly trained and paid according to\nsome definite plan. At last he was able to overcome, in part at least,\nthe chronic fear of civilians in Congress and to wring from that\nreluctant body an agreement to grant half pay to all officers and a\nbonus to all privates who served until the end of the war. Even this\nscheme, which Washington regarded as far short of justice to the\nsoldiers, did not produce quick results. It was near the close of the\nconflict before he had an army of well-disciplined veterans capable of\nmeeting British regulars on equal terms.\n\nThough there were times when militiamen and frontiersmen did valiant and\neffective work, it is due to historical accuracy to deny the\ntime-honored tradition that a few minutemen overwhelmed more numerous\nforces of regulars in a seven years' war for independence. They did\nnothing of the sort. For the victories of Bennington, Trenton, Saratoga,\nand Yorktown there were the defeats of Bunker Hill, Long Island, White\nPlains, Germantown, and Camden. Not once did an army of militiamen\novercome an equal number of British regulars in an open trial by battle.\n\"To bring men to be well acquainted with the duties of a soldier,\" wrote\nWashington, \"requires time.... To expect the same service from raw and\nundisciplined recruits as from veteran soldiers is to expect what never\ndid and perhaps never will happen.\"\n\n=How the War Was Won.=--Then how did the American army win the war? For\none thing there were delays and blunders on the part of the British\ngenerals who, in 1775 and 1776, dallied in Boston and New York with\nlarge bodies of regular troops when they might have been dealing\nparalyzing blows at the scattered bands that constituted the American\narmy. \"Nothing but the supineness or folly of the enemy could have saved\nus,\" solemnly averred Washington in 1780. Still it is fair to say that\nthis apparent supineness was not all due to the British generals. The\nministers behind them believed that a large part of the colonists were\nloyal and that compromise would be promoted by inaction rather than by a\nwar vigorously prosecuted. Victory by masterly inactivity was obviously\nbetter than conquest, and the slighter the wounds the quicker the\nhealing. Later in the conflict when the seasoned forces of France were\nthrown into the scale, the Americans themselves had learned many things\nabout the practical conduct of campaigns. All along, the British were\nembarrassed by the problem of supplies. Their troops could not forage\nwith the skill of militiamen, as they were in unfamiliar territory. The\nlong oversea voyages were uncertain at best and doubly so when the\nwarships of France joined the American privateers in preying on supply\nboats.\n\nThe British were in fact battered and worn down by a guerrilla war and\noutdone on two important occasions by superior forces--at Saratoga and\nYorktown. Stern facts convinced them finally that an immense army, which\ncould be raised only by a supreme effort, would be necessary to subdue\nthe colonies if that hazardous enterprise could be accomplished at all.\nThey learned also that America would then be alienated, fretful, and the\nscene of endless uprisings calling for an army of occupation. That was a\nprice which staggered even Lord North and George III. Moreover, there\nwere forces of opposition at home with which they had to reckon.\n\n=Women and the War.=--At no time were the women of America indifferent\nto the struggle for independence. When it was confined to the realm of\nopinion they did their part in creating public sentiment. Mrs. Elizabeth\nTimothee, for example, founded in Charleston, in 1773, a newspaper to\nespouse the cause of the province. Far to the north the sister of James\nOtis, Mrs. Mercy Warren, early begged her countrymen to rest their case\nupon their natural rights, and in influential circles she urged the\nleaders to stand fast by their principles. While John Adams was tossing\nabout with uncertainty at the Continental Congress, his wife was writing\nletters to him declaring her faith in \"independency.\"\n\nWhen the war came down upon the country, women helped in every field. In\nsustaining public sentiment they were active. Mrs. Warren with a\ntireless pen combatted loyalist propaganda in many a drama and satire.\nAlmost every revolutionary leader had a wife or daughter who rendered\nservice in the \"second line of defense.\" Mrs. Washington managed the\nplantation while the General was at the front and went north to face the\nrigors of the awful winter at Valley Forge--an inspiration to her\nhusband and his men. The daughter of Benjamin Franklin, Mrs. Sarah\nBache, while her father was pleading the American cause in France, set\nthe women of Pennsylvania to work sewing and collecting supplies. Even\nnear the firing line women were to be found, aiding the wounded, hauling\npowder to the front, and carrying dispatches at the peril of their\nlives.\n\nIn the economic sphere, the work of women was invaluable. They harvested\ncrops without enjoying the picturesque title of \"farmerettes\" and they\ncanned and preserved for the wounded and the prisoners of war. Of their\nlabor in spinning and weaving it is recorded: \"Immediately on being cut\noff from the use of English manufactures, the women engaged within their\nown families in manufacturing various kinds of cloth for domestic use.\nThey thus kept their households decently clad and the surplus of their\nlabors they sold to such as chose to buy rather than make for\nthemselves. In this way the female part of families by their industry\nand strict economy frequently supported the whole domestic circle,\nevincing the strength of their attachment and the value of their\nservice.\"\n\nFor their war work, women were commended by high authorities on more\nthan one occasion. They were given medals and public testimonials even\nas in our own day. Washington thanked them for their labors and paid\ntribute to them for the inspiration and material aid which they had\ngiven to the cause of independence.\n\n\nTHE FINANCES OF THE REVOLUTION\n\nWhen the Revolution opened, there were thirteen little treasuries in\nAmerica but no common treasury, and from first to last the Congress was\nin the position of a beggar rather than a sovereign. Having no authority\nto lay and collect taxes directly and knowing the hatred of the\nprovincials for taxation, it resorted mainly to loans and paper money to\nfinance the war. \"Do you think,\" boldly inquired one of the delegates,\n\"that I will consent to load my constituents with taxes when we can send\nto the printer and get a wagon load of money, one quire of which will\npay for the whole?\"\n\n=Paper Money and Loans.=--Acting on this curious but appealing political\neconomy, Congress issued in June, 1776, two million dollars in bills of\ncredit to be redeemed by the states on the basis of their respective\npopulations. Other issues followed in quick succession. In all about\n$241,000,000 of continental paper was printed, to which the several\nstates added nearly $210,000,000 of their own notes. Then came\ninterest-bearing bonds in ever increasing quantities. Several millions\nwere also borrowed from France and small sums from Holland and Spain. In\ndesperation a national lottery was held, producing meager results. The\nproperty of Tories was confiscated and sold, bringing in about\n$16,000,000. Begging letters were sent to the states asking them to\nraise revenues for the continental treasury, but the states, burdened\nwith their own affairs, gave little heed.\n\n=Inflation and Depreciation.=--As paper money flowed from the press, it\nrapidly declined in purchasing power until in 1779 a dollar was worth\nonly two or three cents in gold or silver. Attempts were made by\nCongress and the states to compel people to accept the notes at face\nvalue; but these were like attempts to make water flow uphill.\nSpeculators collected at once to fatten on the calamities of the\nrepublic. Fortunes were made and lost gambling on the prices of public\nsecurities while the patriot army, half clothed, was freezing at Valley\nForge. \"Speculation, peculation, engrossing, forestalling,\" exclaimed\nWashington, \"afford too many melancholy proofs of the decay of public\nvirtue. Nothing, I am convinced, but the depreciation of our currency\n... aided by stock jobbing and party dissensions has fed the hopes of\nthe enemy.\"\n\n=The Patriot Financiers.=--To the efforts of Congress in financing the\nwar were added the labors of private citizens. Hayn Solomon, a merchant\nof Philadelphia, supplied members of Congress, including Madison,\nJefferson, and Monroe, and army officers, like Lee and Steuben, with\nmoney for their daily needs. All together he contributed the huge sum of\nhalf a million dollars to the American cause and died broken in purse,\nif not in spirit, a British prisoner of war. Another Philadelphia\nmerchant, Robert Morris, won for himself the name of the \"patriot\nfinancier\" because he labored night and day to find the money to meet\nthe bills which poured in upon the bankrupt government. When his own\nfunds were exhausted, he borrowed from his friends. Experienced in the\nhandling of merchandise, he created agencies at important points to\ndistribute supplies to the troops, thus displaying administrative as\nwell as financial talents.\n\n[Illustration: ROBERT MORRIS]\n\nWomen organized \"drives\" for money, contributed their plate and their\njewels, and collected from door to door. Farmers took worthless paper in\nreturn for their produce, and soldiers saw many a pay day pass without\nyielding them a penny. Thus by the labors and sacrifices of citizens,\nthe issuance of paper money, lotteries, the floating of loans,\nborrowings in Europe, and the impressment of supplies, the Congress\nstaggered through the Revolution like a pauper who knows not how his\nnext meal is to be secured but is continuously relieved at a crisis by a\nkindly fate.\n\n\nTHE DIPLOMACY OF THE REVOLUTION\n\nWhen the full measure of honor is given to the soldiers and sailors and\ntheir commanding officers, the civilians who managed finances and\nsupplies, the writers who sustained the American spirit, and the women\nwho did well their part, there yet remains the duty of recognizing the\nachievements of diplomacy. The importance of this field of activity was\nkeenly appreciated by the leaders in the Continental Congress. They were\nfairly well versed in European history. They knew of the balance of\npower and the sympathies, interests, and prejudices of nations and their\nrulers. All this information they turned to good account, in opening\nrelations with continental countries and seeking money, supplies, and\neven military assistance. For the transaction of this delicate business,\nthey created a secret committee on foreign correspondence as early as\n1775 and prepared to send agents abroad.\n\n=American Agents Sent Abroad.=--Having heard that France was inclining a\nfriendly ear to the American cause, the Congress, in March, 1776, sent a\ncommissioner to Paris, Silas Deane of Connecticut, often styled the\n\"first American diplomat.\" Later in the year a form of treaty to be\npresented to foreign powers was drawn up, and Franklin, Arthur Lee, and\nDeane were selected as American representatives at the court of \"His\nMost Christian Majesty the King of France.\" John Jay of New York was\nchosen minister to Spain in 1779; John Adams was sent to Holland the\nsame year; and other agents were dispatched to Florence, Vienna, and\nBerlin. The representative selected for St. Petersburg spent two\nfruitless years there, \"ignored by the court, living in obscurity and\nexperiencing nothing but humiliation and failure.\" Frederick the Great,\nking of Prussia, expressed a desire to find in America a market for\nSilesian linens and woolens, but, fearing England's command of the sea,\nhe refused to give direct aid to the Revolutionary cause.\n\n=Early French Interest.=--The great diplomatic triumph of the Revolution\nwas won at Paris, and Benjamin Franklin was the hero of the occasion,\nalthough many circumstances prepared the way for his success. Louis\nXVI's foreign minister, Count de Vergennes, before the arrival of any\nAmerican representative, had brought to the attention of the king the\nopportunity offered by the outbreak of the war between England and her\ncolonies. He showed him how France could redress her grievances and\n\"reduce the power and greatness of England\"--the empire that in 1763 had\nforced upon her a humiliating peace \"at the price of our possessions,\nof our commerce, and our credit in the Indies, at the price of Canada,\nLouisiana, Isle Royale, Acadia, and Senegal.\" Equally successful in\ngaining the king's interest was a curious French adventurer,\nBeaumarchais, a man of wealth, a lover of music, and the author of two\npopular plays, \"Figaro\" and \"The Barber of Seville.\" These two men had\nalready urged upon the king secret aid for America before Deane appeared\non the scene. Shortly after his arrival they made confidential\narrangements to furnish money, clothing, powder, and other supplies to\nthe struggling colonies, although official requests for them were\nofficially refused by the French government.\n\n=Franklin at Paris.=--When Franklin reached Paris, he was received only\nin private by the king's minister, Vergennes. The French people,\nhowever, made manifest their affection for the \"plain republican\" in\n\"his full dress suit of spotted Manchester velvet.\" He was known among\nmen of letters as an author, a scientist, and a philosopher of\nextraordinary ability. His \"Poor Richard\" had thrice been translated\ninto French and was scattered in numerous editions throughout the\nkingdom. People of all ranks--ministers, ladies at court, philosophers,\npeasants, and stable boys--knew of Franklin and wished him success in\nhis mission. The queen, Marie Antoinette, fated to lose her head in a\nrevolution soon to follow, played with fire by encouraging \"our dear\nrepublican.\"\n\nFor the king of France, however, this was more serious business. England\nresented the presence of this \"traitor\" in Paris, and Louis had to be\ncautious about plunging into another war that might also end\ndisastrously. Moreover, the early period of Franklin's sojourn in Paris\nwas a dark hour for the American Revolution. Washington's brilliant\nexploit at Trenton on Christmas night, 1776, and the battle with\nCornwallis at Princeton had been followed by the disaster at Brandywine,\nthe loss of Philadelphia, the defeat at Germantown, and the retirement\nto Valley Forge for the winter of 1777-78. New York City and\nPhiladelphia--two strategic ports--were in British hands; the Hudson\nand Delaware rivers were blocked; and General Burgoyne with his British\ntroops was on his way down through the heart of northern New York,\ncutting New England off from the rest of the colonies. No wonder the\nking was cautious. Then the unexpected happened. Burgoyne, hemmed in\nfrom all sides by the American forces, his flanks harried, his foraging\nparties beaten back, his supplies cut off, surrendered on October 17,\n1777, to General Gates, who had superseded General Schuyler in time to\nreceive the honor.\n\n=Treaties of Alliance and Commerce (1778).=--News of this victory,\nplaced by historians among the fifteen decisive battles of the world,\nreached Franklin one night early in December while he and some friends\nsat gloomily at dinner. Beaumarchais, who was with him, grasped at once\nthe meaning of the situation and set off to the court at Versailles with\nsuch haste that he upset his coach and dislocated his arm. The king and\nhis ministers were at last convinced that the hour had come to aid the\nRevolution. Treaties of commerce and alliance were drawn up and signed\nin February, 1778. The independence of the United States was recognized\nby France and an alliance was formed to guarantee that independence.\nCombined military action was agreed upon and Louis then formally\ndeclared war on England. Men who had, a few short years before, fought\none another in the wilderness of Pennsylvania or on the Plains of\nAbraham, were now ranged side by side in a war on the Empire that Pitt\nhad erected and that George III was pulling down.\n\n=Spain and Holland Involved.=--Within a few months, Spain, remembering\nthe steady decline of her sea power since the days of the Armada and\nhoping to drive the British out of Gibraltar, once more joined the\nconcert of nations against England. Holland, a member of a league of\narmed neutrals formed in protest against British searches on the high\nseas, sent her fleet to unite with the forces of Spain, France, and\nAmerica to prey upon British commerce. To all this trouble for England\nwas added the danger of a possible revolt in Ireland, where the spirit\nof independence was flaming up.\n\n=The British Offer Terms to America.=--Seeing the colonists about to be\njoined by France in a common war on the English empire, Lord North\nproposed, in February, 1778, a renewal of negotiations. By solemn\nenactment, Parliament declared its intention not to exercise the right\nof imposing taxes within the colonies; at the same time it authorized\nthe opening of negotiations through commissioners to be sent to America.\nA truce was to be established, pardons granted, objectionable laws\nsuspended, and the old imperial constitution, as it stood before the\nopening of hostilities, restored to full vigor. It was too late. Events\nhad taken the affairs of America out of the hands of British\ncommissioners and diplomats.\n\n=Effects of French Aid.=--The French alliance brought ships of war,\nlarge sums of gold and silver, loads of supplies, and a considerable\nbody of trained soldiers to the aid of the Americans. Timely as was this\nhelp, it meant no sudden change in the fortunes of war. The British\nevacuated Philadelphia in the summer following the alliance, and\nWashington's troops were encouraged to come out of Valley Forge. They\ninflicted a heavy blow on the British at Monmouth, but the treasonable\nconduct of General Charles Lee prevented a triumph. The recovery of\nPhiladelphia was offset by the treason of Benedict Arnold, the loss of\nSavannah and Charleston (1780), and the defeat of Gates at Camden.\n\nThe full effect of the French alliance was not felt until 1781, when\nCornwallis went into Virginia and settled at Yorktown. Accompanied by\nFrench troops Washington swept rapidly southward and penned the British\nto the shore while a powerful French fleet shut off their escape by sea.\nIt was this movement, which certainly could not have been executed\nwithout French aid, that put an end to all chance of restoring British\ndominion in America. It was the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown that\ncaused Lord North to pace the floor and cry out: \"It is all over! It is\nall over!\" What might have been done without the French alliance lies\nhidden from mankind. What was accomplished with the help of French\nsoldiers, sailors, officers, money, and supplies, is known to all the\nearth. \"All the world agree,\" exultantly wrote Franklin from Paris to\nGeneral Washington, \"that no expedition was ever better planned or\nbetter executed. It brightens the glory that must accompany your name to\nthe latest posterity.\" Diplomacy as well as martial valor had its\nreward.\n\n\nPEACE AT LAST\n\n=British Opposition to the War.=--In measuring the forces that led to\nthe final discomfiture of King George and Lord North, it is necessary to\nremember that from the beginning to the end the British ministry at home\nfaced a powerful, informed, and relentless opposition. There were\nvigorous protests, first against the obnoxious acts which precipitated\nthe unhappy quarrel, then against the way in which the war was waged,\nand finally against the futile struggle to retain a hold upon the\nAmerican dominions. Among the members of Parliament who thundered\nagainst the government were the first statesmen and orators of the land.\nWilliam Pitt, Earl of Chatham, though he deplored the idea of American\nindependence, denounced the government as the aggressor and rejoiced in\nAmerican resistance. Edmund Burke leveled his heavy batteries against\nevery measure of coercion and at last strove for a peace which, while\ngiving independence to America, would work for reconciliation rather\nthan estrangement. Charles James Fox gave the colonies his generous\nsympathy and warmly championed their rights. Outside of the circle of\nstatesmen there were stout friends of the American cause like David\nHume, the philosopher and historian, and Catherine Macaulay, an author\nof wide fame and a republican bold enough to encourage Washington in\nseeing it through.\n\nAgainst this powerful opposition, the government enlisted a whole army\nof scribes and journalists to pour out criticism on the Americans and\ntheir friends. Dr. Samuel Johnson, whom it employed in this business,\nwas so savage that even the ministers had to tone down his pamphlets\nbefore printing them. Far more weighty was Edward Gibbon, who was in\ntime to win fame as the historian of the _Decline and Fall of the Roman\nEmpire_. He had at first opposed the government; but, on being given a\nlucrative post, he used his sharp pen in its support, causing his\nfriends to ridicule him in these lines:\n\n \"King George, in a fright\n Lest Gibbon should write\n The story of England's disgrace,\n Thought no way so sure\n His pen to secure\n As to give the historian a place.\"\n\n=Lord North Yields.=--As time wore on, events bore heavily on the side\nof the opponents of the government's measures. They had predicted that\nconquest was impossible, and they had urged the advantages of a peace\nwhich would in some measure restore the affections of the Americans.\nEvery day's news confirmed their predictions and lent support to their\narguments. Moreover, the war, which sprang out of an effort to relieve\nEnglish burdens, made those burdens heavier than ever. Military expenses\nwere daily increasing. Trade with the colonies, the greatest single\noutlet for British goods and capital, was paralyzed. The heavy debts due\nBritish merchants in America were not only unpaid but postponed into an\nindefinite future. Ireland was on the verge of revolution. The French\nhad a dangerous fleet on the high seas. In vain did the king assert in\nDecember, 1781, that no difficulties would ever make him consent to a\npeace that meant American independence. Parliament knew better, and on\nFebruary 27, 1782, in the House of Commons was carried an address to the\nthrone against continuing the war. Burke, Fox, the younger Pitt, Barre,\nand other friends of the colonies voted in the affirmative. Lord North\ngave notice then that his ministry was at an end. The king moaned:\n\"Necessity made me yield.\"\n\nIn April, 1782, Franklin received word from the English government that\nit was prepared to enter into negotiations leading to a settlement. This\nwas embarrassing. In the treaty of alliance with France, the United\nStates had promised that peace should be a joint affair agreed to by\nboth nations in open conference. Finding France, however, opposed to\nsome of their claims respecting boundaries and fisheries, the American\ncommissioners conferred with the British agents at Paris without\nconsulting the French minister. They actually signed a preliminary peace\ndraft before they informed him of their operations. When Vergennes\nreproached him, Franklin replied that they \"had been guilty of\nneglecting _bienseance_ [good manners] but hoped that the great work\nwould not be ruined by a single indiscretion.\"\n\n=The Terms of Peace (1783).=--The general settlement at Paris in 1783\nwas a triumph for America. England recognized the independence of the\nUnited States, naming each state specifically, and agreed to boundaries\nextending from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and from the Great Lakes\nto the Floridas. England held Canada, Newfoundland, and the West Indies\nintact, made gains in India, and maintained her supremacy on the seas.\nSpain won Florida and Minorca but not the coveted Gibraltar. France\ngained nothing important save the satisfaction of seeing England humbled\nand the colonies independent.\n\nThe generous terms secured by the American commission at Paris called\nforth surprise and gratitude in the United States and smoothed the way\nfor a renewal of commercial relations with the mother country. At the\nsame time they gave genuine anxiety to European diplomats. \"This federal\nrepublic is born a pigmy,\" wrote the Spanish ambassador to his royal\nmaster. \"A day will come when it will be a giant; even a colossus\nformidable to these countries. Liberty of conscience and the facility\nfor establishing a new population on immense lands, as well as the\nadvantages of the new government, will draw thither farmers and artisans\nfrom all the nations. In a few years we shall watch with grief the\ntyrannical existence of the same colossus.\"\n\n[Illustration: NORTH AMERICA ACCORDING TO THE TREATY OF 1783]\n\n\nSUMMARY OF THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD\n\nThe independence of the American colonies was foreseen by many European\nstatesmen as they watched the growth of their population, wealth, and\npower; but no one could fix the hour of the great event. Until 1763 the\nAmerican colonists lived fairly happily under British dominion. There\nwere collisions from time to time, of course. Royal governors clashed\nwith stiff-necked colonial legislatures. There were protests against the\nexercise of the king's veto power in specific cases. Nevertheless, on\nthe whole, the relations between America and the mother country were\nmore amicable in 1763 than at any period under the Stuart regime which\nclosed in 1688.\n\nThe crash, when it came, was not deliberately willed by any one. It was\nthe product of a number of forces that happened to converge about 1763.\nThree years before, there had come to the throne George III, a young,\nproud, inexperienced, and stubborn king. For nearly fifty years his\npredecessors, Germans as they were in language and interest, had allowed\nthings to drift in England and America. George III decided that he would\nbe king in fact as well as in name. About the same time England brought\nto a close the long and costly French and Indian War and was staggering\nunder a heavy burden of debt and taxes. The war had been fought partly\nin defense of the American colonies and nothing seemed more reasonable\nto English statesmen than the idea that the colonies should bear part of\nthe cost of their own defense. At this juncture there came into\nprominence, in royal councils, two men bent on taxing America and\ncontrolling her trade, Grenville and Townshend. The king was willing,\nthe English taxpayers were thankful for any promise of relief, and\nstatesmen were found to undertake the experiment. England therefore set\nout upon a new course. She imposed taxes upon the colonists, regulated\ntheir trade and set royal officers upon them to enforce the law. This\naction evoked protests from the colonists. They held a Stamp Act\nCongress to declare their rights and petition for a redress of\ngrievances. Some of the more restless spirits rioted in the streets,\nsacked the houses of the king's officers, and tore up the stamped paper.\n\nFrightened by uprising, the English government drew back and repealed\nthe Stamp Act. Then it veered again and renewed its policy of\ninterference. Interference again called forth American protests.\nProtests aroused sharper retaliation. More British regulars were sent\nover to keep order. More irritating laws were passed by Parliament.\nRioting again appeared: tea was dumped in the harbor of Boston and\nseized in the harbor of Charleston. The British answer was more force.\nThe response of the colonists was a Continental Congress for defense. An\nunexpected and unintended clash of arms at Lexington and Concord in the\nspring of 1775 brought forth from the king of England a proclamation:\n\"The Americans are rebels!\"\n\nThe die was cast. The American Revolution had begun. Washington was made\ncommander-in-chief. Armies were raised, money was borrowed, a huge\nvolume of paper currency was issued, and foreign aid was summoned.\nFranklin plied his diplomatic arts at Paris until in 1778 he induced\nFrance to throw her sword into the balance. Three years later,\nCornwallis surrendered at Yorktown. In 1783, by the formal treaty of\npeace, George III acknowledged the independence of the United States.\nThe new nation, endowed with an imperial domain stretching from the\nAtlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River, began its career among the\nsovereign powers of the earth.\n\nIn the sphere of civil government, the results of the Revolution were\nequally remarkable. Royal officers and royal authorities were driven\nfrom the former dominions. All power was declared to be in the people.\nAll the colonies became states, each with its own constitution or plan\nof government. The thirteen states were united in common bonds under the\nArticles of Confederation. A republic on a large scale was instituted.\nThus there was begun an adventure in popular government such as the\nworld had never seen. Could it succeed or was it destined to break down\nand be supplanted by a monarchy? The fate of whole continents hung upon\nthe answer.\n\n\n=References=\n\nJ. Fiske, _The American Revolution_ (2 vols.).\n\nH. Lodge, _Life of Washington_ (2 vols.).\n\nW. Sumner, _The Financier and the Finances of the American Revolution_.\n\nO. Trevelyan, _The American Revolution_ (4 vols.). A sympathetic account\nby an English historian.\n\nM.C. Tyler, _Literary History of the American Revolution_ (2 vols.).\n\nC.H. Van Tyne, _The American Revolution_ (American Nation Series) and\n_The Loyalists in the American Revolution_.\n\n\n=Questions=\n\n1. What was the non-importation agreement? By what body was it adopted?\nWhy was it revolutionary in character?\n\n2. Contrast the work of the first and second Continental Congresses.\n\n3. Why did efforts at conciliation fail?\n\n4. Trace the growth of American independence from opinion to the sphere\nof action.\n\n5. Why is the Declaration of Independence an \"immortal\" document?\n\n6. What was the effect of the Revolution on colonial governments? On\nnational union?\n\n7. Describe the contest between \"Patriots\" and \"Tories.\"\n\n8. What topics are considered under \"military affairs\"? Discuss each in\ndetail.\n\n9. Contrast the American forces with the British forces and show how the\nwar was won.\n\n10. Compare the work of women in the Revolutionary War with their labors\nin the World War (1917-18).\n\n11. How was the Revolution financed?\n\n12. Why is diplomacy important in war? Describe the diplomatic triumph\nof the Revolution.\n\n13. What was the nature of the opposition in England to the war?\n\n14. Give the events connected with the peace settlement; the terms of\npeace.\n\n\n=Research Topics=\n\n=The Spirit of America.=--Woodrow Wilson, _History of the American\nPeople_, Vol. II, pp. 98-126.\n\n=American Rights.=--Draw up a table showing all the principles laid down\nby American leaders in (1) the Resolves of the First Continental\nCongress, Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_, pp. 162-166; (2) the\nDeclaration of the Causes and the Necessity of Taking Up Arms,\nMacdonald, pp. 176-183; and (3) the Declaration of Independence.\n\n=The Declaration of Independence.=--Fiske, _The American Revolution_,\nVol. I, pp. 147-197. Elson, _History of the United States_, pp. 250-254.\n\n=Diplomacy and the French Alliance.=--Hart, _American History Told by\nContemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 574-590. Fiske, Vol. II, pp. 1-24.\nCallender, _Economic History of the United States_, pp. 159-168; Elson,\npp. 275-280.\n\n=Biographical Studies.=--Washington, Franklin, Samuel Adams, Patrick\nHenry, Thomas Jefferson--emphasizing the peculiar services of each.\n\n=The Tories.=--Hart, _Contemporaries_, Vol. II, pp. 470-480.\n\n=Valley Forge.=--Fiske, Vol. II, pp. 25-49.\n\n=The Battles of the Revolution.=--Elson, pp. 235-317.\n\n=An English View of the Revolution.=--Green, _Short History of England_,\nChap. X, Sect. 2.\n\n=English Opinion and the Revolution.=--Trevelyan, _The American\nRevolution_, Vol. III (or Part 2, Vol. II), Chaps. XXIV-XXVII.\n\n\n\n\nPART III. THE UNION AND NATIONAL POLITICS\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VII\n\nTHE FORMATION OF THE CONSTITUTION\n\n\nTHE PROMISE AND THE DIFFICULTIES OF AMERICA\n\nThe rise of a young republic composed of thirteen states, each governed\nby officials popularly elected under constitutions drafted by \"the plain\npeople,\" was the most significant feature of the eighteenth century. The\nmajority of the patriots whose labors and sacrifices had made this\npossible naturally looked upon their work and pronounced it good. Those\nAmericans, however, who peered beneath the surface of things, saw that\nthe Declaration of Independence, even if splendidly phrased, and paper\nconstitutions, drawn by finest enthusiasm \"uninstructed by experience,\"\ncould not alone make the republic great and prosperous or even free. All\naround them they saw chaos in finance and in industry and perils for the\nimmediate future.\n\n=The Weakness of the Articles of Confederation.=--The government under\nthe Articles of Confederation had neither the strength nor the resources\nnecessary to cope with the problems of reconstruction left by the war.\nThe sole organ of government was a Congress composed of from two to\nseven members from each state chosen as the legislature might direct and\npaid by the state. In determining all questions, each state had one\nvote--Delaware thus enjoying the same weight as Virginia. There was no\npresident to enforce the laws. Congress was given power to select a\ncommittee of thirteen--one from each state--to act as an executive body\nwhen it was not in session; but this device, on being tried out, proved\na failure. There was no system of national courts to which citizens and\nstates could appeal for the protection of their rights or through which\nthey could compel obedience to law. The two great powers of government,\nmilitary and financial, were withheld. Congress, it is true, could\nauthorize expenditures but had to rely upon the states for the payment\nof contributions to meet its bills. It could also order the\nestablishment of an army, but it could only request the states to supply\ntheir respective quotas of soldiers. It could not lay taxes nor bring\nany pressure to bear upon a single citizen in the whole country. It\ncould act only through the medium of the state governments.\n\n=Financial and Commercial Disorders.=--In the field of public finance,\nthe disorders were pronounced. The huge debt incurred during the war was\nstill outstanding. Congress was unable to pay either the interest or the\nprincipal. Public creditors were in despair, as the market value of\ntheir bonds sank to twenty-five or even ten cents on the dollar. The\ncurrent bills of Congress were unpaid. As some one complained, there was\nnot enough money in the treasury to buy pen and ink with which to record\nthe transactions of the shadow legislature. The currency was in utter\nchaos. Millions of dollars in notes issued by Congress had become mere\ntrash worth a cent or two on the dollar. There was no other expression\nof contempt so forceful as the popular saying: \"not worth a\nContinental.\" To make matters worse, several of the states were pouring\nnew streams of paper money from the press. Almost the only good money in\ncirculation consisted of English, French, and Spanish coins, and the\npublic was even defrauded by them because money changers were busy\nclipping and filing away the metal. Foreign commerce was unsettled. The\nentire British system of trade discrimination was turned against the\nAmericans, and Congress, having no power to regulate foreign commerce,\nwas unable to retaliate or to negotiate treaties which it could enforce.\nDomestic commerce was impeded by the jealousies of the states, which\nerected tariff barriers against their neighbors. The condition of the\ncurrency made the exchange of money and goods extremely difficult, and,\nas if to increase the confusion, backward states enacted laws hindering\nthe prompt collection of debts within their borders--an evil which\nnothing but a national system of courts could cure.\n\n=Congress in Disrepute.=--With treaties set at naught by the states, the\nlaws unenforced, the treasury empty, and the public credit gone, the\nCongress of the United States fell into utter disrepute. It called upon\nthe states to pay their quotas of money into the treasury, only to be\ntreated with contempt. Even its own members looked upon it as a solemn\nfutility. Some of the ablest men refused to accept election to it, and\nmany who did take the doubtful honor failed to attend the sessions.\nAgain and again it was impossible to secure a quorum for the transaction\nof business.\n\n=Troubles of the State Governments.=--The state governments, free to\npursue their own course with no interference from without, had almost as\nmany difficulties as the Congress. They too were loaded with\nrevolutionary debts calling for heavy taxes upon an already restive\npopulation. Oppressed by their financial burdens and discouraged by the\nfall in prices which followed the return of peace, the farmers of\nseveral states joined in a concerted effort and compelled their\nlegislatures to issue large sums of paper money. The currency fell in\nvalue, but nevertheless it was forced on unwilling creditors to square\nold accounts.\n\nIn every part of the country legislative action fluctuated violently.\nLaws were made one year only to be repealed the next and reenacted the\nthird year. Lands were sold by one legislature and the sales were\ncanceled by its successor. Uncertainty and distrust were the natural\nconsequences. Men of substance longed for some power that would forbid\nstates to issue bills of credit, to make paper money legal tender in\npayment of debts, or to impair the obligation of contracts. Men heavily\nin debt, on the other hand, urged even more drastic action against\ncreditors.\n\nSo great did the discontent of the farmers in New Hampshire become in\n1786 that a mob surrounded the legislature, demanding a repeal of the\ntaxes and the issuance of paper money. It was with difficulty that an\narmed rebellion was avoided. In Massachusetts the malcontents, under the\nleadership of Daniel Shays, a captain in the Revolutionary army,\norganized that same year open resistance to the government of the state.\nShays and his followers protested against the conduct of creditors in\nforeclosing mortgages upon the debt-burdened farmers, against the\nlawyers for increasing the costs of legal proceedings, against the\nsenate of the state the members of which were apportioned among the\ntowns on the basis of the amount of taxes paid, against heavy taxes, and\nagainst the refusal of the legislature to issue paper money. They seized\nthe towns of Worcester and Springfield and broke up the courts of\njustice. All through the western part of the state the revolt spread,\nsending a shock of alarm to every center and section of the young\nrepublic. Only by the most vigorous action was Governor Bowdoin able to\nquell the uprising; and when that task was accomplished, the state\ngovernment did not dare to execute any of the prisoners because they had\nso many sympathizers. Moreover, Bowdoin and several members of the\nlegislature who had been most zealous in their attacks on the insurgents\nwere defeated at the ensuing election. The need of national assistance\nfor state governments in times of domestic violence was everywhere\nemphasized by men who were opposed to revolutionary acts.\n\n=Alarm over Dangers to the Republic.=--Leading American citizens,\nwatching the drift of affairs, were slowly driven to the conclusion that\nthe new ship of state so proudly launched a few years before was\ncareening into anarchy. \"The facts of our peace and independence,\" wrote\na friend of Washington, \"do not at present wear so promising an\nappearance as I had fondly painted in my mind. The prejudices,\njealousies, and turbulence of the people at times almost stagger my\nconfidence in our political establishments; and almost occasion me to\nthink that they will show themselves unworthy of the noble prize for\nwhich we have contended.\"\n\nWashington himself was profoundly discouraged. On hearing of Shays's\nrebellion, he exclaimed: \"What, gracious God, is man that there should\nbe such inconsistency and perfidiousness in his conduct! It is but the\nother day that we were shedding our blood to obtain the constitutions\nunder which we now live--constitutions of our own choice and making--and\nnow we are unsheathing our sword to overturn them.\" The same year he\nburst out in a lament over rumors of restoring royal government. \"I am\ntold that even respectable characters speak of a monarchical government\nwithout horror. From thinking proceeds speaking. Hence to acting is\noften but a single step. But how irresistible and tremendous! What a\ntriumph for our enemies to verify their predictions! What a triumph for\nthe advocates of despotism to find that we are incapable of governing\nourselves!\"\n\n=Congress Attempts Some Reforms.=--The Congress was not indifferent to\nthe events that disturbed Washington. On the contrary it put forth many\nefforts to check tendencies so dangerous to finance, commerce,\nindustries, and the Confederation itself. In 1781, even before the\ntreaty of peace was signed, the Congress, having found out how futile\nwere its taxing powers, carried a resolution of amendment to the\nArticles of Confederation, authorizing the levy of a moderate duty on\nimports. Yet this mild measure was rejected by the states. Two years\nlater the Congress prepared another amendment sanctioning the levy of\nduties on imports, to be collected this time by state officers and\napplied to the payment of the public debt. This more limited proposal,\ndesigned to save public credit, likewise failed. In 1786, the Congress\nmade a third appeal to the states for help, declaring that they had been\nso irregular and so negligent in paying their quotas that further\nreliance upon that mode of raising revenues was dishonorable and\ndangerous.\n\n\nTHE CALLING OF A CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION\n\n=Hamilton and Washington Urge Reform.=--The attempts at reform by the\nCongress were accompanied by demand for, both within and without that\nbody, a convention to frame a new plan of government. In 1780, the\nyouthful Alexander Hamilton, realizing the weakness of the Articles, so\nwidely discussed, proposed a general convention for the purpose of\ndrafting a new constitution on entirely different principles. With\ntireless energy he strove to bring his countrymen to his view.\nWashington, agreeing with him on every point, declared, in a circular\nletter to the governors, that the duration of the union would be short\nunless there was lodged somewhere a supreme power \"to regulate and\ngovern the general concerns of the confederated republic.\" The governor\nof Massachusetts, disturbed by the growth of discontent all about him,\nsuggested to the state legislature in 1785 the advisability of a\nnational convention to enlarge the powers of the Congress. The\nlegislature approved the plan, but did not press it to a conclusion.\n\n[Illustration: ALEXANDER HAMILTON]\n\n=The Annapolis Convention.=--Action finally came from the South. The\nVirginia legislature, taking things into its own hands, called a\nconference of delegates at Annapolis to consider matters of taxation and\ncommerce. When the convention assembled in 1786, it was found that only\nfive states had taken the trouble to send representatives. The leaders\nwere deeply discouraged, but the resourceful Hamilton, a delegate from\nNew York, turned the affair to good account. He secured the adoption of\na resolution, calling upon the Congress itself to summon another\nconvention, to meet at Philadelphia.\n\n=A National Convention Called (1787).=--The Congress, as tardy as ever,\nat last decided in February, 1787, to issue the call. Fearing drastic\nchanges, however, it restricted the convention to \"the sole and express\npurpose of revising the Articles of Confederation.\" Jealous of its own\npowers, it added that any alterations proposed should be referred to the\nCongress and the states for their approval.\n\nEvery state in the union, except Rhode Island, responded to this call.\nIndeed some of the states, having the Annapolis resolution before them,\nhad already anticipated the Congress by selecting delegates before the\nformal summons came. Thus, by the persistence of governors,\nlegislatures, and private citizens, there was brought about the\nlong-desired national convention. In May, 1787, it assembled in\nPhiladelphia.\n\n=The Eminent Men of the Convention.=--On the roll of that memorable\nconvention were fifty-five men, at least half of whom were acknowledged\nto be among the foremost statesmen and thinkers in America. Every field\nof statecraft was represented by them: war and practical management in\nWashington, who was chosen president of the convention; diplomacy in\nFranklin, now old and full of honor in his own land as well as abroad;\nfinance in Alexander Hamilton and Robert Morris; law in James Wilson of\nPennsylvania; the philosophy of government in James Madison, called the\n\"father of the Constitution.\" They were not theorists but practical men,\nrich in political experience and endowed with deep insight into the\nsprings of human action. Three of them had served in the Stamp Act\nCongress: Dickinson of Delaware, William Samuel Johnson of Connecticut,\nand John Rutledge of South Carolina. Eight had been signers of the\nDeclaration of Independence: Read of Delaware, Sherman of Connecticut,\nWythe of Virginia, Gerry of Massachusetts, Franklin, Robert Morris,\nGeorge Clymer, and James Wilson of Pennsylvania. All but twelve had at\nsome time served in the Continental Congress and eighteen were members\nof that body in the spring of 1787. Washington, Hamilton, Mifflin, and\nCharles Pinckney had been officers in the Revolutionary army. Seven of\nthe delegates had gained political experience as governors of states.\n\"The convention as a whole,\" according to the historian Hildreth,\n\"represented in a marked manner the talent, intelligence, and\nespecially the conservative sentiment of the country.\"\n\n\nTHE FRAMING OF THE CONSTITUTION\n\n=Problems Involved.=--The great problems before the convention were nine\nin number: (1) Shall the Articles of Confederation be revised or a new\nsystem of government constructed? (2) Shall the government be founded on\nstates equal in power as under the Articles or on the broader and deeper\nfoundation of population? (3) What direct share shall the people have in\nthe election of national officers? (4) What shall be the qualifications\nfor the suffrage? (5) How shall the conflicting interests of the\ncommercial and the planting states be balanced so as to safeguard the\nessential rights of each? (6) What shall be the form of the new\ngovernment? (7) What powers shall be conferred on it? (8) How shall the\nstate legislatures be restrained from their attacks on property rights\nsuch as the issuance of paper money? (9) Shall the approval of all the\nstates be necessary, as under the Articles, for the adoption and\namendment of the Constitution?\n\n=Revision of the Articles or a New Government?=--The moment the first\nproblem was raised, representatives of the small states, led by William\nPaterson of New Jersey, were on their feet. They feared that, if the\nArticles were overthrown, the equality and rights of the states would be\nput in jeopardy. Their protest was therefore vigorous. They cited the\ncall issued by the Congress in summoning the convention which\nspecifically stated that they were assembled for \"the sole and express\npurpose of revising the Articles of Confederation.\" They cited also\ntheir instructions from their state legislatures, which authorized them\nto \"revise and amend\" the existing scheme of government, not to make a\nrevolution in it. To depart from the authorization laid down by the\nCongress and the legislatures would be to exceed their powers, they\nargued, and to betray the trust reposed in them by their countrymen.\n\nTo their contentions, Randolph of Virginia replied: \"When the salvation\nof the republic is at stake, it would be treason to our trust not to\npropose what we find necessary.\" Hamilton, reminding the delegates that\ntheir work was still subject to the approval of the states, frankly said\nthat on the point of their powers he had no scruples. With the issue\nclear, the convention cast aside the Articles as if they did not exist\nand proceeded to the work of drawing up a new constitution, \"laying its\nfoundations on such principles and organizing its powers in such form\"\nas to the delegates seemed \"most likely to affect their safety and\nhappiness.\"\n\n=A Government Founded on States or on People?--The\nCompromise.=--Defeated in their attempt to limit the convention to a\nmere revision of the Articles, the spokesmen of the smaller states\nredoubled their efforts to preserve the equality of the states. The\nsignal for a radical departure from the Articles on this point was given\nearly in the sessions when Randolph presented \"the Virginia plan.\" He\nproposed that the new national legislature consist of two houses, the\nmembers of which were to be apportioned among the states according to\ntheir wealth or free white population, as the convention might decide.\nThis plan was vehemently challenged. Paterson of New Jersey flatly\navowed that neither he nor his state would ever bow to such tyranny. As\nan alternative, he presented \"the New Jersey plan\" calling for a\nnational legislature of one house representing states as such, not\nwealth or people--a legislature in which all states, large or small,\nwould have equal voice. Wilson of Pennsylvania, on behalf of the more\npopulous states, took up the gauntlet which Paterson had thrown down. It\nwas absurd, he urged, for 180,000 men in one state to have the same\nweight in national counsels as 750,000 men in another state. \"The\ngentleman from New Jersey,\" he said, \"is candid. He declares his opinion\nboldly.... I will be equally candid.... I will never confederate on his\nprinciples.\" So the bitter controversy ran on through many exciting\nsessions.\n\nGreek had met Greek. The convention was hopelessly deadlocked and on the\nverge of dissolution, \"scarce held together by the strength of a hair,\"\nas one of the delegates remarked. A crash was averted only by a\ncompromise. Instead of a Congress of one house as provided by the\nArticles, the convention agreed upon a legislature of two houses. In the\nSenate, the aspirations of the small states were to be satisfied, for\neach state was given two members in that body. In the formation of the\nHouse of Representatives, the larger states were placated, for it was\nagreed that the members of that chamber were to be apportioned among the\nstates on the basis of population, counting three-fifths of the slaves.\n\n=The Question of Popular Election.=--The method of selecting federal\nofficers and members of Congress also produced an acrimonious debate\nwhich revealed how deep-seated was the distrust of the capacity of the\npeople to govern themselves. Few there were who believed that no branch\nof the government should be elected directly by the voters; still fewer\nwere there, however, who desired to see all branches so chosen. One or\ntwo even expressed a desire for a monarchy. The dangers of democracy\nwere stressed by Gerry of Massachusetts: \"All the evils we experience\nflow from an excess of democracy. The people do not want virtue but are\nthe dupes of pretended patriots.... I have been too republican\nheretofore but have been taught by experience the danger of a leveling\nspirit.\" To the \"democratic licentiousness of the state legislatures,\"\nRandolph sought to oppose a \"firm senate.\" To check the excesses of\npopular government Charles Pinckney of South Carolina declared that no\none should be elected President who was not worth $100,000 and that high\nproperty qualifications should be placed on members of Congress and\njudges. Other members of the convention were stoutly opposed to such\n\"high-toned notions of government.\" Franklin and Wilson, both from\nPennsylvania, vigorously championed popular election; while men like\nMadison insisted that at least one part of the government should rest on\nthe broad foundation of the people.\n\nOut of this clash of opinion also came compromise. One branch, the House\nof Representatives, it was agreed, was to be elected directly by the\nvoters, while the Senators were to be elected indirectly by the state\nlegislatures. The President was to be chosen by electors selected as the\nlegislatures of the states might determine, and the judges of the\nfederal courts, supreme and inferior, by the President and the Senate.\n\n=The Question of the Suffrage.=--The battle over the suffrage was sharp\nbut brief. Gouverneur Morris proposed that only land owners should be\npermitted to vote. Madison replied that the state legislatures, which\nhad made so much trouble with radical laws, were elected by freeholders.\nAfter the debate, the delegates, unable to agree on any property\nlimitations on the suffrage, decided that the House of Representatives\nshould be elected by voters having the \"qualifications requisite for\nelectors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature.\" Thus\nthey accepted the suffrage provisions of the states.\n\n=The Balance between the Planting and the Commercial States.=--After the\ndebates had gone on for a few weeks, Madison came to the conclusion that\nthe real division in the convention was not between the large and the\nsmall states but between the planting section founded on slave labor and\nthe commercial North. Thus he anticipated by nearly three-quarters of a\ncentury \"the irrepressible conflict.\" The planting states had neither\nthe free white population nor the wealth of the North. There were,\ncounting Delaware, six of them as against seven commercial states.\nDependent for their prosperity mainly upon the sale of tobacco, rice,\nand other staples abroad, they feared that Congress might impose\nrestraints upon their enterprise. Being weaker in numbers, they were\nafraid that the majority might lay an unfair burden of taxes upon them.\n\n_Representation and Taxation._--The Southern members of the convention\nwere therefore very anxious to secure for their section the largest\npossible representation in Congress, and at the same time to restrain\nthe taxing power of that body. Two devices were thought adapted to these\nends. One was to count the slaves as people when apportioning\nrepresentatives among the states according to their respective\npopulations; the other was to provide that direct taxes should be\napportioned among the states, in proportion not to their wealth but to\nthe number of their free white inhabitants. For obvious reasons the\nNorthern delegates objected to these proposals. Once more a compromise\nproved to be the solution. It was agreed that not all the slaves but\nthree-fifths of them should be counted for both purposes--representation\nand direct taxation.\n\n_Commerce and the Slave Trade._--Southern interests were also involved\nin the project to confer upon Congress the power to regulate interstate\nand foreign commerce. To the manufacturing and trading states this was\nessential. It would prevent interstate tariffs and trade jealousies; it\nwould enable Congress to protect American manufactures and to break\ndown, by appropriate retaliations, foreign discriminations against\nAmerican commerce. To the South the proposal was menacing because\ntariffs might interfere with the free exchange of the produce of\nplantations in European markets, and navigation acts might confine the\ncarrying trade to American, that is Northern, ships. The importation of\nslaves, moreover, it was feared might be heavily taxed or immediately\nprohibited altogether.\n\nThe result of this and related controversies was a debate on the merits\nof slavery. Gouverneur Morris delivered his mind and heart on that\nsubject, denouncing slavery as a nefarious institution and the curse of\nheaven on the states in which it prevailed. Mason of Virginia, a\nslaveholder himself, was hardly less outspoken, saying: \"Slavery\ndiscourages arts and manufactures. The poor despise labor when performed\nby slaves. They prevent the migration of whites who really strengthen\nand enrich a country.\"\n\nThe system, however, had its defenders. Representatives from South\nCarolina argued that their entire economic life rested on slave labor\nand that the high death rate in the rice swamps made continuous\nimportation necessary. Ellsworth of Connecticut took the ground that\nthe convention should not meddle with slavery. \"The morality or wisdom\nof slavery,\" he said, \"are considerations belonging to the states. What\nenriches a part enriches the whole.\" To the future he turned an\nuntroubled face: \"As population increases, poor laborers will be so\nplenty as to render slaves useless. Slavery in time will not be a speck\nin our country.\" Virginia and North Carolina, already overstocked with\nslaves, favored prohibiting the traffic in them; but South Carolina was\nadamant. She must have fresh supplies of slaves or she would not\nfederate.\n\nSo it was agreed that, while Congress might regulate foreign trade by\nmajority vote, the importation of slaves should not be forbidden before\nthe lapse of twenty years, and that any import tax should not exceed $10\na head. At the same time, in connection with the regulation of foreign\ntrade, it was stipulated that a two-thirds vote in the Senate should be\nnecessary in the ratification of treaties. A further concession to the\nSouth was made in the provision for the return of runaway slaves--a\nprovision also useful in the North, where indentured servants were about\nas troublesome as slaves in escaping from their masters.\n\n=The Form of the Government.=--As to the details of the frame of\ngovernment and the grand principles involved, the opinion of the\nconvention ebbed and flowed, decisions being taken in the heat of\ndebate, only to be revoked and taken again.\n\n_The Executive._--There was general agreement that there should be an\nexecutive branch; for reliance upon Congress to enforce its own laws and\ntreaties had been a broken reed. On the character and functions of the\nexecutive, however, there were many views. The New Jersey plan called\nfor a council selected by the Congress; the Virginia plan provided that\nthe executive branch should be chosen by the Congress but did not state\nwhether it should be composed of one or several persons. On this matter\nthe convention voted first one way and then another; finally it agreed\non a single executive chosen indirectly by electors selected as the\nstate legislatures might decide, serving for four years, subject to\nimpeachment, and endowed with regal powers in the command of the army\nand the navy and in the enforcement of the laws.\n\n_The Legislative Branch--Congress._--After the convention had made the\ngreat compromise between the large and small commonwealths by giving\nrepresentation to states in the Senate and to population in the House,\nthe question of methods of election had to be decided. As to the House\nof Representatives it was readily agreed that the members should be\nelected by direct popular vote. There was also easy agreement on the\nproposition that a strong Senate was needed to check the \"turbulence\" of\nthe lower house. Four devices were finally selected to accomplish this\npurpose. In the first place, the Senators were not to be chosen directly\nby the voters but by the legislatures of the states, thus removing their\nelection one degree from the populace. In the second place, their term\nwas fixed at six years instead of two, as in the case of the House. In\nthe third place, provision was made for continuity by having only\none-third of the members go out at a time while two-thirds remained in\nservice. Finally, it was provided that Senators must be at least thirty\nyears old while Representatives need be only twenty-five.\n\n_The Judiciary._--The need for federal courts to carry out the law was\nhardly open to debate. The feebleness of the Articles of Confederation\nwas, in a large measure, attributed to the want of a judiciary to hold\nstates and individuals in obedience to the laws and treaties of the\nunion. Nevertheless on this point the advocates of states' rights were\nextremely sensitive. They looked with distrust upon judges appointed at\nthe national capital and emancipated from local interests and\ntraditions; they remembered with what insistence they had claimed\nagainst Britain the right of local trial by jury and with what\nconsternation they had viewed the proposal to make colonial judges\nindependent of the assemblies in the matter of their salaries.\nReluctantly they yielded to the demand for federal courts, consenting at\nfirst only to a supreme court to review cases heard in lower state\ncourts and finally to such additional inferior courts as Congress might\ndeem necessary.\n\n_The System of Checks and Balances._--It is thus apparent that the\nframers of the Constitution, in shaping the form of government, arranged\nfor a distribution of power among three branches, executive,\nlegislative, and judicial. Strictly speaking we might say four branches,\nfor the legislature, or Congress, was composed of two houses, elected in\ndifferent ways, and one of them, the Senate, was made a check on the\nPresident through its power of ratifying treaties and appointments. \"The\naccumulation of all powers, legislative, executive, and judicial, in the\nsame hands,\" wrote Madison, \"whether of one, a few, or many, and whether\nhereditary, self-appointed, or elective, may justly be pronounced the\nvery definition of tyranny.\" The devices which the convention adopted to\nprevent such a centralization of authority were exceedingly ingenious\nand well calculated to accomplish the purposes of the authors.\n\nThe legislature consisted of two houses, the members of which were to be\napportioned on a different basis, elected in different ways, and to\nserve for different terms. A veto on all its acts was vested in a\nPresident elected in a manner not employed in the choice of either\nbranch of the legislature, serving for four years, and subject to\nremoval only by the difficult process of impeachment. After a law had\nrun the gantlet of both houses and the executive, it was subject to\ninterpretation and annulment by the judiciary, appointed by the\nPresident with the consent of the Senate and serving for life. Thus it\nwas made almost impossible for any political party to get possession of\nall branches of the government at a single popular election. As Hamilton\nremarked, the friends of good government considered \"every institution\ncalculated to restrain the excess of law making and to keep things in\nthe same state in which they happen to be at any given period as more\nlikely to do good than harm.\"\n\n=The Powers of the Federal Government.=--On the question of the powers\nto be conferred upon the new government there was less occasion for a\nserious dispute. Even the delegates from the small states agreed with\nthose from Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia that new powers\nshould be added to those intrusted to Congress by the Articles of\nConfederation. The New Jersey plan as well as the Virginia plan\nrecognized this fact. Some of the delegates, like Hamilton and Madison,\neven proposed to give Congress a general legislative authority covering\nall national matters; but others, frightened by the specter of\nnationalism, insisted on specifying each power to be conferred and\nfinally carried the day.\n\n_Taxation and Commerce._--There were none bold enough to dissent from\nthe proposition that revenue must be provided to pay current expenses\nand discharge the public debt. When once the dispute over the\napportionment of direct taxes among the slave states was settled, it was\nan easy matter to decide that Congress should have power to lay and\ncollect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises. In this way the national\ngovernment was freed from dependence upon stubborn and tardy\nlegislatures and enabled to collect funds directly from citizens. There\nwere likewise none bold enough to contend that the anarchy of state\ntariffs and trade discriminations should be longer endured. When the\nfears of the planting states were allayed and the \"bargain\" over the\nimportation of slaves was reached, the convention vested in Congress the\npower to regulate foreign and interstate commerce.\n\n_National Defense._--The necessity for national defense was realized,\nthough the fear of huge military establishments was equally present. The\nold practice of relying on quotas furnished by the state legislatures\nwas completely discredited. As in the case of taxes a direct authority\nover citizens was demanded. Congress was therefore given full power to\nraise and support armies and a navy. It could employ the state militia\nwhen desirable; but it could at the same time maintain a regular army\nand call directly upon all able-bodied males if the nature of a crisis\nwas thought to require it.\n\n_The \"Necessary and Proper\" Clause._--To the specified power vested in\nCongress by the Constitution, the advocates of a strong national\ngovernment added a general clause authorizing it to make all laws\n\"necessary and proper\" for carrying into effect any and all of the\nenumerated powers. This clause, interpreted by that master mind, Chief\nJustice Marshall, was later construed to confer powers as wide as the\nrequirements of a vast country spanning a continent and taking its place\namong the mighty nations of the earth.\n\n=Restraints on the States.=--Framing a government and endowing it with\nlarge powers were by no means the sole concern of the convention. Its\nvery existence had been due quite as much to the conduct of the state\nlegislatures as to the futilities of a paralyzed Continental Congress.\nIn every state, explains Marshall in his _Life of Washington_, there was\na party of men who had \"marked out for themselves a more indulgent\ncourse. Viewing with extreme tenderness the case of the debtor, their\nefforts were unceasingly directed to his relief. To exact a faithful\ncompliance with contracts was, in their opinion, a harsh measure which\nthe people could not bear. They were uniformly in favor of relaxing the\nadministration of justice, of affording facilities for the payment of\ndebts, or of suspending their collection, and remitting taxes.\"\n\nThe legislatures under the dominance of these men had enacted paper\nmoney laws enabling debtors to discharge their obligations more easily.\nThe convention put an end to such practices by providing that no state\nshould emit bills of credit or make anything but gold or silver legal\ntender in the payment of debts. The state legislatures had enacted laws\nallowing men to pay their debts by turning over to creditors land or\npersonal property; they had repealed the charter of an endowed college\nand taken the management from the hands of the lawful trustees; and they\nhad otherwise interfered with the enforcement of private agreements. The\nconvention, taking notice of such matters, inserted a clause forbidding\nstates \"to impair the obligation of contracts.\" The more venturous of\nthe radicals had in Massachusetts raised the standard of revolt against\nthe authorities of the state. The convention answered by a brief\nsentence to the effect that the President of the United States, to be\nequipped with a regular army, would send troops to suppress domestic\ninsurrections whenever called upon by the legislature or, if it was not\nin session, by the governor of the state. To make sure that the\nrestrictions on the states would not be dead letters, the federal\nConstitution, laws, and treaties were made the supreme law of the land,\nto be enforced whenever necessary by a national judiciary and executive\nagainst violations on the part of any state authorities.\n\n=Provisions for Ratification and Amendment.=--When the frame of\ngovernment had been determined, the powers to be vested in it had been\nenumerated, and the restrictions upon the states had been written into\nthe bond, there remained three final questions. How shall the\nConstitution be ratified? What number of states shall be necessary to\nput it into effect? How shall it be amended in the future?\n\nOn the first point, the mandate under which the convention was sitting\nseemed positive. The Articles of Confederation were still in effect.\nThey provided that amendments could be made only by unanimous adoption\nin Congress and the approval of all the states. As if to give force to\nthis provision of law, the call for the convention had expressly stated\nthat all alterations and revisions should be reported to Congress for\nadoption or rejection, Congress itself to transmit the document\nthereafter to the states for their review.\n\nTo have observed the strict letter of the law would have defeated the\npurposes of the delegates, because Congress and the state legislatures\nwere openly hostile to such drastic changes as had been made. Unanimous\nratification, as events proved, would have been impossible. Therefore\nthe delegates decided that the Constitution should be sent to Congress\nwith the recommendation that it, in turn, transmit the document, not to\nthe state legislatures, but to conventions held in the states for the\nspecial object of deciding upon ratification. This process was followed.\nIt was their belief that special conventions would be more friendly than\nthe state legislatures.\n\nThe convention was equally positive in dealing with the problem of the\nnumber of states necessary to establish the new Constitution. Attempts\nto change the Articles had failed because amendment required the\napproval of every state and there was always at least one recalcitrant\nmember of the union. The opposition to a new Constitution was\nundoubtedly formidable. Rhode Island had even refused to take part in\nframing it, and her hostility was deep and open. So the convention cast\naside the provision of the Articles of Confederation which required\nunanimous approval for any change in the plan of government; it decreed\nthat the new Constitution should go into effect when ratified by nine\nstates.\n\nIn providing for future changes in the Constitution itself the\nconvention also thrust aside the old rule of unanimous approval, and\ndecided that an amendment could be made on a two-thirds vote in both\nhouses of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of the states. This\nchange was of profound significance. Every state agreed to be bound in\nthe future by amendments duly adopted even in case it did not approve\nthem itself. America in this way set out upon the high road that led\nfrom a league of states to a nation.\n\n\nTHE STRUGGLE OVER RATIFICATION\n\nOn September 17, 1787, the Constitution, having been finally drafted in\nclear and simple language, a model to all makers of fundamental law, was\nadopted. The convention, after nearly four months of debate in secret\nsession, flung open the doors and presented to the Americans the\nfinished plan for the new government. Then the great debate passed to\nthe people.\n\n=The Opposition.=--Storms of criticism at once descended upon the\nConstitution. \"Fraudulent usurpation!\" exclaimed Gerry, who had refused\nto sign it. \"A monster\" out of the \"thick veil of secrecy,\" declaimed a\nPennsylvania newspaper. \"An iron-handed despotism will be the result,\"\nprotested a third. \"We, 'the low-born,'\" sarcastically wrote a fourth,\n\"will now admit the 'six hundred well-born' immediately to establish\nthis most noble, most excellent, and truly divine constitution.\" The\nPresident will become a king; Congress will be as tyrannical as\nParliament in the old days; the states will be swallowed up; the rights\nof the people will be trampled upon; the poor man's justice will be lost\nin the endless delays of the federal courts--such was the strain of the\nprotests against ratification.\n\n[Illustration: AN ADVERTISEMENT OF _The Federalist_]\n\n=Defense of the Constitution.=--Moved by the tempest of opposition,\nHamilton, Madison, and Jay took up their pens in defense of the\nConstitution. In a series of newspaper articles they discussed and\nexpounded with eloquence, learning, and dignity every important clause\nand provision of the proposed plan. These papers, afterwards collected\nand published in a volume known as _The Federalist_, form the finest\ntextbook on the Constitution that has ever been printed. It takes its\nplace, moreover, among the wisest and weightiest treatises on government\never written in any language in any time. Other men, not so gifted, were\nno less earnest in their support of ratification. In private\ncorrespondence, editorials, pamphlets, and letters to the newspapers,\nthey urged their countrymen to forget their partisanship and accept a\nConstitution which, in spite of any defects great or small, was the\nonly guarantee against dissolution and warfare at home and dishonor and\nweakness abroad.\n\n[Illustration: CELEBRATING THE RATIFICATION]\n\n=The Action of the State Conventions.=--Before the end of the year,\n1787, three states had ratified the Constitution: Delaware and New\nJersey unanimously and Pennsylvania after a short, though savage,\ncontest. Connecticut and Georgia followed early the next year. Then came\nthe battle royal in Massachusetts, ending in ratification in February by\nthe narrow margin of 187 votes to 168. In the spring came the news that\nMaryland and South Carolina were \"under the new roof.\" On June 21, New\nHampshire, where the sentiment was at first strong enough to defeat the\nConstitution, joined the new republic, influenced by the favorable\ndecision in Massachusetts. Swift couriers were sent to carry the news to\nNew York and Virginia, where the question of ratification was still\nundecided. Nine states had accepted it and were united, whether more saw\nfit to join or not.\n\nMeanwhile, however, Virginia, after a long and searching debate, had\ngiven her approval by a narrow margin, leaving New York as the next seat\nof anxiety. In that state the popular vote for the delegates to the\nconvention had been clearly and heavily against ratification. Events\nfinally demonstrated the futility of resistance, and Hamilton by good\njudgment and masterly arguments was at last able to marshal a majority\nof thirty to twenty-seven votes in favor of ratification.\n\nThe great contest was over. All the states, except North Carolina and\nRhode Island, had ratified. \"The sloop Anarchy,\" wrote an ebullient\njournalist, \"when last heard from was ashore on Union rocks.\"\n\n=The First Election.=--In the autumn of 1788, elections were held to\nfill the places in the new government. Public opinion was overwhelmingly\nin favor of Washington as the first President. Yielding to the\nimportunities of friends, he accepted the post in the spirit of public\nservice. On April 30, 1789, he took the oath of office at Federal Hall\nin New York City. \"Long live George Washington, President of the United\nStates!\" cried Chancellor Livingston as soon as the General had kissed\nthe Bible. The cry was caught by the assembled multitude and given back.\nA new experiment in popular government was launched.\n\n\n=References=\n\nM. Farrand, _The Framing of the Constitution of the United States_.\n\nP.L. Ford, _Essays on the Constitution of the United States_.\n\n_The Federalist_ (in many editions).\n\nG. Hunt, _Life of James Madison_.\n\nA.C. McLaughlin, _The Confederation and the Constitution_ (American\nNation Series).\n\n\n=Questions=\n\n1. Account for the failure of the Articles of Confederation.\n\n2. Explain the domestic difficulties of the individual states.\n\n3. Why did efforts at reform by the Congress come to naught?\n\n4. Narrate the events leading up to the constitutional convention.\n\n5. Who were some of the leading men in the convention? What had been\ntheir previous training?\n\n6. State the great problems before the convention.\n\n7. In what respects were the planting and commercial states opposed?\nWhat compromises were reached?\n\n8. Show how the \"check and balance\" system is embodied in our form of\ngovernment.\n\n9. How did the powers conferred upon the federal government help cure\nthe defects of the Articles of Confederation?\n\n10. In what way did the provisions for ratifying and amending the\nConstitution depart from the old system?\n\n11. What was the nature of the conflict over ratification?\n\n\n=Research Topics=\n\n=English Treatment of American Commerce.=--Callender, _Economic History\nof the United States_, pp. 210-220.\n\n=Financial Condition of the United States.=--Fiske, _Critical Period of\nAmerican History_, pp. 163-186.\n\n=Disordered Commerce.=--Fiske, pp. 134-162.\n\n=Selfish Conduct of the States.=--Callender, pp. 185-191.\n\n=The Failure of the Confederation.=--Elson, _History of the United\nStates_, pp. 318-326.\n\n=Formation of the Constitution.=--(1) The plans before the convention,\nFiske, pp. 236-249; (2) the great compromise, Fiske, pp. 250-255; (3)\nslavery and the convention, Fiske, pp. 256-266; and (4) the frame of\ngovernment, Fiske, pp. 275-301; Elson, pp. 328-334.\n\n=Biographical Studies.=--Look up the history and services of the leaders\nin the convention in any good encyclopedia.\n\n=Ratification of the Constitution.=--Hart, _History Told by\nContemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 233-254; Elson, pp. 334-340.\n\n=Source Study.=--Compare the Constitution and Articles of Confederation\nunder the following heads: (1) frame of government; (2) powers of\nCongress; (3) limits on states; and (4) methods of amendment. Every line\nof the Constitution should be read and re-read in the light of the\nhistorical circumstances set forth in this chapter.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VIII\n\nTHE CLASH OF POLITICAL PARTIES\n\n\nTHE MEN AND MEASURES OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT\n\n=Friends of the Constitution in Power.=--In the first Congress that\nassembled after the adoption of the Constitution, there were eleven\nSenators, led by Robert Morris, the financier, who had been delegates to\nthe national convention. Several members of the House of\nRepresentatives, headed by James Madison, had also been at Philadelphia\nin 1787. In making his appointments, Washington strengthened the new\nsystem of government still further by a judicious selection of\nofficials. He chose as Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton,\nwho had been the most zealous for its success; General Knox, head of the\nWar Department, and Edmund Randolph, the Attorney-General, were likewise\nconspicuous friends of the experiment. Every member of the federal\njudiciary whom Washington appointed, from the Chief Justice, John Jay,\ndown to the justices of the district courts, had favored the\nratification of the Constitution; and a majority of them had served as\nmembers of the national convention that framed the document or of the\nstate ratifying conventions. Only one man of influence in the new\ngovernment, Thomas Jefferson, the Secretary of State, was reckoned as a\ndoubter in the house of the faithful. He had expressed opinions both for\nand against the Constitution; but he had been out of the country acting\nas the minister at Paris when the Constitution was drafted and ratified.\n\n=An Opposition to Conciliate.=--The inauguration of Washington amid the\nplaudits of his countrymen did not set at rest all the political turmoil\nwhich had been aroused by the angry contest over ratification. \"The\ninteresting nature of the question,\" wrote John Marshall, \"the equality\nof the parties, the animation produced inevitably by ardent debate had a\nnecessary tendency to embitter the dispositions of the vanquished and to\nfix more deeply in many bosoms their prejudices against a plan of\ngovernment in opposition to which all their passions were enlisted.\" The\nleaders gathered around Washington were well aware of the excited state\nof the country. They saw Rhode Island and North Carolina still outside\nof the union.[1] They knew by what small margins the Constitution had\nbeen approved in the great states of Massachusetts, Virginia, and New\nYork. They were equally aware that a majority of the state conventions,\nin yielding reluctant approval to the Constitution, had drawn a number\nof amendments for immediate submission to the states.\n\n=The First Amendments--a Bill of Rights.=--To meet the opposition,\nMadison proposed, and the first Congress adopted, a series of amendments\nto the Constitution. Ten of them were soon ratified and became in 1791 a\npart of the law of the land. These amendments provided, among other\nthings, that Congress could make no law respecting the establishment of\nreligion, abridging the freedom of speech or of the press or the right\nof the people peaceably to assemble and petition the government for a\nredress of grievances. They also guaranteed indictment by grand jury and\ntrial by jury for all persons charged by federal officers with serious\ncrimes. To reassure those who still feared that local rights might be\ninvaded by the federal government, the tenth amendment expressly\nprovided that the powers not delegated to the United States by the\nConstitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the\nstates respectively or to the people. Seven years later, the eleventh\namendment was written in the same spirit as the first ten, after a\nheated debate over the action of the Supreme Court in permitting a\ncitizen to bring a suit against \"the sovereign state\" of Georgia. The\nnew amendment was designed to protect states against the federal\njudiciary by forbidding it to hear any case in which a state was sued by\na citizen.\n\n=Funding the National Debt.=--Paper declarations of rights, however,\npaid no bills. To this task Hamilton turned all his splendid genius. At\nthe very outset he addressed himself to the problem of the huge public\ndebt, daily mounting as the unpaid interest accumulated. In a _Report on\nPublic Credit_ under date of January 9, 1790, one of the first and\ngreatest of American state papers, he laid before Congress the outlines\nof his plan. He proposed that the federal government should call in all\nthe old bonds, certificates of indebtedness, and other promises to pay\nwhich had been issued by the Congress since the beginning of the\nRevolution. These national obligations, he urged, should be put into one\nconsolidated debt resting on the credit of the United States; to the\nholders of the old paper should be issued new bonds drawing interest at\nfixed rates. This process was called \"funding the debt.\" Such a\nprovision for the support of public credit, Hamilton insisted, would\nsatisfy creditors, restore landed property to its former value, and\nfurnish new resources to agriculture and commerce in the form of credit\nand capital.\n\n=Assumption and Funding of State Debts.=--Hamilton then turned to the\nobligations incurred by the several states in support of the Revolution.\nThese debts he proposed to add to the national debt. They were to be\n\"assumed\" by the United States government and placed on the same secure\nfoundation as the continental debt. This measure he defended not merely\non grounds of national honor. It would, as he foresaw, give strength to\nthe new national government by making all public creditors, men of\nsubstance in their several communities, look to the federal, rather than\nthe state government, for the satisfaction of their claims.\n\n=Funding at Face Value.=--On the question of the terms of consolidation,\nassumption, and funding, Hamilton had a firm conviction. That millions\nof dollars' worth of the continental and state bonds had passed out of\nthe hands of those who had originally subscribed their funds to the\nsupport of the government or had sold supplies for the Revolutionary\narmy was well known. It was also a matter of common knowledge that a\nvery large part of these bonds had been bought by speculators at ruinous\nfigures--ten, twenty, and thirty cents on the dollar. Accordingly, it\nhad been suggested, even in very respectable quarters, that a\ndiscrimination should be made between original holders and speculative\npurchasers. Some who held this opinion urged that the speculators who\nhad paid nominal sums for their bonds should be reimbursed for their\noutlays and the original holders paid the difference; others said that\nthe government should \"scale the debt\" by redeeming, not at full value\nbut at a figure reasonably above the market price. Against the\nproposition Hamilton set his face like flint. He maintained that the\ngovernment was honestly bound to redeem every bond at its face value,\nalthough the difficulty of securing revenue made necessary a lower rate\nof interest on a part of the bonds and the deferring of interest on\nanother part.\n\n=Funding and Assumption Carried.=--There was little difficulty in\nsecuring the approval of both houses of Congress for the funding of the\nnational debt at full value. The bill for the assumption of state debts,\nhowever, brought the sharpest division of opinions. To the Southern\nmembers of Congress assumption was a gross violation of states' rights,\nwithout any warrant in the Constitution and devised in the interest of\nNorthern speculators who, anticipating assumption and funding, had\nbought up at low prices the Southern bonds and other promises to pay.\nNew England, on the other hand, was strongly in favor of assumption;\nseveral representatives from that section were rash enough to threaten a\ndissolution of the union if the bill was defeated. To this dispute was\nadded an equally bitter quarrel over the location of the national\ncapital, then temporarily at New York City.\n\n[Illustration: FIRST UNITED STATES BANK AT PHILADELPHIA]\n\nA deadlock, accompanied by the most surly feelings on both sides,\nthreatened the very existence of the young government. Washington and\nHamilton were thoroughly alarmed. Hearing of the extremity to which the\ncontest had been carried and acting on the appeal from the Secretary of\nthe Treasury, Jefferson intervened at this point. By skillful management\nat a good dinner he brought the opposing leaders together; and thus once\nmore, as on many other occasions, peace was purchased and the union\nsaved by compromise. The bargain this time consisted of an exchange of\nvotes for assumption in return for votes for the capital. Enough\nSouthern members voted for assumption to pass the bill, and a majority\nwas mustered in favor of building the capital on the banks of the\nPotomac, after locating it for a ten-year period at Philadelphia to\nsatisfy Pennsylvania members.\n\n=The United States Bank.=--Encouraged by the success of his funding and\nassumption measures, Hamilton laid before Congress a project for a great\nUnited States Bank. He proposed that a private corporation be chartered\nby Congress, authorized to raise a capital stock of $10,000,000\n(three-fourths in new six per cent federal bonds and one-fourth in\nspecie) and empowered to issue paper currency under proper safeguards.\nMany advantages, Hamilton contended, would accrue to the government from\nthis institution. The price of the government bonds would be increased,\nthus enhancing public credit. A national currency would be created of\nuniform value from one end of the land to the other. The branches of the\nbank in various cities would make easy the exchange of funds so vital to\ncommercial transactions on a national scale. Finally, through the issue\nof bank notes, the money capital available for agriculture and industry\nwould be increased, thus stimulating business enterprise. Jefferson\nhotly attacked the bank on the ground that Congress had no power\nwhatever under the Constitution to charter such a private corporation.\nHamilton defended it with great cogency. Washington, after weighing all\nopinions, decided in favor of the proposal. In 1791 the bill\nestablishing the first United States Bank for a period of twenty years\nbecame a law.\n\n=The Protective Tariff.=--A third part of Hamilton's program was the\nprotection of American industries. The first revenue act of 1789, though\ndesigned primarily to bring money into the empty treasury, declared in\nfavor of the principle. The following year Washington referred to the\nsubject in his address to Congress. Thereupon Hamilton was instructed to\nprepare recommendations for legislative action. The result, after a\ndelay of more than a year, was his _Report on Manufactures_, another\nstate paper worthy, in closeness of reasoning and keenness of\nunderstanding, of a place beside his report on public credit. Hamilton\nbased his argument on the broadest national grounds: the protective\ntariff would, by encouraging the building of factories, create a home\nmarket for the produce of farms and plantations; by making the United\nStates independent of other countries in times of peace, it would double\nits security in time of war; by making use of the labor of women and\nchildren, it would turn to the production of goods persons otherwise\nidle or only partly employed; by increasing the trade between the North\nand South it would strengthen the links of union and add to political\nties those of commerce and intercourse. The revenue measure of 1792 bore\nthe impress of these arguments.\n\n\nTHE RISE OF POLITICAL PARTIES\n\n=Dissensions over Hamilton's Measures.=--Hamilton's plans, touching\ndeeply as they did the resources of individuals and the interests of the\nstates, awakened alarm and opposition. Funding at face value, said his\ncritics, was a government favor to speculators; the assumption of state\ndebts was a deep design to undermine the state governments; Congress had\nno constitutional power to create a bank; the law creating the bank\nmerely allowed a private corporation to make paper money and lend it at\na high rate of interest; and the tariff was a tax on land and labor for\nthe benefit of manufacturers.\n\nHamilton's reply to this bill of indictment was simple and\nstraightforward. Some rascally speculators had profited from the funding\nof the debt at face value, but that was only an incident in the\nrestoration of public credit. In view of the jealousies of the states it\nwas a good thing to reduce their powers and pretensions. The\nConstitution was not to be interpreted narrowly but in the full light of\nnational needs. The bank would enlarge the amount of capital so sorely\nneeded to start up American industries, giving markets to farmers and\nplanters. The tariff by creating a home market and increasing\nopportunities for employment would benefit both land and labor. Out of\nsuch wise policies firmly pursued by the government, he concluded, were\nbound to come strength and prosperity for the new government at home,\ncredit and power abroad. This view Washington fully indorsed, adding\nthe weight of his great name to the inherent merits of the measures\nadopted under his administration.\n\n=The Sharpness of the Partisan Conflict.=--As a result of the clash of\nopinion, the people of the country gradually divided into two parties:\nFederalists and Anti-Federalists, the former led by Hamilton, the latter\nby Jefferson. The strength of the Federalists lay in the cities--Boston,\nProvidence, Hartford, New York, Philadelphia, Charleston--among the\nmanufacturing, financial, and commercial groups of the population who\nwere eager to extend their business operations. The strength of the\nAnti-Federalists lay mainly among the debt-burdened farmers who feared\nthe growth of what they called \"a money power\" and planters in all\nsections who feared the dominance of commercial and manufacturing\ninterests. The farming and planting South, outside of the few towns,\nfinally presented an almost solid front against assumption, the bank,\nand the tariff. The conflict between the parties grew steadily in\nbitterness, despite the conciliatory and engaging manner in which\nHamilton presented his cause in his state papers and despite the\nconstant efforts of Washington to soften the asperity of the\ncontestants.\n\n=The Leadership and Doctrines of Jefferson.=--The party dispute had not\ngone far before the opponents of the administration began to look to\nJefferson as their leader. Some of Hamilton's measures he had approved,\ndeclaring afterward that he did not at the time understand their\nsignificance. Others, particularly the bank, he fiercely assailed. More\nthan once, he and Hamilton, shaking violently with anger, attacked each\nother at cabinet meetings, and nothing short of the grave and dignified\npleas of Washington prevented an early and open break between them. In\n1794 it finally came. Jefferson resigned as Secretary of State and\nretired to his home in Virginia to assume, through correspondence and\nnegotiation, the leadership of the steadily growing party of opposition.\n\nShy and modest in manner, halting in speech, disliking the turmoil of\npublic debate, and deeply interested in science and philosophy,\nJefferson was not very well fitted for the strenuous life of political\ncontest. Nevertheless, he was an ambitious and shrewd negotiator. He was\nalso by honest opinion and matured conviction the exact opposite of\nHamilton. The latter believed in a strong, active, \"high-toned\"\ngovernment, vigorously compelling in all its branches. Jefferson looked\nupon such government as dangerous to the liberties of citizens and\nopenly avowed his faith in the desirability of occasional popular\nuprisings. Hamilton distrusted the people. \"Your people is a great\nbeast,\" he is reported to have said. Jefferson professed his faith in\nthe people with an abandon that was considered reckless in his time.\n\nOn economic matters, the opinions of the two leaders were also\nhopelessly at variance. Hamilton, while cherishing agriculture, desired\nto see America a great commercial and industrial nation. Jefferson was\nequally set against this course for his country. He feared the\naccumulation of riches and the growth of a large urban working class.\nThe mobs of great cities, he said, are sores on the body politic;\nartisans are usually the dangerous element that make revolutions;\nworkshops should be kept in Europe and with them the artisans with their\ninsidious morals and manners. The only substantial foundation for a\nrepublic, Jefferson believed to be agriculture. The spirit of\nindependence could be kept alive only by free farmers, owning the land\nthey tilled and looking to the sun in heaven and the labor of their\nhands for their sustenance. Trusting as he did in the innate goodness of\nhuman nature when nourished on a free soil, Jefferson advocated those\nmeasures calculated to favor agriculture and to enlarge the rights of\npersons rather than the powers of government. Thus he became the\nchampion of the individual against the interference of the government,\nand an ardent advocate of freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and\nfreedom of scientific inquiry. It was, accordingly, no mere factious\nspirit that drove him into opposition to Hamilton.\n\n=The Whisky Rebellion.=--The political agitation of the Anti-Federalists\nwas accompanied by an armed revolt against the government in 1794. The\noccasion for this uprising was another of Hamilton's measures, a law\nlaying an excise tax on distilled spirits, for the purpose of increasing\nthe revenue needed to pay the interest on the funded debt. It so\nhappened that a very considerable part of the whisky manufactured in the\ncountry was made by the farmers, especially on the frontier, in their\nown stills. The new revenue law meant that federal officers would now\ncome into the homes of the people, measure their liquor, and take the\ntax out of their pockets. All the bitterness which farmers felt against\nthe fiscal measures of the government was redoubled. In the western\ndistricts of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina, they refused to\npay the tax. In Pennsylvania, some of them sacked and burned the houses\nof the tax collectors, as the Revolutionists thirty years before had\nmobbed the agents of King George sent over to sell stamps. They were in\na fair way to nullify the law in whole districts when Washington called\nout the troops to suppress \"the Whisky Rebellion.\" Then the movement\ncollapsed; but it left behind a deep-seated resentment which flared up\nin the election of several obdurate Anti-Federalist Congressmen from the\ndisaffected regions.\n\n\nFOREIGN INFLUENCES AND DOMESTIC POLITICS\n\n=The French Revolution.=--In this exciting period, when all America was\ndistracted by partisan disputes, a storm broke in Europe--the\nepoch-making French Revolution--which not only shook the thrones of the\nOld World but stirred to its depths the young republic of the New World.\nThe first scene in this dramatic affair occurred in the spring of 1789,\na few days after Washington was inaugurated. The king of France, Louis\nXVI, driven into bankruptcy by extravagance and costly wars, was forced\nto resort to his people for financial help. Accordingly he called, for\nthe first time in more than one hundred fifty years, a meeting of the\nnational parliament, the \"Estates General,\" composed of representatives\nof the \"three estates\"--the clergy, nobility, and commoners. Acting\nunder powerful leaders, the commoners, or \"third estate,\" swept aside\nthe clergy and nobility and resolved themselves into a national\nassembly. This stirred the country to its depths.\n\n[Illustration: _From an old print_\n\nLOUIS XVI IN THE HANDS OF THE MOB]\n\nGreat events followed in swift succession. On July 14, 1789, the\nBastille, an old royal prison, symbol of the king's absolutism, was\nstormed by a Paris crowd and destroyed. On the night of August 4, the\nfeudal privileges of the nobility were abolished by the national\nassembly amid great excitement. A few days later came the famous\nDeclaration of the Rights of Man, proclaiming the sovereignty of the\npeople and the privileges of citizens. In the autumn of 1791, Louis XVI\nwas forced to accept a new constitution for France vesting the\nlegislative power in a popular assembly. Little disorder accompanied\nthese startling changes. To all appearances a peaceful revolution had\nstripped the French king of his royal prerogatives and based the\ngovernment of his country on the consent of the governed.\n\n=American Influence in France.=--In undertaking their great political\nrevolt the French had been encouraged by the outcome of the American\nRevolution. Officers and soldiers, who had served in the American war,\nreported to their French countrymen marvelous tales. At the frugal table\nof General Washington, in council with the unpretentious Franklin, or at\nconferences over the strategy of war, French noblemen of ancient lineage\nlearned to respect both the talents and the simple character of the\nleaders in the great republican commonwealth beyond the seas. Travelers,\nwho had gone to see the experiment in republicanism with their own eyes,\ncarried home to the king and ruling class stories of an astounding\nsystem of popular government.\n\nOn the other hand the dalliance with American democracy was regarded by\nFrench conservatives as playing with fire. \"When we think of the false\nideas of government and philanthropy,\" wrote one of Lafayette's aides,\n\"which these youths acquired in America and propagated in France with so\nmuch enthusiasm and such deplorable success--for this mania of imitation\npowerfully aided the Revolution, though it was not the sole cause of\nit--we are bound to confess that it would have been better, both for\nthemselves and for us, if these young philosophers in red-heeled shoes\nhad stayed at home in attendance on the court.\"\n\n=Early American Opinion of the French Revolution.=--So close were the\nties between the two nations that it is not surprising to find every\nstep in the first stages of the French Revolution greeted with applause\nin the United States. \"Liberty will have another feather in her cap,\"\nexultantly wrote a Boston editor. \"In no part of the globe,\" soberly\nwrote John Marshall, \"was this revolution hailed with more joy than in\nAmerica.... But one sentiment existed.\" The main key to the Bastille,\nsent to Washington as a memento, was accepted as \"a token of the\nvictory gained by liberty.\" Thomas Paine saw in the great event \"the\nfirst ripe fruits of American principles transplanted into Europe.\"\nFederalists and Anti-Federalists regarded the new constitution of France\nas another vindication of American ideals.\n\n=The Reign of Terror.=--While profuse congratulations were being\nexchanged, rumors began to come that all was not well in France. Many\nnoblemen, enraged at the loss of their special privileges, fled into\nGermany and plotted an invasion of France to overthrow the new system of\ngovernment. Louis XVI entered into negotiations with his brother\nmonarchs on the continent to secure their help in the same enterprise,\nand he finally betrayed to the French people his true sentiments by\nattempting to escape from his kingdom, only to be captured and taken\nback to Paris in disgrace.\n\nA new phase of the revolution now opened. The working people, excluded\nfrom all share in the government by the first French constitution,\nbecame restless, especially in Paris. Assembling on the Champs de Mars,\na great open field, they signed a petition calling for another\nconstitution giving them the suffrage. When told to disperse, they\nrefused and were fired upon by the national guard. This \"massacre,\" as\nit was called, enraged the populace. A radical party, known as\n\"Jacobins,\" then sprang up, taking its name from a Jacobin monastery in\nwhich it held its sessions. In a little while it became the master of\nthe popular convention convoked in September, 1792. The monarchy was\nimmediately abolished and a republic established. On January 21, 1793,\nLouis was sent to the scaffold. To the war on Austria, already raging,\nwas added a war on England. Then came the Reign of Terror, during which\nradicals in possession of the convention executed in large numbers\ncounter-revolutionists and those suspected of sympathy with the\nmonarchy. They shot down peasants who rose in insurrection against their\nrule and established a relentless dictatorship. Civil war followed.\nTerrible atrocities were committed on both sides in the name of liberty,\nand in the name of monarchy. To Americans of conservative temper it now\nseemed that the Revolution, so auspiciously begun, had degenerated into\nanarchy and mere bloodthirsty strife.\n\n=Burke Summons the World to War on France.=--In England, Edmund Burke\nled the fight against the new French principles which he feared might\nspread to all Europe. In his _Reflections on the French Revolution_,\nwritten in 1790, he attacked with terrible wrath the whole program of\npopular government; he called for war, relentless war, upon the French\nas monsters and outlaws; he demanded that they be reduced to order by\nthe restoration of the king to full power under the protection of the\narms of European nations.\n\n=Paine's Defense of the French Revolution.=--To counteract the campaign\nof hate against the French, Thomas Paine replied to Burke in another of\nhis famous tracts, _The Rights of Man_, which was given to the American\npublic in an edition containing a letter of approval from Jefferson.\nBurke, said Paine, had been mourning about the glories of the French\nmonarchy and aristocracy but had forgotten the starving peasants and the\noppressed people; had wept over the plumage and neglected the dying\nbird. Burke had denied the right of the French people to choose their\nown governors, blandly forgetting that the English government in which\nhe saw final perfection itself rested on two revolutions. He had boasted\nthat the king of England held his crown in contempt of the democratic\nsocieties. Paine answered: \"If I ask a man in America if he wants a\nking, he retorts and asks me if I take him for an idiot.\" To the charge\nthat the doctrines of the rights of man were \"new fangled,\" Paine\nreplied that the question was not whether they were new or old but\nwhether they were right or wrong. As to the French disorders and\ndifficulties, he bade the world wait to see what would be brought forth\nin due time.\n\n=The Effect of the French Revolution on American Politics.=--The course\nof the French Revolution and the controversies accompanying it,\nexercised a profound influence on the formation of the first political\nparties in America. The followers of Hamilton, now proud of the name\n\"Federalists,\" drew back in fright as they heard of the cruel deeds\ncommitted during the Reign of Terror. They turned savagely upon the\nrevolutionists and their friends in America, denouncing as \"Jacobin\"\neverybody who did not condemn loudly enough the proceedings of the\nFrench Republic. A Massachusetts preacher roundly assailed \"the\natheistical, anarchical, and in other respects immoral principles of the\nFrench Republicans\"; he then proceeded with equal passion to attack\nJefferson and the Anti-Federalists, whom he charged with spreading false\nFrench propaganda and betraying America. \"The editors, patrons, and\nabettors of these vehicles of slander,\" he exclaimed, \"ought to be\nconsidered and treated as enemies to their country.... Of all traitors\nthey are the most aggravatedly criminal; of all villains, they are the\nmost infamous and detestable.\"\n\nThe Anti-Federalists, as a matter of fact, were generally favorable to\nthe Revolution although they deplored many of the events associated with\nit. Paine's pamphlet, indorsed by Jefferson, was widely read. Democratic\nsocieties, after the fashion of French political clubs, arose in the\ncities; the coalition of European monarchs against France was denounced\nas a coalition against the very principles of republicanism; and the\nexecution of Louis XVI was openly celebrated at a banquet in\nPhiladelphia. Harmless titles, such as \"Sir,\" \"the Honorable,\" and \"His\nExcellency,\" were decried as aristocratic and some of the more excited\ninsisted on adopting the French title, \"Citizen,\" speaking, for example,\nof \"Citizen Judge\" and \"Citizen Toastmaster.\" Pamphlets in defense of\nthe French streamed from the press, while subsidized newspapers kept the\npropaganda in full swing.\n\n=The European War Disturbs American Commerce.=--This battle of wits, or\nrather contest in calumny, might have gone on indefinitely in America\nwithout producing any serious results, had it not been for the war\nbetween England and France, then raging. The English, having command of\nthe seas, claimed the right to seize American produce bound for French\nports and to confiscate American ships engaged in carrying French goods.\nAdding fuel to a fire already hot enough, they began to search American\nships and to carry off British-born sailors found on board American\nvessels.\n\n=The French Appeal for Help.=--At the same time the French Republic\nturned to the United States for aid in its war on England and sent over\nas its diplomatic representative \"Citizen\" Genet, an ardent supporter of\nthe new order. On his arrival at Charleston, he was greeted with fervor\nby the Anti-Federalists. As he made his way North, he was wined and\ndined and given popular ovations that turned his head. He thought the\nwhole country was ready to join the French Republic in its contest with\nEngland. Genet therefore attempted to use the American ports as the base\nof operations for French privateers preying on British merchant ships;\nand he insisted that the United States was in honor bound to help France\nunder the treaty of 1778.\n\n=The Proclamation of Neutrality and the Jay Treaty.=--Unmoved by the\n\nrising tide of popular sympathy for France, Washington took a firm\ncourse. He received Genet coldly. The demand that the United States aid\nFrance under the old treaty of alliance he answered by proclaiming the\nneutrality of America and warning American citizens against hostile acts\ntoward either France or England. When Genet continued to hold meetings,\nissue manifestoes, and stir up the people against England, Washington\nasked the French government to recall him. This act he followed up by\nsending the Chief Justice, John Jay, on a pacific mission to England.\n\nThe result was the celebrated Jay treaty of 1794. By its terms Great\nBritain agreed to withdraw her troops from the western forts where they\nhad been since the war for independence and to grant certain slight\ntrade concessions. The chief sources of bitterness--the failure of the\nBritish to return slaves carried off during the Revolution, the seizure\nof American ships, and the impressment of sailors--were not touched,\nmuch to the distress of everybody in America, including loyal\nFederalists. Nevertheless, Washington, dreading an armed conflict with\nEngland, urged the Senate to ratify the treaty. The weight of his\ninfluence carried the day.\n\nAt this, the hostility of the Anti-Federalists knew no bounds. Jefferson\ndeclared the Jay treaty \"an infamous act which is really nothing more\nthan an alliance between England and the Anglo-men of this country,\nagainst the legislature and the people of the United States.\" Hamilton,\ndefending it with his usual courage, was stoned by a mob in New York and\ndriven from the platform with blood streaming from his face. Jay was\nburned in effigy. Even Washington was not spared. The House of\nRepresentatives was openly hostile. To display its feelings, it called\nupon the President for the papers relative to the treaty negotiations,\nonly to be more highly incensed by his flat refusal to present them, on\nthe ground that the House did not share in the treaty-making power.\n\n=Washington Retires from Politics.=--Such angry contests confirmed the\nPresident in his slowly maturing determination to retire at the end of\nhis second term in office. He did not believe that a third term was\nunconstitutional or improper; but, worn out by his long and arduous\nlabors in war and in peace and wounded by harsh attacks from former\nfriends, he longed for the quiet of his beautiful estate at Mount\nVernon.\n\nIn September, 1796, on the eve of the presidential election, Washington\nissued his Farewell Address, another state paper to be treasured and\nread by generations of Americans to come. In this address he directed\nthe attention of the people to three subjects of lasting interest. He\nwarned them against sectional jealousies. He remonstrated against the\nspirit of partisanship, saying that in government \"of the popular\ncharacter, in government purely elective, it is a spirit not to be\nencouraged.\" He likewise cautioned the people against \"the insidious\nwiles of foreign influence,\" saying: \"Europe has a set of primary\ninterests which to us have none or a very remote relation. Hence she\nmust be engaged in frequent controversies, the causes of which are\nessentially foreign to our concerns. Hence, therefore, it would be\nunwise in us to implicate ourselves, by artificial ties, in the ordinary\nvicissitudes of her politics or the ordinary combinations and collisions\nof her friendships or enmities.... Why forego the advantages of so\npeculiar a situation?... It is our true policy to steer clear of\npermanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world.... Taking\ncare always to keep ourselves, by suitable establishments, on a\nrespectable defensive posture, we may safely trust to temporary\nalliances for extraordinary emergencies.\"\n\n=The Campaign of 1796--Adams Elected.=--On hearing of the retirement of\nWashington, the Anti-Federalists cast off all restraints. In honor of\nFrance and in opposition to what they were pleased to call the\nmonarchical tendencies of the Federalists, they boldly assumed the name\n\"Republican\"; the term \"Democrat,\" then applied only to obscure and\ndespised radicals, had not come into general use. They selected\nJefferson as their candidate for President against John Adams, the\nFederalist nominee, and carried on such a spirited campaign that they\ncame within four votes of electing him.\n\nThe successful candidate, Adams, was not fitted by training or opinion\nfor conciliating a determined opposition. He was a reserved and studious\nman. He was neither a good speaker nor a skillful negotiator. In one of\nhis books he had declared himself in favor of \"government by an\naristocracy of talents and wealth\"--an offense which the Republicans\nnever forgave. While John Marshall found him \"a sensible, plain, candid,\ngood-tempered man,\" Jefferson could see in him nothing but a \"monocrat\"\nand \"Anglo-man.\" Had it not been for the conduct of the French\ngovernment, Adams would hardly have enjoyed a moment's genuine\npopularity during his administration.\n\n=The Quarrel with France.=--The French Directory, the executive\ndepartment established under the constitution of 1795, managed, however,\nto stir the anger of Republicans and Federalists alike. It regarded the\nJay treaty as a rebuke to France and a flagrant violation of obligations\nsolemnly registered in the treaty of 1778. Accordingly it refused to\nreceive the American minister, treated him in a humiliating way, and\nfinally told him to leave the country. Overlooking this affront in his\nanxiety to maintain peace, Adams dispatched to France a commission of\neminent men with instructions to reach an understanding with the French\nRepublic. On their arrival, they were chagrined to find, instead of a\ndecent reception, an indirect demand for an apology respecting the past\nconduct of the American government, a payment in cash, and an annual\ntribute as the price of continued friendship. When the news of this\naffair reached President Adams, he promptly laid it before Congress,\nreferring to the Frenchmen who had made the demands as \"Mr. X, Mr. Y,\nand Mr. Z.\"\n\nThis insult, coupled with the fact that French privateers, like the\nBritish, were preying upon American commerce, enraged even the\nRepublicans who had been loudest in the profession of their French\nsympathies. They forgot their wrath over the Jay treaty and joined with\nthe Federalists in shouting: \"Millions for defense, not a cent for\ntribute!\" Preparations for war were made on every hand. Washington was\nonce more called from Mount Vernon to take his old position at the head\nof the army. Indeed, fighting actually began upon the high seas and went\non without a formal declaration of war until the year 1800. By that time\nthe Directory had been overthrown. A treaty was readily made with\nNapoleon, the First Consul, who was beginning his remarkable career as\nchief of the French Republic, soon to be turned into an empire.\n\n=Alien and Sedition Laws.=--Flushed with success, the Federalists\ndetermined, if possible, to put an end to radical French influence in\nAmerica and to silence Republican opposition. They therefore passed two\ndrastic laws in the summer of 1798: the Alien and Sedition Acts.\n\nThe first of these measures empowered the President to expel from the\ncountry or to imprison any alien whom he regarded as \"dangerous\" or \"had\nreasonable grounds to suspect\" of \"any treasonable or secret\nmachinations against the government.\"\n\nThe second of the measures, the Sedition Act, penalized not only those\nwho attempted to stir up unlawful combinations against the government\nbut also every one who wrote, uttered, or published \"any false,\nscandalous, and malicious writing ... against the government of the\nUnited States or either House of Congress, or the President of the\nUnited States, with intent to defame said government ... or to bring\nthem or either of them into contempt or disrepute.\" This measure was\nhurried through Congress in spite of the opposition and the clear\nprovision in the Constitution that Congress shall make no law abridging\nthe freedom of speech or of the press. Even many Federalists feared the\nconsequences of the action. Hamilton was alarmed when he read the bill,\nexclaiming: \"Let us not establish a tyranny. Energy is a very different\nthing from violence.\" John Marshall told his friends in Virginia that,\nhad he been in Congress, he would have opposed the two bills because he\nthought them \"useless\" and \"calculated to create unnecessary discontents\nand jealousies.\"\n\nThe Alien law was not enforced; but it gave great offense to the Irish\nand French whose activities against the American government's policy\nrespecting Great Britain put them in danger of prison. The Sedition law,\non the other hand, was vigorously applied. Several editors of Republican\nnewspapers soon found themselves in jail or broken by ruinous fines for\ntheir caustic criticisms of the Federalist President and his policies.\nBystanders at political meetings, who uttered sentiments which, though\nungenerous and severe, seem harmless enough now, were hurried before\nFederalist judges and promptly fined and imprisoned. Although the\nprosecutions were not numerous, they aroused a keen resentment. The\nRepublicans were convinced that their political opponents, having\nsaddled upon the country Hamilton's fiscal system and the British\ntreaty, were bent on silencing all censure. The measures therefore had\nexactly the opposite effect from that which their authors intended.\nInstead of helping the Federalist party, they made criticism of it more\nbitter than ever.\n\n=The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.=--Jefferson was quick to take\nadvantage of the discontent. He drafted a set of resolutions declaring\nthe Sedition law null and void, as violating the federal Constitution.\nHis resolutions were passed by the Kentucky legislature late in 1798,\nsigned by the governor, and transmitted to the other states for their\nconsideration. Though receiving unfavorable replies from a number of\nNorthern states, Kentucky the following year reaffirmed its position and\ndeclared that the nullification of all unconstitutional acts of Congress\nwas the rightful remedy to be used by the states in the redress of\ngrievances. It thus defied the federal government and announced a\ndoctrine hostile to nationality and fraught with terrible meaning for\nthe future. In the neighboring state of Virginia, Madison led a movement\nagainst the Alien and Sedition laws. He induced the legislature to pass\nresolutions condemning the acts as unconstitutional and calling upon the\nother states to take proper means to preserve their rights and the\nrights of the people.\n\n=The Republican Triumph in 1800.=--Thus the way was prepared for the\nelection of 1800. The Republicans left no stone unturned in their\nefforts to place on the Federalist candidate, President Adams, all the\nodium of the Alien and Sedition laws, in addition to responsibility for\napproving Hamilton's measures and policies. The Federalists, divided in\ncouncils and cold in their affection for Adams, made a poor campaign.\nThey tried to discredit their opponents with epithets of \"Jacobins\" and\n\"Anarchists\"--terms which had been weakened by excessive use. When the\nvote was counted, it was found that Adams had been defeated; while the\nRepublicans had carried the entire South and New York also and secured\neight of the fifteen electoral votes cast by Pennsylvania. \"Our beloved\nAdams will now close his bright career,\" lamented a Federalist\nnewspaper. \"Sons of faction, demagogues and high priests of anarchy, now\nyou have cause to triumph!\"\n\n[Illustration: _An old cartoon_\n\nA QUARREL BETWEEN A FEDERALIST AND A REPUBLICAN IN THE HOUSE OF\nREPRESENTATIVES]\n\nJefferson's election, however, was still uncertain. By a curious\nprovision in the Constitution, presidential electors were required to\nvote for two persons without indicating which office each was to fill,\nthe one receiving the highest number of votes to be President and the\ncandidate standing next to be Vice President. It so happened that Aaron\nBurr, the Republican candidate for Vice President, had received the same\nnumber of votes as Jefferson; as neither had a majority the election was\nthrown into the House of Representatives, where the Federalists held the\nbalance of power. Although it was well known that Burr was not even a\ncandidate for President, his friends and many Federalists began\nintriguing for his election to that high office. Had it not been for the\nvigorous action of Hamilton the prize might have been snatched out of\nJefferson's hands. Not until the thirty-sixth ballot on February 17,\n1801, was the great issue decided in his favor.[2]\n\n\n=References=\n\nJ.S. Bassett, _The Federalist System_ (American Nation Series).\n\nC.A. Beard, _Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy_.\n\nH. Lodge, _Alexander Hamilton_.\n\nJ.T. Morse, _Thomas Jefferson_.\n\n\n=Questions=\n\n1. Who were the leaders in the first administration under the\nConstitution?\n\n2. What step was taken to appease the opposition?\n\n3. Enumerate Hamilton's great measures and explain each in detail.\n\n4. Show the connection between the parts of Hamilton's system.\n\n5. Contrast the general political views of Hamilton and Jefferson.\n\n6. What were the important results of the \"peaceful\" French Revolution\n(1789-92)?\n\n7. Explain the interaction of opinion between France and the United\nStates.\n\n8. How did the \"Reign of Terror\" change American opinion?\n\n9. What was the Burke-Paine controversy?\n\n10. Show how the war in Europe affected American commerce and involved\nAmerica with England and France.\n\n11. What were American policies with regard to each of those countries?\n\n12. What was the outcome of the Alien and Sedition Acts?\n\n\n=Research Topics=\n\n=Early Federal Legislation.=--Coman, _Industrial History of the United\nStates_, pp. 133-156; Elson, _History of the United States_, pp.\n341-348.\n\n=Hamilton's Report on Public Credit.=--Macdonald, _Documentary Source\nBook_, pp. 233-243.\n\n=The French Revolution.=--Robinson and Beard, _Development of Modern\nEurope_, Vol. I, pp. 224-282; Elson, pp. 351-354.\n\n=The Burke-Paine Controversy.=--Make an analysis of Burke's _Reflections\non the French Revolution_ and Paine's _Rights of Man_.\n\n=The Alien and Sedition Acts.=--Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book_,\npp. 259-267; Elson, pp. 367-375.\n\n=Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.=--Macdonald, pp. 267-278.\n\n=Source Studies.=--Materials in Hart, _American History Told by\nContemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 255-343.\n\n=Biographical Studies.=--Alexander Hamilton, John Adams, Thomas\nJefferson, and Albert Gallatin.\n\n=The Twelfth Amendment.=--Contrast the provision in the original\nConstitution with the terms of the Amendment. _See_ Appendix.\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n[1] North Carolina ratified in November, 1789, and Rhode Island in May,\n1790.\n\n[2] To prevent a repetition of such an unfortunate affair, the twelfth\namendment of the Constitution was adopted in 1804, changing slightly the\nmethod of electing the President.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IX\n\nTHE JEFFERSONIAN REPUBLICANS IN POWER\n\n\nREPUBLICAN PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES\n\n=Opposition to Strong Central Government.=--Cherishing especially the\nagricultural interest, as Jefferson said, the Republicans were in the\nbeginning provincial in their concern and outlook. Their attachment to\nAmerica was, certainly, as strong as that of Hamilton; but they regarded\nthe state, rather than the national government, as the proper center of\npower and affection. Indeed, a large part of the rank and file had been\namong the opponents of the Constitution in the days of its adoption.\nJefferson had entertained doubts about it and Monroe, destined to be the\nfifth President, had been one of the bitter foes of ratification. The\nformer went so far in the direction of local autonomy that he exalted\nthe state above the nation in the Kentucky resolutions of 1798,\ndeclaring the Constitution to be a mere compact and the states competent\nto interpret and nullify federal law. This was provincialism with a\nvengeance. \"It is jealousy, not confidence, which prescribes limited\nconstitutions,\" wrote Jefferson for the Kentucky legislature. Jealousy\nof the national government, not confidence in it--this is the ideal that\nreflected the provincial and agricultural interest.\n\n=Republican Simplicity.=--Every act of the Jeffersonian party during its\nearly days of power was in accord with the ideals of government which it\nprofessed. It had opposed all pomp and ceremony, calculated to give\nweight and dignity to the chief executive of the nation, as symbols of\nmonarchy and high prerogative. Appropriately, therefore, Jefferson's\ninauguration on March 4, 1801, the first at the new capital at\nWashington, was marked by extreme simplicity. In keeping with this\nprocedure he quit the practice, followed by Washington and Adams, of\nreading presidential addresses to Congress in joint assembly and adopted\nin its stead the plan of sending his messages in writing--a custom that\nwas continued unbroken until 1913 when President Wilson returned to the\nexample set by the first chief magistrate.\n\n=Republican Measures.=--The Republicans had complained of a great\nnational debt as the source of a dangerous \"money power,\" giving\nstrength to the federal government; accordingly they began to pay it off\nas rapidly as possible. They had held commerce in low esteem and looked\nupon a large navy as a mere device to protect it; consequently they\nreduced the number of warships. They had objected to excise taxes,\nparticularly on whisky; these they quickly abolished, to the intense\nsatisfaction of the farmers. They had protested against the heavy cost\nof the federal government; they reduced expenses by discharging hundreds\nof men from the army and abolishing many offices.\n\nThey had savagely criticized the Sedition law and Jefferson refused to\nenforce it. They had been deeply offended by the assault on freedom of\nspeech and press and they promptly impeached Samuel Chase, a justice of\nthe Supreme Court, who had been especially severe in his attacks upon\noffenders under the Sedition Act. Their failure to convict Justice Chase\nby a narrow margin was due to no lack of zeal on their part but to the\nFederalist strength in the Senate where the trial was held. They had\nregarded the appointment of a large number of federal judges during the\nlast hours of Adams' administration as an attempt to intrench\nFederalists in the judiciary and to enlarge the sphere of the national\ngovernment. Accordingly, they at once repealed the act creating the new\njudgeships, thus depriving the \"midnight appointees\" of their posts.\nThey had considered the federal offices, civil and military, as sources\nof great strength to the Federalists and Jefferson, though committed to\nthe principle that offices should be open to all and distributed\naccording to merit, was careful to fill most of the vacancies as they\noccurred with trusted Republicans. To his credit, however, it must be\nsaid that he did not make wholesale removals to find room for party\nworkers.\n\nThe Republicans thus hewed to the line of their general policy of\nrestricting the weight, dignity, and activity of the national\ngovernment. Yet there were no Republicans, as the Federalists asserted,\nprepared to urge serious modifications in the Constitution. \"If there be\nany among us who wish to dissolve this union or to change its republican\nform,\" wrote Jefferson in his first inaugural, \"let them stand\nundisturbed as monuments of the safety with which error of opinion may\nbe tolerated where reason is left free to combat it.\" After reciting the\nfortunate circumstances of climate, soil, and isolation which made the\nfuture of America so full of promise, Jefferson concluded: \"A wise and\nfrugal government which shall restrain men from injuring one another,\nshall leave them otherwise free to regulate their own pursuits of\nindustry and improvement and shall not take from the mouth of labour the\nbread it has earned. This is the sum of good government; and this is\nnecessary to close the circle of our felicities.\"\n\nIn all this the Republicans had not reckoned with destiny. In a few\nshort years that lay ahead it was their fate to double the territory of\nthe country, making inevitable a continental nation; to give the\nConstitution a generous interpretation that shocked many a Federalist;\nto wage war on behalf of American commerce; to reestablish the hated\nUnited States Bank; to enact a high protective tariff; to see their\nFederalist opponents in their turn discredited as nullifiers and\nprovincials; to announce high national doctrines in foreign affairs; and\nto behold the Constitution exalted and defended against the pretensions\nof states by a son of old Virginia, John Marshall, Chief Justice of the\nSupreme Court of the United States.\n\n\nTHE REPUBLICANS AND THE GREAT WEST\n\n=Expansion and Land Hunger.=--The first of the great measures which\ndrove the Republicans out upon this new national course--the purchase\nof the Louisiana territory--was the product of circumstances rather than\nof their deliberate choosing. It was not the lack of land for his\ncherished farmers that led Jefferson to add such an immense domain to\nthe original possessions of the United States. In the Northwest\nterritory, now embracing Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin,\nand a portion of Minnesota, settlements were mainly confined to the\nnorth bank of the Ohio River. To the south, in Kentucky and Tennessee,\nwhere there were more than one hundred thousand white people who had\npushed over the mountains from Virginia and the Carolinas, there were\nstill wide reaches of untilled soil. The Alabama and Mississippi regions\nwere vast Indian frontiers of the state of Georgia, unsettled and almost\nunexplored. Even to the wildest imagination there seemed to be territory\nenough to satisfy the land hunger of the American people for a century\nto come.\n\n=The Significance of the Mississippi River.=--At all events the East,\nthen the center of power, saw no good reason for expansion. The planters\nof the Carolinas, the manufacturers of Pennsylvania, the importers of\nNew York, the shipbuilders of New England, looking to the seaboard and\nto Europe for trade, refinements, and sometimes their ideas of\ngovernment, were slow to appreciate the place of the West in national\neconomy. The better educated the Easterners were, the less, it seems,\nthey comprehended the destiny of the nation. Sons of Federalist fathers\nat Williams College, after a long debate decided by a vote of fifteen to\none that the purchase of Louisiana was undesirable.\n\nOn the other hand, the pioneers of Kentucky, Ohio, and Tennessee,\nunlearned in books, saw with their own eyes the resources of the\nwilderness. Many of them had been across the Mississippi and had beheld\nthe rich lands awaiting the plow of the white man. Down the great river\nthey floated their wheat, corn, and bacon to ocean-going ships bound for\nthe ports of the seaboard or for Europe. The land journeys over the\nmountain barriers with bulky farm produce, they knew from experience,\nwere almost impossible, and costly at best. Nails, bolts of cloth, tea,\nand coffee could go or come that way, but not corn and bacon. A free\noutlet to the sea by the Mississippi was as essential to the pioneers of\nthe Kentucky region as the harbor of Boston to the merchant princes of\nthat metropolis.\n\n=Louisiana under Spanish Rule.=--For this reason they watched with deep\nsolicitude the fortunes of the Spanish king to whom, at the close of the\nSeven Years' War, had fallen the Louisiana territory stretching from New\nOrleans to the Rocky Mountains. While he controlled the mouth of the\nMississippi there was little to fear, for he had neither the army nor\nthe navy necessary to resist any invasion of American trade. Moreover,\nWashington had been able, by the exercise of great tact, to secure from\nSpain in 1795 a trading privilege through New Orleans which satisfied\nthe present requirements of the frontiersmen even if it did not allay\ntheir fears for the future. So things stood when a swift succession of\nevents altered the whole situation.\n\n=Louisiana Transferred to France.=--In July, 1802, a royal order from\nSpain instructed the officials at New Orleans to close the port to\nAmerican produce. About the same time a disturbing rumor, long current,\nwas confirmed--Napoleon had coerced Spain into returning Louisiana to\nFrance by a secret treaty signed in 1800. \"The scalers of the Alps and\nconquerors of Venice\" now looked across the sea for new scenes of\nadventure. The West was ablaze with excitement. A call for war ran\nthrough the frontier; expeditions were organized to prevent the landing\nof the French; and petitions for instant action flooded in upon\nJefferson.\n\n=Jefferson Sees the Danger.=--Jefferson, the friend of France and sworn\nenemy of England, compelled to choose in the interest of America, never\nwinced. \"The cession of Louisiana and the Floridas by Spain to France,\"\nhe wrote to Livingston, the American minister in Paris, \"works sorely on\nthe United States. It completely reverses all the political relations of\nthe United States and will form a new epoch in our political course....\nThere is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is our\nnatural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans through which the produce\nof three-eighths of our territory must pass to market.... France,\nplacing herself in that door, assumes to us an attitude of defiance.\nSpain might have retained it quietly for years. Her pacific\ndispositions, her feeble state would induce her to increase our\nfacilities there.... Not so can it ever be in the hands of France....\nThe day that France takes possession of New Orleans fixes the sentence\nwhich is to restrain her forever within her low water mark.... It seals\nthe union of the two nations who in conjunction can maintain exclusive\npossession of the ocean. From that moment we must marry ourselves to the\nBritish fleet and nation.... This is not a state of things we seek or\ndesire. It is one which this measure, if adopted by France, forces on us\nas necessarily as any other cause by the laws of nature brings on its\nnecessary effect.\"\n\n=Louisiana Purchased.=--Acting on this belief, but apparently seeing\nonly the Mississippi outlet at stake, Jefferson sent his friend, James\nMonroe, to France with the power to buy New Orleans and West Florida.\nBefore Monroe arrived, the regular minister, Livingston, had already\nconvinced Napoleon that it would be well to sell territory which might\nbe wrested from him at any moment by the British sea power, especially\nas the war, temporarily stopped by the peace of Amiens, was once more\nraging in Europe. Wise as he was in his day, Livingston had at first no\nthought of buying the whole Louisiana country. He was simply dazed when\nNapoleon offered to sell the entire domain and get rid of the business\naltogether. Though staggered by the proposal, he and Monroe decided to\naccept. On April 30, they signed the treaty of cession, agreeing to pay\n$11,250,000 in six per cent bonds and to discharge certain debts due\nFrench citizens, making in all approximately fifteen millions. Spain\nprotested, Napoleon's brother fumed, French newspapers objected; but the\ndeed was done.\n\n=Jefferson and His Constitutional Scruples.=--When the news of this\nextraordinary event reached the United States, the people were filled\nwith astonishment, and no one was more surprised than Jefferson himself.\nHe had thought of buying New Orleans and West Florida for a small sum,\nand now a vast domain had been dumped into the lap of the nation. He was\npuzzled. On looking into the Constitution he found not a line\nauthorizing the purchase of more territory and so he drafted an\namendment declaring \"Louisiana, as ceded by France,--a part of the\nUnited States.\" He had belabored the Federalists for piling up a big\nnational debt and he could hardly endure the thought of issuing more\nbonds himself.\n\nIn the midst of his doubts came the news that Napoleon might withdraw\nfrom the bargain. Thoroughly alarmed by that, Jefferson pressed the\nSenate for a ratification of the treaty. He still clung to his original\nidea that the Constitution did not warrant the purchase; but he lamely\nconcluded: \"If our friends shall think differently, I shall certainly\nacquiesce with satisfaction; confident that the good sense of our\ncountry will correct the evil of construction when it shall produce ill\neffects.\" Thus the stanch advocate of \"strict interpretation\" cut loose\nfrom his own doctrine and intrusted the construction of the Constitution\nto \"the good sense\" of his countrymen.\n\n=The Treaty Ratified.=--This unusual transaction, so favorable to the\nWest, aroused the ire of the seaboard Federalists. Some denounced it as\nunconstitutional, easily forgetting Hamilton's masterly defense of the\nbank, also not mentioned in the Constitution. Others urged that, if \"the\nhowling wilderness\" ever should be settled, it would turn against the\nEast, form new commercial connections, and escape from federal control.\nStill others protested that the purchase would lead inevitably to the\ndominance of a \"hotch potch of wild men from the Far West.\" Federalists,\nwho thought \"the broad back of America\" could readily bear Hamilton's\nconsolidated debt, now went into agonies over a bond issue of less than\none-sixth of that amount. But in vain. Jefferson's party with a high\nhand carried the day. The Senate, after hearing the Federalist protest,\nratified the treaty. In December, 1803, the French flag was hauled down\nfrom the old government buildings in New Orleans and the Stars and\nStripes were hoisted as a sign that the land of Coronado, De Soto,\nMarquette, and La Salle had passed forever to the United States.\n\n[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1805]\n\nBy a single stroke, the original territory of the United States was more\nthan doubled. While the boundaries of the purchase were uncertain, it is\nsafe to say that the Louisiana territory included what is now Arkansas,\nMissouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, and large\nportions of Louisiana, Minnesota, North Dakota, Colorado, Montana, and\nWyoming. The farm lands that the friends of \"a little America\" on the\nseacoast declared a hopeless wilderness were, within a hundred years,\nfully occupied and valued at nearly seven billion dollars--almost five\nhundred times the price paid to Napoleon.\n\n=Western Explorations.=--Having taken the fateful step, Jefferson wisely\nbegan to make the most of it. He prepared for the opening of the new\ncountry by sending the Lewis and Clark expedition to explore it,\ndiscover its resources, and lay out an overland route through the\nMissouri Valley and across the Great Divide to the Pacific. The story of\nthis mighty exploit, which began in the spring of 1804 and ended in the\nautumn of 1806, was set down with skill and pains in the journal of\nLewis and Clark; when published even in a short form, it invited the\nforward-looking men of the East to take thought about the western\nempire. At the same time Zebulon Pike, in a series of journeys, explored\nthe sources of the Mississippi River and penetrated the Spanish\nterritories of the far Southwest. Thus scouts and pioneers continued the\nwork of diplomats.\n\n\nTHE REPUBLICAN WAR FOR COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE\n\n=The English and French Blockades.=--In addition to bringing Louisiana\nto the United States, the reopening of the European War in 1803, after a\nshort lull, renewed in an acute form the commercial difficulties that\nhad plagued the country all during the administrations of Washington and\nAdams. The Republicans were now plunged into the hornets' nest. The\nparty whose ardent spirits had burned Jay in effigy, stoned Hamilton for\ndefending his treaty, jeered Washington's proclamation of neutrality,\nand spoken bitterly of \"timid traders,\" could no longer take refuge in\ncriticism. It had to act.\n\nIts troubles took a serious turn in 1806. England, in a determined\neffort to bring France to her knees by starvation, declared the coast of\nEurope blockaded from Brest to the mouth of the Elbe River. Napoleon\nretaliated by his Berlin Decree of November, 1806, blockading the\nBritish Isles--a measure terrifying to American ship owners whose\nvessels were liable to seizure by any French rover, though Napoleon had\nno navy to make good his proclamation. Great Britain countered with a\nstill more irritating decree--the Orders in Council of 1807. It modified\nits blockade, but in so doing merely authorized American ships not\ncarrying munitions of war to complete their voyage to the Continent, on\ncondition of their stopping at a British port, securing a license, and\npaying a tax. This, responded Napoleon, was the height of insolence, and\nhe denounced it as a gross violation of international law. He then\nclosed the circle of American troubles by issuing his Milan Decree of\nDecember, 1807. This order declared that any ship which complied with\nthe British rules would be subject to seizure and confiscation by French\nauthorities.\n\n=The Impressment of Seamen.=--That was not all. Great Britain, in dire\nneed of men for her navy, adopted the practice of stopping American\nships, searching them, and carrying away British-born sailors found on\nboard. British sailors were so badly treated, so cruelly flogged for\ntrivial causes, and so meanly fed that they fled in crowds to the\nAmerican marine. In many cases it was difficult to tell whether seamen\nwere English or American. They spoke the same language, so that language\nwas no test. Rovers on the deep and stragglers in the ports of both\ncountries, they frequently had no papers to show their nativity.\nMoreover, Great Britain held to the old rule--\"Once an Englishman,\nalways an Englishman\"--a doctrine rejected by the United States in\nfavor of the principle that a man could choose the nation to which he\nwould give allegiance. British sea captains, sometimes by mistake, and\noften enough with reckless indifference, carried away into servitude in\ntheir own navy genuine American citizens. The process itself, even when\nexecuted with all the civilities of law, was painful enough, for it\nmeant that American ships were forced to \"come to,\" and compelled to\nrest submissively under British guns until the searching party had pried\ninto records, questioned seamen, seized and handcuffed victims. Saints\ncould not have done this work without raising angry passions, and only\nsaints could have endured it with patience and fortitude.\n\nHad the enactment of the scenes been confined to the high seas and\nknowledge of them to rumors and newspaper stories, American resentment\nmight not have been so intense; but many a search and seizure was made\nin sight of land. British and French vessels patrolled the coasts,\nfiring on one another and chasing one another in American waters within\nthe three-mile limit. When, in the summer of 1807, the American frigate\n_Chesapeake_ refused to surrender men alleged to be deserters from King\nGeorge's navy, the British warship _Leopard_ opened fire, killing three\nmen and wounding eighteen more--an act which even the British ministry\ncould hardly excuse. If the French were less frequently the offenders,\nit was not because of their tenderness about American rights but because\nso few of their ships escaped the hawk-eyed British navy to operate in\nAmerican waters.\n\n=The Losses in American Commerce.=--This high-handed conduct on the part\nof European belligerents was very injurious to American trade. By their\nenterprise, American shippers had become the foremost carriers on the\nAtlantic Ocean. In a decade they had doubled the tonnage of American\nmerchant ships under the American flag, taking the place of the French\nmarine when Britain swept that from the seas, and supplying Britain with\nthe sinews of war for the contest with the Napoleonic empire. The\nAmerican shipping engaged in foreign trade embraced 363,110 tons in\n1791; 669,921 tons in 1800; and almost 1,000,000 tons in 1810. Such was\nthe enterprise attacked by the British and French decrees. American\nships bound for Great Britain were liable to be captured by French\nprivateers which, in spite of the disasters of the Nile and Trafalgar,\nranged the seas. American ships destined for the Continent, if they\nfailed to stop at British ports and pay tribute, were in great danger of\ncapture by the sleepless British navy and its swarm of auxiliaries.\nAmerican sea captains who, in fear of British vengeance, heeded the\nOrders in Council and paid the tax were almost certain to fall a prey to\nFrench vengeance, for the French were vigorous in executing the Milan\nDecree.\n\n=Jefferson's Policy.=--The President's dilemma was distressing. Both the\nbelligerents in Europe were guilty of depredations on American commerce.\nWar on both of them was out of the question. War on France was\nimpossible because she had no territory on this side of the water which\ncould be reached by American troops and her naval forces had been\nshattered at the battles of the Nile and Trafalgar. War on Great\nBritain, a power which Jefferson's followers feared and distrusted, was\npossible but not inviting. Jefferson shrank from it. A man of peace, he\ndisliked war's brazen clamor; a man of kindly spirit, he was startled at\nthe death and destruction which it brought in its train. So for the\neight years Jefferson steered an even course, suggesting measure after\nmeasure with a view to avoiding bloodshed. He sent, it is true,\nCommodore Preble in 1803 to punish Mediterranean pirates preying upon\nAmerican commerce; but a great war he evaded with passionate\nearnestness, trying in its place every other expedient to protect\nAmerican rights.\n\n=The Embargo and Non-intercourse Acts.=--In 1806, Congress passed and\nJefferson approved a non-importation act closing American ports to\ncertain products from British dominions--a measure intended as a club\nover the British government's head. This law, failing in its purpose,\nJefferson proposed and Congress adopted in December, 1807, the Embargo\nAct forbidding all vessels to leave American harbors for foreign ports.\nFrance and England were to be brought to terms by cutting off their\nsupplies.\n\nThe result of the embargo was pathetic. England and France refused to\ngive up search and seizure. American ship owners who, lured by huge\nprofits, had formerly been willing to take the risk were now restrained\nby law to their home ports. Every section suffered. The South and West\nfound their markets for cotton, rice, tobacco, corn, and bacon\ncurtailed. Thus they learned by bitter experience the national\nsignificance of commerce. Ship masters, ship builders, longshoremen, and\nsailors were thrown out of employment while the prices of foreign goods\ndoubled. Those who obeyed the law were ruined; violators of the law\nsmuggled goods into Canada and Florida for shipment abroad.\n\nJefferson's friends accepted the medicine with a wry face as the only\nalternative to supine submission or open war. His opponents, without\noffering any solution of their own, denounced it as a contemptible plan\nthat brought neither relief nor honor. Beset by the clamor that arose on\nall sides, Congress, in the closing days of Jefferson's administration,\nrepealed the Embargo law and substituted a Non-intercourse act\nforbidding trade with England and France while permitting it with other\ncountries--a measure equally futile in staying the depredations on\nAmerican shipping.\n\n=Jefferson Retires in Favor of Madison.=--Jefferson, exhausted by\nendless wrangling and wounded, as Washington had been, by savage\ncriticism, welcomed March 4, 1809. His friends urged him to \"stay by the\nship\" and accept a third term. He declined, saying that election for\nlife might result from repeated reelection. In following Washington's\ncourse and defending it on principle, he set an example to all his\nsuccessors, making the \"third term doctrine\" a part of American\nunwritten law.\n\nHis intimate friend, James Madison, to whom he turned over the burdens\nof his high office was, like himself, a man of peace. Madison had been a\nleader since the days of the Revolution, but in legislative halls and\ncouncil chambers, not on the field of battle. Small in stature,\nsensitive in feelings, studious in habits, he was no man for the rough\nand tumble of practical politics. He had taken a prominent and\ndistinguished part in the framing and the adoption of the Constitution.\nHe had served in the first Congress as a friend of Hamilton's measures.\nLater he attached himself to Jefferson's fortunes and served for eight\nyears as his first counselor, the Secretary of State. The principles of\nthe Constitution, which he had helped to make and interpret, he was now\nas President called upon to apply in one of the most perplexing moments\nin all American history. In keeping with his own traditions and\nfollowing in the footsteps of Jefferson, he vainly tried to solve the\nforeign problem by negotiation.\n\n=The Trend of Events.=--Whatever difficulties Madison had in making up\nhis mind on war and peace were settled by events beyond his own control.\nIn the spring of 1811, a British frigate held up an American ship near\nthe harbor of New York and impressed a seaman alleged to be an American\ncitizen. Burning with resentment, the captain of the _President_, an\nAmerican warship, acting under orders, poured several broadsides into\nthe _Little Belt_, a British sloop, suspected of being the guilty party.\nThe British also encouraged the Indian chief Tecumseh, who welded\ntogether the Indians of the Northwest under British protection and gave\nsigns of restlessness presaging a revolt. This sent a note of alarm\nalong the frontier that was not checked even when, in November,\nTecumseh's men were badly beaten at Tippecanoe by William Henry\nHarrison. The Indians stood in the way of the advancing frontier, and it\nseemed to the pioneers that, without support from the British in Canada,\nthe Red Men would soon be subdued.\n\n=Clay and Calhoun.=--While events were moving swiftly and rumors were\nflying thick and fast, the mastery of the government passed from the\nuncertain hands of Madison to a party of ardent young men in Congress,\ndubbed \"Young Republicans,\" under the leadership of two members destined\nto be mighty figures in American history: Henry Clay of Kentucky and\nJohn C. Calhoun of South Carolina. The former contended, in a flair of\nfolly, that \"the militia of Kentucky alone are competent to place\nMontreal and Upper Canada at your feet.\" The latter with a light heart\nspoke of conquering Canada in a four weeks' campaign. \"It must not be\ninferred,\" says Channing, \"that in advocating conquest, the Westerners\nwere actuated merely by desire for land; they welcomed war because they\n\nthought it would be the easiest way to abate Indian troubles. The\nsavages were supported by the fur-trading interests that centred at\nQuebec and London.... The Southerners on their part wished for Florida\nand they thought that the conquest of Canada would obviate some Northern\nopposition to this acquisition of slave territory.\" While Clay and\nCalhoun, spokesmen of the West and South, were not unmindful of what\nNapoleon had done to American commerce, they knew that their followers\nstill remembered with deep gratitude the aid of the French in the war\nfor independence and that the embers of the old hatred for George III,\nstill on the throne, could be readily blown into flame.\n\n=Madison Accepts War as Inevitable.=--The conduct of the British\nministers with whom Madison had to deal did little to encourage him in\nadhering to the policy of \"watchful waiting.\" One of them, a high Tory,\nbelieved that all Americans were alike \"except that a few are less\nknaves than others\" and his methods were colored by his belief. On the\nrecall of this minister the British government selected another no less\nhigh and mighty in his principles and opinions. So Madison became\nthoroughly discouraged about the outcome of pacific measures. When the\npressure from Congress upon him became too heavy, he gave way, signing\non June 18, 1812, the declaration of war on Great Britain. In\nproclaiming hostilities, the administration set forth the causes which\njustified the declaration; namely, the British had been encouraging the\nIndians to attack American citizens on the frontier; they had ruined\nAmerican trade by blockades; they had insulted the American flag by\nstopping and searching our ships; they had illegally seized American\nsailors and driven them into the British navy.\n\n=The Course of the War.=--The war lasted for nearly three years without\nbringing victory to either side. The surrender of Detroit by General\nHull to the British and the failure of the American invasion of Canada\nwere offset by Perry's victory on Lake Erie and a decisive blow\nadministered to British designs for an invasion of New York by way of\nPlattsburgh. The triumph of Jackson at New Orleans helped to atone for\nthe humiliation suffered in the burning of the Capitol by the British.\nThe stirring deeds of the _Constitution_, the _United States_, and the\n_Argus_ on the seas, the heroic death of Lawrence and the victories of a\nhundred privateers furnished consolation for those who suffered from the\niron blockade finally established by the British government when it came\nto appreciate the gravity of the situation. While men love the annals of\nthe sea, they will turn to the running battles, the narrow escapes, and\nthe reckless daring of American sailors in that naval contest with Great\nBritain.\n\nAll this was exciting but it was inconclusive. In fact, never was a\ngovernment less prepared than was that of the United States in 1812. It\nhad neither the disciplined troops, the ships of war, nor the supplies\nrequired by the magnitude of the military task. It was fortune that\nfavored the American cause. Great Britain, harassed, worn, and\nfinancially embarrassed by nearly twenty years of fighting in Europe,\nwas in no mood to gather her forces for a titanic effort in America even\nafter Napoleon was overthrown and sent into exile at Elba in the spring\nof 1814. War clouds still hung on the European horizon and the conflict\ntemporarily halted did again break out. To be rid of American anxieties\nand free for European eventualities, England was ready to settle with\nthe United States, especially as that could be done without conceding\nanything or surrendering any claims.\n\n=The Treaty of Peace.=--Both countries were in truth sick of a war that\noffered neither glory nor profit. Having indulged in the usual\ndiplomatic skirmishing, they sent representatives to Ghent to discuss\nterms of peace. After long negotiations an agreement was reached on\nChristmas eve, 1814, a few days before Jackson's victory at New Orleans.\nWhen the treaty reached America the people were surprised to find that\nit said nothing about the seizure of American sailors, the destruction\nof American trade, the searching of American ships, or the support of\nIndians on the frontier. Nevertheless, we are told, the people \"passed\nfrom gloom to glory\" when the news of peace arrived. The bells were\nrung; schools were closed; flags were displayed; and many a rousing\ntoast was drunk in tavern and private home. The rejoicing could\ncontinue. With Napoleon definitely beaten at Waterloo in June, 1815,\nGreat Britain had no need to impress sailors, search ships, and\nconfiscate American goods bound to the Continent. Once more the terrible\nsea power sank into the background and the ocean was again white with\nthe sails of merchantmen.\n\n\nTHE REPUBLICANS NATIONALIZED\n\n=The Federalists Discredited.=--By a strange turn of fortune's wheel,\nthe party of Hamilton, Washington, Adams, the party of the grand nation,\nbecame the party of provincialism and nullification. New England,\nfinding its shipping interests crippled in the European conflict and\nthen penalized by embargoes, opposed the declaration of war on Great\nBritain, which meant the completion of the ruin already begun. In the\ncourse of the struggle, the Federalist leaders came perilously near to\ntreason in their efforts to hamper the government of the United States;\nand in their desperation they fell back upon the doctrine of\nnullification so recently condemned by them when it came from Kentucky.\nThe Senate of Massachusetts, while the war was in progress, resolved\nthat it was waged \"without justifiable cause,\" and refused to approve\nmilitary and naval projects not connected with \"the defense of our\nseacoast and soil.\" A Boston newspaper declared that the union was\nnothing but a treaty among sovereign states, that states could decide\nfor themselves the question of obeying federal law, and that armed\nresistance under the banner of a state would not be rebellion or\ntreason. The general assembly of Connecticut reminded the administration\nat Washington that \"the state of Connecticut is a free, sovereign, and\nindependent state.\" Gouverneur Morris, a member of the convention which\nhad drafted the Constitution, suggested the holding of another\nconference to consider whether the Northern states should remain in the\nunion.\n\n[Illustration: _From an old cartoon_\n\nNEW ENGLAND JUMPING INTO THE HANDS OF GEORGE III]\n\nIn October, 1814, a convention of delegates from Connecticut,\nMassachusetts, Rhode Island, and certain counties of New Hampshire and\nVermont was held at Hartford, on the call of Massachusetts. The counsels\nof the extremists were rejected but the convention solemnly went on\nrecord to the effect that acts of Congress in violation of the\nConstitution are void; that in cases of deliberate, dangerous, and\npalpable infractions the state is duty bound to interpose its authority\nfor the protection of its citizens; and that when emergencies occur the\nstates must be their own judges and execute their own decisions. Thus\nNew England answered the challenge of Calhoun and Clay. Fortunately its\nactions were not as rash as its words. The Hartford convention merely\nproposed certain amendments to the Constitution and adjourned. At the\nclose of the war, its proposals vanished harmlessly; but the men who\nmade them were hopelessly discredited.\n\n=The Second United States Bank.=--In driving the Federalists towards\nnullification and waging a national war themselves, the Republicans lost\nall their old taint of provincialism. Moreover, in turning to measures\nof reconstruction called forth by the war, they resorted to the national\ndevices of the Federalists. In 1816, they chartered for a period of\ntwenty years a second United States Bank--the institution which\nJefferson and Madison once had condemned as unsound and\nunconstitutional. The Constitution remained unchanged; times and\ncircumstances had changed. Calhoun dismissed the vexed question of\nconstitutionality with a scant reference to an ancient dispute, while\nMadison set aside his scruples and signed the bill.\n\n=The Protective Tariff of 1816.=--The Republicans supplemented the Bank\nby another Federalist measure--a high protective tariff. Clay viewed it\nas the beginning of his \"American system\" of protection. Calhoun\ndefended it on national principles. For this sudden reversal of policy\nthe young Republicans were taunted by some of their older party\ncolleagues with betraying the \"agricultural interest\" that Jefferson had\nfostered; but Calhoun refused to listen to their criticisms. \"When the\nseas are open,\" he said, \"the produce of the South may pour anywhere\ninto the markets of the Old World.... What are the effects of a war with\na maritime power--with England? Our commerce annihilated ... our\nagriculture cut off from its accustomed markets, the surplus of the\nfarmer perishes on his hands.... The recent war fell with peculiar\npressure on the growers of cotton and tobacco and the other great\nstaples of the country; and the same state of things will recur in the\nevent of another war unless prevented by the foresight of this body....\nWhen our manufactures are grown to a certain perfection, as they soon\nwill be under the fostering care of the government, we shall no longer\nexperience these evils.\" With the Republicans nationalized, the\nFederalist party, as an organization, disappeared after a crushing\ndefeat in the presidential campaign of 1816.\n\n=Monroe and the Florida Purchase.=--To the victor in that political\ncontest, James Monroe of Virginia, fell two tasks of national\nimportance, adding to the prestige of the whole country and deepening\nthe sense of patriotism that weaned men away from mere allegiance to\nstates. The first of these was the purchase of Florida from Spain. The\nacquisition of Louisiana let the Mississippi flow \"unvexed to the sea\";\nbut it left all the states east of the river cut off from the Gulf,\naffording them ground for discontent akin to that which had moved the\npioneers of Kentucky to action a generation earlier. The uncertainty as\nto the boundaries of Louisiana gave the United States a claim to West\nFlorida, setting on foot a movement for occupation. The Florida swamps\nwere a basis for Indian marauders who periodically swept into the\nfrontier settlements, and hiding places for runaway slaves. Thus the\nsanction of international law was given to punitive expeditions into\nalien territory.\n\nThe pioneer leaders stood waiting for the signal. It came. President\nMonroe, on the occasion of an Indian outbreak, ordered General Jackson\nto seize the offenders, in the Floridas, if necessary. The high-spirited\nwarrior, taking this as a hint that he was to occupy the coveted region,\nreplied that, if possession was the object of the invasion, he could\noccupy the Floridas within sixty days. Without waiting for an answer to\nthis letter, he launched his expedition, and in the spring of 1818 was\nmaster of the Spanish king's domain to the south.\n\nThere was nothing for the king to do but to make the best of the\ninevitable by ceding the Floridas to the United States in return for\nfive million dollars to be paid to American citizens having claims\nagainst Spain. On Washington's birthday, 1819, the treaty was signed. It\nceded the Floridas to the United States and defined the boundary between\nMexico and the United States by drawing a line from the mouth of the\nSabine River in a northwesterly direction to the Pacific. On this\noccasion even Monroe, former opponent of the Constitution, forgot to\ninquire whether new territory could be constitutionally acquired and\nincorporated into the American union. The Republicans seemed far away\nfrom the days of \"strict construction.\" And Jefferson still lived!\n\n=The Monroe Doctrine.=--Even more effective in fashioning the national\nidea was Monroe's enunciation of the famous doctrine that bears his\nname. The occasion was another European crisis. During the Napoleonic\nupheaval and the years of dissolution that ensued, the Spanish colonies\nin America, following the example set by their English neighbors in\n1776, declared their independence. Unable to conquer them alone, the\nking of Spain turned for help to the friendly powers of Europe that\nlooked upon revolution and republics with undisguised horror.\n\n_The Holy Alliance._--He found them prepared to view his case with\nsympathy. Three of them, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, under the\nleadership of the Czar, Alexander I, in the autumn of 1815, had entered\ninto a Holy Alliance to sustain by reciprocal service the autocratic\nprinciple in government. Although the effusive, almost maudlin, language\nof the treaty did not express their purpose explicitly, the Alliance was\nlater regarded as a mere union of monarchs to prevent the rise and\ngrowth of popular government.\n\nThe American people thought their worst fears confirmed when, in 1822, a\nconference of delegates from Russia, Austria, Prussia, and France met at\nVerona to consider, among other things, revolutions that had just broken\nout in Spain and Italy. The spirit of the conference is reflected in the\nfirst article of the agreement reached by the delegates: \"The high\ncontracting powers, being convinced that the system of representative\ngovernment is equally incompatible with the monarchical principle and\nthe maxim of the sovereignty of the people with the divine right,\nmutually engage in the most solemn manner to use all their efforts to\nput an end to the system of representative government in whatever\ncountry it may exist in Europe and to prevent its being introduced in\nthose countries where it is not yet known.\" The Czar, who incidentally\ncoveted the west coast of North America, proposed to send an army to aid\nthe king of Spain in his troubles at home, thus preparing the way for\nintervention in Spanish America. It was material weakness not want of\nspirit, that prevented the grand union of monarchs from making open war\non popular government.\n\n_The Position of England._--Unfortunately, too, for the Holy Alliance,\nEngland refused to cooperate. English merchants had built up a large\ntrade with the independent Latin-American colonies and they protested\nagainst the restoration of Spanish sovereignty, which meant a renewal of\nSpain's former trade monopoly. Moreover, divine right doctrines had been\nlaid to rest in England and the representative principle thoroughly\nestablished. Already there were signs of the coming democratic flood\nwhich was soon to carry the first reform bill of 1832, extending the\nsuffrage, and sweep on to even greater achievements. British statesmen,\ntherefore, had to be cautious. In such circumstances, instead of\ncooperating with the autocrats of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, they\nturned to the minister of the United States in London. The British prime\nminister, Canning, proposed that the two countries join in declaring\ntheir unwillingness to see the Spanish colonies transferred to any other\npower.\n\n_Jefferson's Advice._--The proposal was rejected; but President Monroe\ntook up the suggestion with Madison and Jefferson as well as with his\nSecretary of State, John Quincy Adams. They favored the plan. Jefferson\nsaid: \"One nation, most of all, could disturb us in this pursuit [of\nfreedom]; she now offers to lead, aid, and accompany us in it. By\nacceding to her proposition we detach her from the bands, bring her\nmighty weight into the scale of free government and emancipate a\ncontinent at one stroke.... With her on our side we need not fear the\nwhole world. With her then we should most sedulously cherish a cordial\nfriendship.\"\n\n_Monroe's Statement of the Doctrine._--Acting on the advice of trusted\nfriends, President Monroe embodied in his message to Congress, on\nDecember 2, 1823, a statement of principles now famous throughout the\nworld as the Monroe Doctrine. To the autocrats of Europe he announced\nthat he would regard \"any attempt on their part to extend their system\nto any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety.\"\nWhile he did not propose to interfere with existing colonies dependent\non European powers, he ranged himself squarely on the side of those that\nhad declared their independence. Any attempt by a European power to\noppress them or control their destiny in any manner he characterized as\n\"a manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States.\"\nReferring in another part of his message to a recent claim which the\nCzar had made to the Pacific coast, President Monroe warned the Old\nWorld that \"the American continents, by the free and independent\ncondition which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to\nbe considered as subjects for future colonization by any European\npowers.\" The effect of this declaration was immediate and profound. Men\nwhose political horizon had been limited to a community or state were\nled to consider their nation as a great power among the sovereignties of\nthe earth, taking its part in shaping their international relations.\n\n=The Missouri Compromise.=--Respecting one other important measure of\nthis period, the Republicans also took a broad view of their obligations\nunder the Constitution; namely, the Missouri Compromise. It is true,\nthey insisted on the admission of Missouri as a slave state, balanced\nagainst the free state of Maine; but at the same time they assented to\nthe prohibition of slavery in the Louisiana territory north of the line\n36 o 30'. During the debate on the subject an extreme view had been\npresented, to the effect that Congress had no constitutional warrant for\nabolishing slavery in the territories. The precedent of the Northwest\nOrdinance, ratified by Congress in 1789, seemed a conclusive answer from\npractice to this contention; but Monroe submitted the issue to his\ncabinet, which included Calhoun of South Carolina, Crawford of Georgia,\nand Wirt of Virginia, all presumably adherents to the Jeffersonian\nprinciple of strict construction. He received in reply a unanimous\nverdict to the effect that Congress did have the power to prohibit\nslavery in the territories governed by it. Acting on this advice he\napproved, on March 6, 1820, the bill establishing freedom north of the\ncompromise line. This generous interpretation of the powers of Congress\nstood for nearly forty years, until repudiated by the Supreme Court in\nthe Dred Scott case.\n\n\nTHE NATIONAL DECISIONS OF CHIEF JUSTICE MARSHALL\n\n=John Marshall, the Nationalist.=--The Republicans in the lower ranges\nof state politics, who did not catch the grand national style of their\nleaders charged with responsibilities in the national field, were\nassisted in their education by a Federalist from the Old Dominion, John\nMarshall, who, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United\nStates from 1801 to 1835, lost no occasion to exalt the Constitution\nabove the claims of the provinces. No differences of opinion as to his\npolitical views have ever led even his warmest opponents to deny his\nsuperb abilities or his sincere devotion to the national idea. All will\nlikewise agree that for talents, native and acquired, he was an ornament\nto the humble democracy that brought him forth. His whole career was\nAmerican. Born on the frontier of Virginia, reared in a log cabin,\ngranted only the barest rudiments of education, inured to hardship and\nrough life, he rose by masterly efforts to the highest judicial honor\nAmerica can bestow.\n\nOn him the bitter experience of the Revolution and of later days made a\nlasting impression. He was no \"summer patriot.\" He had been a soldier in\nthe Revolutionary army. He had suffered with Washington at Valley Forge.\nHe had seen his comrades in arms starving and freezing because the\nContinental Congress had neither the power nor the inclination to force\nthe states to do their full duty. To him the Articles of Confederation\nwere the symbol of futility. Into the struggle for the formation of the\nConstitution and its ratification in Virginia he had thrown himself with\nthe ardor of a soldier. Later, as a member of Congress, a representative\nto France, and Secretary of State, he had aided the Federalists in\nestablishing the new government. When at length they were driven from\npower in the executive and legislative branches of the government, he\nwas chosen for their last stronghold, the Supreme Court. By historic\nirony he administered the oath of office to his bitterest enemy, Thomas\nJefferson; and, long after the author of the Declaration of Independence\nhad retired to private life, the stern Chief Justice continued to\nannounce the old Federalist principles from the Supreme Bench.\n\n[Illustration: JOHN MARSHALL]\n\n=Marbury _vs._ Madison--An Act of Congress Annulled.=--He had been in\nhis high office only two years when he laid down for the first time in\nthe name of the entire Court the doctrine that the judges have the power\nto declare an act of Congress null and void when in their opinion it\nviolates the Constitution. This power was not expressly conferred on the\nCourt. Though many able men held that the judicial branch of the\ngovernment enjoyed it, the principle was not positively established\nuntil 1803 when the case of Marbury _vs._ Madison was decided. In\nrendering the opinion of the Court, Marshall cited no precedents. He\nsought no foundations for his argument in ancient history. He rested it\non the general nature of the American system. The Constitution, ran his\nreasoning, is the supreme law of the land; it limits and binds all who\nact in the name of the United States; it limits the powers of Congress\nand defines the rights of citizens. If Congress can ignore its\nlimitations and trespass upon the rights of citizens, Marshall argued,\nthen the Constitution disappears and Congress is supreme. Since,\nhowever, the Constitution is supreme and superior to Congress, it is the\nduty of judges, under their oath of office, to sustain it against\nmeasures which violate it. Therefore, from the nature of the American\nconstitutional system the courts must declare null and void all acts\nwhich are not authorized. \"A law repugnant to the Constitution,\" he\nclosed, \"is void and the courts as well as other departments are bound\nby that instrument.\" From that day to this the practice of federal and\nstate courts in passing upon the constitutionality of laws has remained\nunshaken.\n\nThis doctrine was received by Jefferson and many of his followers with\nconsternation. If the idea was sound, he exclaimed, \"then indeed is our\nConstitution a complete _felo de se_ [legally, a suicide]. For,\nintending to establish three departments, coordinate and independent\nthat they might check and balance one another, it has given, according\nto this opinion, to one of them alone the right to prescribe rules for\nthe government of the others, and to that one, too, which is unelected\nby and independent of the nation.... The Constitution, on this\nhypothesis, is a mere thing of wax in the hands of the judiciary which\nthey may twist and shape into any form they please. It should be\nremembered, as an axiom of eternal truth in politics, that whatever\npower in any government is independent, is absolute also.... A judiciary\nindependent of a king or executive alone is a good thing; but\nindependence of the will of the nation is a solecism, at least in a\nrepublican government.\" But Marshall was mighty and his view prevailed,\nthough from time to time other men, clinging to Jefferson's opinion,\nlikewise opposed the exercise by the Courts of the high power of passing\nupon the constitutionality of acts of Congress.\n\n=Acts of State Legislatures Declared Unconstitutional.=--Had Marshall\nstopped with annulling an act of Congress, he would have heard less\ncriticism from Republican quarters; but, with the same firmness, he set\naside acts of state legislatures as well, whenever, in his opinion, they\nviolated the federal Constitution. In 1810, in the case of Fletcher\n_vs._ Peck, he annulled an act of the Georgia legislature, informing the\nstate that it was not sovereign, but \"a part of a large empire, ... a\nmember of the American union; and that union has a constitution ...\nwhich imposes limits to the legislatures of the several states.\" In the\ncase of McCulloch _vs._ Maryland, decided in 1819, he declared void an\nact of the Maryland legislature designed to paralyze the branches of the\nUnited States Bank established in that state. In the same year, in the\nstill more memorable Dartmouth College case, he annulled an act of the\nNew Hampshire legislature which infringed upon the charter received by\nthe college from King George long before. That charter, he declared, was\na contract between the state and the college, which the legislature\nunder the federal Constitution could not impair. Two years later he\nstirred the wrath of Virginia by summoning her to the bar of the Supreme\nCourt to answer in a case in which the validity of one of her laws was\ninvolved and then justified his action in a powerful opinion rendered in\nthe case of Cohens _vs._ Virginia.\n\nAll these decisions aroused the legislatures of the states. They passed\nsheaves of resolutions protesting and condemning; but Marshall never\nturned and never stayed. The Constitution of the United States, he\nfairly thundered at them, is the supreme law of the land; the Supreme\nCourt is the proper tribunal to pass finally upon the validity of the\nlaws of the states; and \"those sovereignties,\" far from possessing the\nright of review and nullification, are irrevocably bound by the\ndecisions of that Court. This was strong medicine for the authors of the\nKentucky and Virginia Resolutions and for the members of the Hartford\nconvention; but they had to take it.\n\n=The Doctrine of Implied Powers.=--While restraining Congress in the\nMarbury case and the state legislatures in a score of cases, Marshall\nalso laid the judicial foundation for a broad and liberal view of the\nConstitution as opposed to narrow and strict construction. In McCulloch\n_vs._ Maryland, he construed generously the words \"necessary and proper\"\nin such a way as to confer upon Congress a wide range of \"implied\npowers\" in addition to their express powers. That case involved, among\nother things, the question whether the act establishing the second\nUnited States Bank was authorized by the Constitution. Marshall answered\nin the affirmative. Congress, ran his reasoning, has large powers over\ntaxation and the currency; a bank is of appropriate use in the exercise\nof these enumerated powers; and therefore, though not absolutely\nnecessary, a bank is entirely proper and constitutional. \"With respect\nto the means by which the powers that the Constitution confers are to be\ncarried into execution,\" he said, Congress must be allowed the\ndiscretion which \"will enable that body to perform the high duties\nassigned to it, in the manner most beneficial to the people.\" In short,\nthe Constitution of the United States is not a strait jacket but a\nflexible instrument vesting in Congress the powers necessary to meet\nnational problems as they arise. In delivering this opinion Marshall\nused language almost identical with that employed by Lincoln when,\nstanding on the battle field of a war waged to preserve the nation, he\nsaid that \"a government of the people, by the people, for the people\nshall not perish from the earth.\"\n\n\nSUMMARY OF THE UNION AND NATIONAL POLITICS\n\nDuring the strenuous period between the establishment of American\nindependence and the advent of Jacksonian democracy the great American\nexperiment was under the direction of the men who had launched it. All\nthe Presidents in that period, except John Quincy Adams, had taken part\nin the Revolution. James Madison, the chief author of the Constitution,\nlived until 1836. This age, therefore, was the \"age of the fathers.\" It\nsaw the threatened ruin of the country under the Articles of\nConfederation, the formation of the Constitution, the rise of political\nparties, the growth of the West, the second war with England, and the\napparent triumph of the national spirit over sectionalism.\n\nThe new republic had hardly been started in 1783 before its troubles\nbegan. The government could not raise money to pay its debts or running\nexpenses; it could not protect American commerce and manufactures\nagainst European competition; it could not stop the continual issues of\npaper money by the states; it could not intervene to put down domestic\nuprisings that threatened the existence of the state governments.\nWithout money, without an army, without courts of law, the union under\nthe Articles of Confederation was drifting into dissolution. Patriots,\nwho had risked their lives for independence, began to talk of monarchy\nagain. Washington, Hamilton, and Madison insisted that a new\nconstitution alone could save America from disaster.\n\nBy dint of much labor the friends of a new form of government induced\nthe Congress to call a national convention to take into account the\nstate of America. In May, 1787, it assembled at Philadelphia and for\nmonths it debated and wrangled over plans for a constitution. The small\nstates clamored for equal rights in the union. The large states vowed\nthat they would never grant it. A spirit of conciliation, fair play, and\ncompromise saved the convention from breaking up. In addition, there\nwere jealousies between the planting states and the commercial states.\nHere, too, compromises had to be worked out. Some of the delegates\nfeared the growth of democracy and others cherished it. These factions\nalso had to be placated. At last a plan of government was drafted--the\nConstitution of the United States--and submitted to the states for\napproval. Only after a long and acrimonious debate did enough states\nratify the instrument to put it into effect. On April 30, 1789, George\nWashington was inaugurated first President.\n\nThe new government proceeded to fund the old debt of the nation, assume\nthe debts of the states, found a national bank, lay heavy taxes to pay\nthe bills, and enact laws protecting American industry and commerce.\nHamilton led the way, but he had not gone far before he encountered\nopposition. He found a formidable antagonist in Jefferson. In time two\npolitical parties appeared full armed upon the scene: the Federalists\nand the Republicans. For ten years they filled the country with\npolitical debate. In 1800 the Federalists were utterly vanquished by the\nRepublicans with Jefferson in the lead.\n\nBy their proclamations of faith the Republicans favored the states\nrather than the new national government, but in practice they added\nimmensely to the prestige and power of the nation. They purchased\nLouisiana from France, they waged a war for commercial independence\nagainst England, they created a second United States Bank, they enacted\nthe protective tariff of 1816, they declared that Congress had power to\nabolish slavery north of the Missouri Compromise line, and they spread\nthe shield of the Monroe Doctrine between the Western Hemisphere and\nEurope.\n\nStill America was a part of European civilization. Currents of opinion\nflowed to and fro across the Atlantic. Friends of popular government in\nEurope looked to America as the great exemplar of their ideals. Events\nin Europe reacted upon thought in the United States. The French\nRevolution exerted a profound influence on the course of political\ndebate. While it was in the stage of mere reform all Americans favored\nit. When the king was executed and a radical democracy set up, American\nopinion was divided. When France fell under the military dominion of\nNapoleon and preyed upon American commerce, the United States made ready\nfor war.\n\nThe conduct of England likewise affected American affairs. In 1793 war\nbroke out between England and France and raged with only a slight\nintermission until 1815. England and France both ravaged American\ncommerce, but England was the more serious offender because she had\ncommand of the seas. Though Jefferson and Madison strove for peace, the\ncountry was swept into war by the vehemence of the \"Young Republicans,\"\nheaded by Clay and Calhoun.\n\nWhen the armed conflict was closed, one in diplomacy opened. The\nautocratic powers of Europe threatened to intervene on behalf of Spain\nin her attempt to recover possession of her Latin-American colonies.\nTheir challenge to America brought forth the Monroe Doctrine. The powers\nof Europe were warned not to interfere with the independence or the\nrepublican policies of this hemisphere or to attempt any new\ncolonization in it. It seemed that nationalism was to have a peaceful\ntriumph over sectionalism.\n\n\n=References=\n\nH. Adams, _History of the United States, 1800-1817_ (9 vols.).\n\nK.C. Babcock, _Rise of American Nationality_ (American Nation Series).\n\nE. Channing, _The Jeffersonian System_ (Same Series).\n\nD.C. Gilman, _James Monroe_.\n\nW. Reddaway, _The Monroe Doctrine_.\n\nT. Roosevelt, _Naval War of 1812_.\n\n\n=Questions=\n\n1. What was the leading feature of Jefferson's political theory?\n\n2. Enumerate the chief measures of his administration.\n\n3. Were the Jeffersonians able to apply their theories? Give the\nreasons.\n\n\n4. Explain the importance of the Mississippi River to Western farmers.\n\n5. Show how events in Europe forced the Louisiana Purchase.\n\n6. State the constitutional question involved in the Louisiana Purchase.\n\n7. Show how American trade was affected by the European war.\n\n8. Compare the policies of Jefferson and Madison.\n\n9. Why did the United States become involved with England rather than\nwith France?\n\n10. Contrast the causes of the War of 1812 with the results.\n\n11. Give the economic reasons for the attitude of New England.\n\n12. Give five \"nationalist\" measures of the Republicans. Discuss each in\ndetail.\n\n13. Sketch the career of John Marshall.\n\n14. Discuss the case of Marbury _vs._ Madison.\n\n15. Summarize Marshall's views on: (_a_) states' rights; and (_b_) a\nliberal interpretation of the Constitution.\n\n\n=Research Topics=\n\n=The Louisiana Purchase.=--Text of Treaty in Macdonald, _Documentary\nSource Book_, pp. 279-282. Source materials in Hart, _American History\nTold by Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 363-384. Narrative, Henry Adams,\n_History of the United States_, Vol. II, pp. 25-115; Elson, _History of\nthe United States_, pp. 383-388.\n\n=The Embargo and Non-Intercourse Acts.=--Macdonald, pp. 282-288; Adams,\nVol. IV, pp. 152-177; Elson, pp. 394-405.\n\n=Congress and the War of 1812.=--Adams, Vol. VI, pp. 113-198; Elson, pp.\n408-450.\n\n=Proposals of the Hartford Convention.=--Macdonald, pp. 293-302.\n\n=Manufactures and the Tariff of 1816.=--Coman, _Industrial History of\nthe United States_, pp. 184-194.\n\n=The Second United States Bank.=--Macdonald, pp. 302-306.\n\n=Effect of European War on American Trade.=--Callender, _Economic\nHistory of the United States_, pp. 240-250.\n\n=The Monroe Message.=--Macdonald, pp. 318-320.\n\n=Lewis and Clark Expedition.=--R.G. Thwaites, _Rocky Mountain\nExplorations_, pp. 92-187. Schafer, _A History of the Pacific Northwest_\n(rev. ed.), pp. 29-61.\n\n\n\n\nPART IV. THE WEST AND JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER X\n\nTHE FARMERS BEYOND THE APPALACHIANS\n\n\nThe nationalism of Hamilton was undemocratic. The democracy of Jefferson\nwas, in the beginning, provincial. The historic mission of uniting\nnationalism and democracy was in the course of time given to new leaders\nfrom a region beyond the mountains, peopled by men and women from all\nsections and free from those state traditions which ran back to the\nearly days of colonization. The voice of the democratic nationalism\nnourished in the West was heard when Clay of Kentucky advocated his\nAmerican system of protection for industries; when Jackson of Tennessee\ncondemned nullification in a ringing proclamation that has taken its\nplace among the great American state papers; and when Lincoln of\nIllinois, in a fateful hour, called upon a bewildered people to meet the\nsupreme test whether this was a nation destined to survive or to perish.\nAnd it will be remembered that Lincoln's party chose for its banner that\nearlier device--Republican--which Jefferson had made a sign of power.\nThe \"rail splitter\" from Illinois united the nationalism of Hamilton\nwith the democracy of Jefferson, and his appeal was clothed in the\nsimple language of the people, not in the sonorous rhetoric which\nWebster learned in the schools.\n\n\nPREPARATION FOR WESTERN SETTLEMENT\n\n=The West and the American Revolution.=--The excessive attention devoted\nby historians to the military operations along the coast has obscured\nthe role played by the frontier in the American Revolution. The action\nof Great Britain in closing western land to easy settlement in 1763 was\nmore than an incident in precipitating the war for independence.\nAmericans on the frontier did not forget it; when Indians were employed\nby England to defend that land, zeal for the patriot cause set the\ninterior aflame. It was the members of the western vanguard, like Daniel\nBoone, John Sevier, and George Rogers Clark, who first understood the\nvalue of the far-away country under the guns of the English forts, where\nthe Red Men still wielded the tomahawk and the scalping knife. It was\nthey who gave the East no rest until their vision was seen by the\nleaders on the seaboard who directed the course of national policy. It\nwas one of their number, a seasoned Indian fighter, George Rogers Clark,\nwho with aid from Virginia seized Kaskaskia and Vincennes and secured\nthe whole Northwest to the union while the fate of Washington's army was\nstill hanging in the balance.\n\n=Western Problems at the End of the Revolution.=--The treaty of peace,\nsigned with Great Britain in 1783, brought the definite cession of the\ncoveted territory west to the Mississippi River, but it left unsolved\nmany problems. In the first place, tribes of resentful Indians in the\nOhio region, even though British support was withdrawn at last, had to\nbe reckoned with; and it was not until after the establishment of the\nfederal Constitution that a well-equipped army could be provided to\nguarantee peace on the border. In the second place, British garrisons\nstill occupied forts on Lake Erie pending the execution of the terms of\nthe treaty of 1783--terms which were not fulfilled until after the\nratification of the Jay treaty twelve years later. In the third place,\nVirginia, Connecticut, and Massachusetts had conflicting claims to the\nland in the Northwest based on old English charters and Indian treaties.\nIt was only after a bitter contest that the states reached an agreement\nto transfer their rights to the government of the United States,\nVirginia executing her deed of cession on March 1, 1784. In the fourth\nplace, titles to lands bought by individuals remained uncertain in the\nabsence of official maps and records. To meet this last situation,\nCongress instituted a systematic survey of the Ohio country, laying it\nout into townships, sections of 640 acres each, and quarter sections. In\nevery township one section of land was set aside for the support of\npublic schools.\n\n=The Northwest Ordinance.=--The final problem which had to be solved\nbefore settlement on a large scale could be begun was that of governing\nthe territory. Pioneers who looked with hungry eyes on the fertile\nvalley of the Ohio could hardly restrain their impatience. Soldiers of\nthe Revolution, who had been paid for their services in land warrants\nentitling them to make entries in the West, called for action.\n\nCongress answered by passing in 1787 the famous Northwest Ordinance\nproviding for temporary territorial government to be followed by the\ncreation of a popular assembly as soon as there were five thousand free\nmales in any district. Eventual admission to the union on an equal\nfooting with the original states was promised to the new territories.\nReligious freedom was guaranteed. The safeguards of trial by jury,\nregular judicial procedure, and _habeas corpus_ were established, in order\nthat the methods of civilized life might take the place of the\nrough-and-ready justice of lynch law. During the course of the debate on\nthe Ordinance, Congress added the sixth article forbidding slavery and\ninvoluntary servitude.\n\nThis Charter of the Northwest, so well planned by the Congress under the\nArticles of Confederation, was continued in force by the first Congress\nunder the Constitution in 1789. The following year its essential\nprovisions, except the ban on slavery, were applied to the territory\nsouth of the Ohio, ceded by North Carolina to the national government,\nand in 1798 to the Mississippi territory, once held by Georgia. Thus it\nwas settled for all time that \"the new colonies were not to be exploited\nfor the benefit of the parent states (any more than for the benefit of\nEngland) but were to be autonomous and coordinate commonwealths.\" This\noutcome, bitterly opposed by some Eastern leaders who feared the triumph\nof Western states over the seaboard, completed the legal steps necessary\nby way of preparation for the flood of settlers.\n\n=The Land Companies, Speculators, and Western Land Tenure.=--As in the\noriginal settlement of America, so in the opening of the West, great\ncompanies and single proprietors of large grants early figured. In 1787\nthe Ohio Land Company, a New England concern, acquired a million and a\nhalf acres on the Ohio and began operations by planting the town of\nMarietta. A professional land speculator, J.C. Symmes, secured a million\nacres lower down where the city of Cincinnati was founded. Other\nindividuals bought up soldiers' claims and so acquired enormous holdings\nfor speculative purposes. Indeed, there was such a rush to make fortunes\nquickly through the rise in land values that Washington was moved to cry\nout against the \"rage for speculating in and forestalling of land on the\nNorth West of the Ohio,\" protesting that \"scarce a valuable spot within\nany tolerable distance of it is left without a claimant.\" He therefore\nurged Congress to fix a reasonable price for the land, not \"too\nexorbitant and burdensome for real occupiers, but high enough to\ndiscourage monopolizers.\"\n\nCongress, however, was not prepared to use the public domain for the\nsole purpose of developing a body of small freeholders in the West. It\nstill looked upon the sale of public lands as an important source of\nrevenue with which to pay off the public debt; consequently it thought\nmore of instant income than of ultimate results. It placed no limit on\nthe amount which could be bought when it fixed the price at $2 an acre\nin 1796, and it encouraged the professional land operator by making the\nfirst installment only twenty cents an acre in addition to the small\nregistration and survey fee. On such terms a speculator with a few\nthousand dollars could get possession of an enormous plot of land. If he\nwas fortunate in disposing of it, he could meet the installments, which\nwere spread over a period of four years, and make a handsome profit for\nhimself. Even when the credit or installment feature was abolished in\n1821 and the price of the land lowered to a cash price of $1.75 an acre,\nthe opportunity for large speculative purchases continued to attract\ncapital to land ventures.\n\n=The Development of the Small Freehold.=--The cheapness of land and the\nscarcity of labor, nevertheless, made impossible the triumph of the huge\nestate with its semi-servile tenantry. For about $45 a man could get a\nfarm of 160 acres on the installment plan; another payment of $80 was\ndue in forty days; but a four-year term was allowed for the discharge of\nthe balance. With a capital of from two to three hundred dollars a\nfamily could embark on a land venture. If it had good crops, it could\nmeet the deferred payments. It was, however, a hard battle at best. Many\na man forfeited his land through failure to pay the final installment;\nyet in the end, in spite of all the handicaps, the small freehold of a\nfew hundred acres at most became the typical unit of Western\nagriculture, except in the planting states of the Gulf. Even the lands\nof the great companies were generally broken up and sold in small lots.\n\nThe tendency toward moderate holdings, so favored by Western conditions,\nwas also promoted by a clause in the Northwest Ordinance declaring that\nthe land of any person dying intestate--that is, without any will\ndisposing of it--should be divided equally among his descendants.\nHildreth says of this provision: \"It established the important\nrepublican principle, not then introduced into all the states, of the\nequal distribution of landed as well as personal property.\" All these\nforces combined made the wide dispersion of wealth, in the early days of\nthe nineteenth century, an American characteristic, in marked contrast\nwith the European system of family prestige and vast estates based on\nthe law of primogeniture.\n\n\nTHE WESTERN MIGRATION AND NEW STATES\n\n=The People.=--With government established, federal arms victorious over\nthe Indians, and the lands surveyed for sale, the way was prepared for\nthe immigrants. They came with a rush. Young New Englanders, weary of\ntilling the stony soil of their native states, poured through New York\nand Pennsylvania, some settling on the northern bank of the Ohio but\nmost of them in the Lake region. Sons and daughters of German farmers in\nPennsylvania and many a redemptioner who had discharged his bond of\nservitude pressed out into Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, or beyond. From\nthe exhausted fields and the clay hills of the Southern states came\npioneers of English and Scotch-Irish descent, the latter in great\nnumbers. Indeed one historian of high authority has ventured to say that\n\"the rapid expansion of the United States from a coast strip to a\ncontinental area is largely a Scotch-Irish achievement.\" While native\nAmericans of mixed stocks led the way into the West, it was not long\nbefore immigrants direct from Europe, under the stimulus of company\nenterprise, began to filter into the new settlements in increasing\nnumbers.\n\nThe types of people were as various as the nations they represented.\nTimothy Flint, who published his entertaining _Recollections_ in 1826,\nfound the West a strange mixture of all sorts and conditions of people.\nSome of them, he relates, had been hunters in the upper world of the\nMississippi, above the falls of St. Anthony. Some had been still farther\nnorth, in Canada. Still others had wandered from the South--the Gulf of\nMexico, the Red River, and the Spanish country. French boatmen and\ntrappers, Spanish traders from the Southwest, Virginia planters with\ntheir droves of slaves mingled with English, German, and Scotch-Irish\nfarmers. Hunters, forest rangers, restless bordermen, and squatters,\nlike the foaming combers of an advancing tide, went first. Then followed\nthe farmers, masters of the ax and plow, with their wives who shared\nevery burden and hardship and introduced some of the features of\ncivilized life. The hunters and rangers passed on to new scenes; the\nhome makers built for all time.\n\n=The Number of Immigrants.=--There were no official stations on the\nfrontier to record the number of immigrants who entered the West during\nthe decades following the American Revolution. But travelers of the time\nrecord that every road was \"crowded\" with pioneers and their families,\ntheir wagons and cattle; and that they were seldom out of the sound of\nthe snapping whip of the teamster urging forward his horses or the crack\nof the hunter's rifle as he brought down his evening meal. \"During the\nlatter half of 1787,\" says Coman, \"more than nine hundred boats floated\ndown the Ohio carrying eighteen thousand men, women, and children, and\ntwelve thousand horses, sheep, and cattle, and six hundred and fifty\nwagons.\" Other lines of travel were also crowded and with the passing\nyears the flooding tide of home seekers rose higher and higher.\n\n=The Western Routes.=--Four main routes led into the country beyond the\nAppalachians. The Genesee road, beginning at Albany, ran almost due west\nto the present site of Buffalo on Lake Erie, through a level country. In\nthe dry season, wagons laden with goods could easily pass along it into\nnorthern Ohio. A second route, through Pittsburgh, was fed by three\neastern branches, one starting at Philadelphia, one at Baltimore, and\nanother at Alexandria. A third main route wound through the mountains\nfrom Alexandria to Boonesboro in Kentucky and then westward across the\nOhio to St. Louis. A fourth, the most famous of them all, passed through\nthe Cumberland Gap and by branches extended into the Cumberland valley\nand the Kentucky country.\n\nOf these four lines of travel, the Pittsburgh route offered the most\nadvantages. Pioneers, no matter from what section they came, when once\nthey were on the headwaters of the Ohio and in possession of a flatboat,\ncould find a quick and easy passage into all parts of the West and\nSouthwest. Whether they wanted to settle in Ohio, Kentucky, or western\nTennessee they could find their way down the drifting flood to their\ndestination or at least to some spot near it. Many people from the South\nas well as the Northern and Middle states chose this route; so it came\nabout that the sons and daughters of Virginia and the Carolinas mingled\nwith those of New York, Pennsylvania, and New England in the settlement\nof the Northwest territory.\n\n=The Methods of Travel into the West.=--Many stories giving exact\ndescriptions of methods of travel into the West in the early days have\nbeen preserved. The country was hardly opened before visitors from the\nOld World and from the Eastern states, impelled by curiosity, made their\nway to the very frontier of civilization and wrote books to inform or\namuse the public. One of them, Gilbert Imlay, an English traveler, has\ngiven us an account of the Pittsburgh route as he found it in 1791. \"If\na man ... \" he writes, \"has a family or goods of any sort to remove, his\nbest way, then, would be to purchase a waggon and team of horses to\ncarry his property to Redstone Old Fort or to Pittsburgh, according as\nhe may come from the Northern or Southern states. A good waggon will\ncost, at Philadelphia, about $10 ... and the horses about $12 each; they\nwould cost something more both at Baltimore and Alexandria. The waggon\nmay be covered with canvass, and if it is the choice of the people, they\nmay sleep in it of nights with the greatest safety. But if they dislike\nthat, there are inns of accommodation the whole distance on the\ndifferent roads.... The provisions I would purchase in the same manner\n[that is, from the farmers along the road]; and by having two or three\ncamp kettles and stopping every evening when the weather is fine upon\nthe brink of some rivulet and by kindling a fire they may soon dress\ntheir own food.... This manner of journeying is so far from being\ndisagreeable that in a fine season it is extremely pleasant.\" The\nimmigrant once at Pittsburgh or Wheeling could then buy a flatboat of a\nsize required for his goods and stock, and drift down the current to his\njourney's end.\n\n[Illustration: ROADS AND TRAILS INTO THE WESTERN TERRITORY]\n\n=The Admission of Kentucky and Tennessee.=--When the eighteenth century\ndrew to a close, Kentucky had a population larger than Delaware, Rhode\nIsland, or New Hampshire. Tennessee claimed 60,000 inhabitants. In 1792\nKentucky took her place as a state beside her none too kindly parent,\nVirginia. The Eastern Federalists resented her intrusion; but they took\nsome consolation in the admission of Vermont because the balance of\nEastern power was still retained.\n\nAs if to assert their independence of old homes and conservative ideas\nthe makers of Kentucky's first constitution swept aside the landed\nqualification on the suffrage and gave the vote to all free white males.\nFour years later, Kentucky's neighbor to the south, Tennessee, followed\nthis step toward a wider democracy. After encountering fierce opposition\nfrom the Federalists, Tennessee was accepted as the sixteenth state.\n\n=Ohio.=--The door of the union had hardly opened for Tennessee when\nanother appeal was made to Congress, this time from the pioneers in\nOhio. The little posts founded at Marietta and Cincinnati had grown into\nflourishing centers of trade. The stream of immigrants, flowing down the\nriver, added daily to their numbers and the growing settlements all\naround poured produce into their markets to be exchanged for \"store\ngoods.\" After the Indians were disposed of in 1794 and the last British\nsoldier left the frontier forts under the terms of the Jay treaty of\n1795, tiny settlements of families appeared on Lake Erie in the \"Western\nReserve,\" a region that had been retained by Connecticut when she\nsurrendered her other rights in the Northwest.\n\nAt the close of the century, Ohio, claiming a population of more than\n50,000, grew discontented with its territorial status. Indeed, two years\nbefore the enactment of the Northwest Ordinance, squatters in that\nregion had been invited by one John Emerson to hold a convention after\nthe fashion of the men of Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield in old\nConnecticut and draft a frame of government for themselves. This true\nson of New England declared that men \"have an undoubted right to pass\ninto every vacant country and there to form their constitution and that\nfrom the confederation of the whole United States Congress is not\nempowered to forbid them.\" This grand convention was never held because\nthe heavy hand of the government fell upon the leaders; but the spirit\nof John Emerson did not perish. In November, 1802, a convention chosen\nby voters, assembled under the authority of Congress at Chillicothe,\ndrew up a constitution. It went into force after a popular ratification.\nThe roll of the convention bore such names as Abbot, Baldwin, Cutler,\nHuntington, Putnam, and Sargent, and the list of counties from which\nthey came included Adams, Fairfield, Hamilton, Jefferson, Trumbull, and\nWashington, showing that the new America in the West was peopled and led\nby the old stock. In 1803 Ohio was admitted to the union.\n\n=Indiana and Illinois.=--As in the neighboring state, the frontier in\nIndiana advanced northward from the Ohio, mainly under the leadership,\nhowever, of settlers from the South--restless Kentuckians hoping for\nbetter luck in a newer country and pioneers from the far frontiers of\nVirginia and North Carolina. As soon as a tier of counties swinging\nupward like the horns of the moon against Ohio on the east and in the\nWabash Valley on the west was fairly settled, a clamor went up for\nstatehood. Under the authority of an act of Congress in 1816 the\nIndianians drafted a constitution and inaugurated their government at\nCorydon. \"The majority of the members of the convention,\" we are told by\na local historian, \"were frontier farmers who had a general idea of what\nthey wanted and had sense enough to let their more erudite colleagues\nput it into shape.\"\n\nTwo years later, the pioneers of Illinois, also settled upward from the\nOhio, like Indiana, elected their delegates to draft a constitution.\nLeadership in the convention, quite properly, was taken by a man born in\nNew York and reared in Tennessee; and the constitution as finally\ndrafted \"was in its principal provisions a copy of the then existing\nconstitutions of Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana.... Many of the articles\nare exact copies in wording although differently arranged and\nnumbered.\"\n\n=Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama.=--Across the Mississippi to the\nfar south, clearing and planting had gone on with much bustle and\nenterprise. The cotton and sugar lands of Louisiana, opened by French\nand Spanish settlers, were widened in every direction by planters with\ntheir armies of slaves from the older states. New Orleans, a good market\nand a center of culture not despised even by the pioneer, grew apace. In\n1810 the population of lower Louisiana was over 75,000. The time had\ncome, said the leaders of the people, to fulfill the promise made to\nFrance in the treaty of cession; namely, to grant to the inhabitants of\nthe territory statehood and the rights of American citizens. Federalists\nfrom New England still having a voice in Congress, if somewhat weaker,\nstill protested in tones of horror. \"I am compelled to declare it as my\ndeliberate opinion,\" pronounced Josiah Quincy in the House of\nRepresentatives, \"that if this bill [to admit Louisiana] passes, the\nbonds of this Union are virtually dissolved ... that as it will be the\nright of all, so it will be the duty of some [states] to prepare\ndefinitely for a separation; amicably if they can, violently if they\nmust.... It is a death blow to the Constitution. It may afterwards\nlinger; but lingering, its fate will, at no very distant period, be\nconsummated.\" Federalists from New York like those from New England had\ntheir doubts about the wisdom of admitting Western states; but the party\nof Jefferson and Madison, having the necessary majority, granted the\ncoveted statehood to Louisiana in 1812.\n\nWhen, a few years later, Mississippi and Alabama knocked at the doors of\nthe union, the Federalists had so little influence, on account of their\nconduct during the second war with England, that spokesmen from the\nSouthwest met a kindlier reception at Washington. Mississippi, in 1817,\nand Alabama, in 1819, took their places among the United States of\nAmerica. Both of them, while granting white manhood suffrage, gave their\nconstitutions the tone of the old East by providing landed\nqualifications for the governor and members of the legislature.\n\n=Missouri.=--Far to the north in the Louisiana purchase, a new\ncommonwealth was rising to power. It was peopled by immigrants who came\ndown the Ohio in fleets of boats or crossed the Mississippi from\nKentucky and Tennessee. Thrifty Germans from Pennsylvania, hardy farmers\nfrom Virginia ready to work with their own hands, freemen seeking\nfreemen's homes, planters with their slaves moving on from worn-out\nfields on the seaboard, came together in the widening settlements of the\nMissouri country. Peoples from the North and South flowed together,\nsmall farmers and big planters mingling in one community. When their\nnumbers had reached sixty thousand or more, they precipitated a contest\nover their admission to the union, \"ringing an alarm bell in the night,\"\nas Jefferson phrased it. The favorite expedient of compromise with\nslavery was brought forth in Congress once more. Maine consequently was\nbrought into the union without slavery and Missouri with slavery. At the\nsame time there was drawn westward through the rest of the Louisiana\nterritory a line separating servitude from slavery.\n\n\nTHE SPIRIT OF THE FRONTIER\n\n=Land Tenure and Liberty.=--Over an immense western area there developed\nan unbroken system of freehold farms. In the Gulf states and the lower\nMississippi Valley, it is true, the planter with his many slaves even\nled in the pioneer movement; but through large sections of Tennessee and\nKentucky, as well as upper Georgia and Alabama, and all throughout the\nNorthwest territory the small farmer reigned supreme. In this immense\ndominion there sprang up a civilization without caste or class--a body\nof people all having about the same amount of this world's goods and\nderiving their livelihood from one source: the labor of their own hands\non the soil. The Northwest territory alone almost equaled in area all\nthe original thirteen states combined, except Georgia, and its system of\nagricultural economy was unbroken by plantations and feudal estates. \"In\nthe subdivision of the soil and the great equality of condition,\" as\nWebster said on more than one occasion, \"lay the true basis, most\ncertainly, of popular government.\" There was the undoubted source of\nJacksonian democracy.\n\n[Illustration: A LOG CABIN--LINCOLN'S BIRTHPLACE]\n\n=The Characteristics of the Western People.=--Travelers into the\nNorthwest during the early years of the nineteenth century were agreed\nthat the people of that region were almost uniformly marked by the\ncharacteristics common to an independent yeomanry. A close observer thus\nrecorded his impressions: \"A spirit of adventurous enterprise, a\nwillingness to go through any hardship to accomplish an object....\nIndependence of thought and action. They have felt the influence of\nthese principles from their childhood. Men who can endure anything; that\nhave lived almost without restraint, free as the mountain air or as the\ndeer and the buffalo of their forests, and who know they are Americans\nall.... An apparent roughness which some would deem rudeness of\nmanner.... Where there is perfect equality in a neighborhood of people\nwho know little about each other's previous history or ancestry but\nwhere each is lord of the soil he cultivates. Where a log cabin is all\nthat the best of families can expect to have for years and of course can\npossess few of the external decorations which have so much influence in\ncreating a diversity of rank in society. These circumstances have laid\nthe foundation for that equality of intercourse, simplicity of manners,\nwant of deference, want of reserve, great readiness to make\nacquaintances, freedom of speech, indisposition to brook real or\nimaginary insults which one witnesses among people of the West.\"\n\nThis equality, this independence, this rudeness so often described by\nthe traveler as marking a new country, were all accentuated by the\ncharacter of the settlers themselves. Traces of the fierce, unsociable,\neagle-eyed, hard-drinking hunter remained. The settlers who followed the\nhunter were, with some exceptions, soldiers of the Revolutionary army,\nfarmers of the \"middling order,\" and mechanics from the towns,--English,\nScotch-Irish, Germans,--poor in possessions and thrown upon the labor of\ntheir own hands for support. Sons and daughters from well-to-do Eastern\nhomes sometimes brought softer manners; but the equality of life and the\nleveling force of labor in forest and field soon made them one in spirit\nwith their struggling neighbors. Even the preachers and teachers, who\ncame when the cabins were raised in the clearings and rude churches and\nschoolhouses were built, preached sermons and taught lessons that\nsavored of the frontier, as any one may know who reads Peter\nCartwright's _A Muscular Christian_ or Eggleston's _The Hoosier\nSchoolmaster_.\n\n\nTHE WEST AND THE EAST MEET\n\n=The East Alarmed.=--A people so independent as the Westerners and so\nattached to local self-government gave the conservative East many a rude\nshock, setting gentlemen in powdered wigs and knee breeches agog with\nthe idea that terrible things might happen in the Mississippi Valley.\nNot without good grounds did Washington fear that \"a touch of a feather\nwould turn\" the Western settlers away from the seaboard to the\nSpaniards; and seriously did he urge the East not to neglect them, lest\nthey be \"drawn into the arms of, or be dependent upon foreigners.\"\nTaking advantage of the restless spirit in the Southwest, Aaron Burr,\nhaving disgraced himself by killing Alexander Hamilton in a duel, laid\nwild plans, if not to bring about a secession in that region, at least\nto build a state of some kind out of the Spanish dominions adjoining\nLouisiana. Frightened at such enterprises and fearing the dominance of\nthe West, the Federalists, with a few conspicuous exceptions, opposed\nequality between the sections. Had their narrow views prevailed, the\nWest, with its new democracy, would have been held in perpetual tutelage\nto the seaboard or perhaps been driven into independence as the thirteen\ncolonies had been not long before.\n\n=Eastern Friends of the West.=--Fortunately for the nation, there were\nmany Eastern leaders, particularly from the South, who understood the\nWest, approved its spirit, and sought to bring the two sections together\nby common bonds. Washington kept alive and keen the zeal for Western\nadvancement which he acquired in his youth as a surveyor. He never grew\ntired of urging upon his Eastern friends the importance of the lands\nbeyond the mountains. He pressed upon the governor of Virginia a project\nfor a wagon road connecting the seaboard with the Ohio country and was\nactive in a movement to improve the navigation of the Potomac. He\nadvocated strengthening the ties of commerce. \"Smooth the roads,\" he\nsaid, \"and make easy the way for them, and then see what an influx of\narticles will be poured upon us; how amazingly our exports will be\nincreased by them; and how amply we shall be compensated for any trouble\nand expense we may encounter to effect it.\" Jefferson, too, was\ninterested in every phase of Western development--the survey of lands,\nthe exploration of waterways, the opening of trade, and even the\ndiscovery of the bones of prehistoric animals. Robert Fulton, the\ninventor of the steamboat, was another man of vision who for many years\npressed upon his countrymen the necessity of uniting East and West by a\ncanal which would cement the union, raise the value of the public lands,\nand extend the principles of confederate and republican government.\n\n=The Difficulties of Early Transportation.=--Means of communication\nplayed an important part in the strategy of all those who sought to\nbring together the seaboard and the frontier. The produce of the\nWest--wheat, corn, bacon, hemp, cattle, and tobacco--was bulky and the\ncost of overland transportation was prohibitive. In the Eastern market,\n\"a cow and her calf were given for a bushel of salt, while a suit of\n'store clothes' cost as much as a farm.\" In such circumstances, the\ninhabitants of the Mississippi Valley were forced to ship their produce\nover a long route by way of New Orleans and to pay high freight rates\nfor everything that was brought across the mountains. Scows of from five\nto fifty tons were built at the towns along the rivers and piloted down\nthe stream to the Crescent City. In a few cases small ocean-going\nvessels were built to transport goods to the West Indies or to the\nEastern coast towns. Salt, iron, guns, powder, and the absolute\nessentials which the pioneers had to buy mainly in Eastern markets were\ncarried over narrow wagon trails that were almost impassable in the\nrainy season.\n\n=The National Road.=--To far-sighted men, like Albert Gallatin, \"the\nfather of internal improvements,\" the solution of this problem was the\nconstruction of roads and canals. Early in Jefferson's administration,\nCongress dedicated a part of the proceeds from the sale of lands to\nbuilding highways from the headwaters of the navigable waters emptying\ninto the Atlantic to the Ohio River and beyond into the Northwest\nterritory. In 1806, after many misgivings, it authorized a great\nnational highway binding the East and the West. The Cumberland Road, as\nit was called, began in northwestern Maryland, wound through southern\nPennsylvania, crossed the narrow neck of Virginia at Wheeling, and then\nshot almost straight across Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, into Missouri.\nBy 1817, stagecoaches were running between Washington and Wheeling; by\n1833 contractors had carried their work to Columbus, Ohio, and by 1852,\nto Vandalia, Illinois. Over this ballasted road mail and passenger\ncoaches could go at high speed, and heavy freight wagons proceed in\nsafety at a steady pace.\n\n[Illustration: THE CUMBERLAND ROAD]\n\n=Canals and Steamboats.=--A second epoch in the economic union of the\nEast and West was reached with the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825,\noffering an all-water route from New York City to the Great Lakes and\nthe Mississippi Valley. Pennsylvania, alarmed by the advantages\nconferred on New York by this enterprise, began her system of canals and\nportages from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, completing the last link in\n1834. In the South, the Chesapeake and Ohio Company, chartered in 1825,\nwas busy with a project to connect Georgetown and Cumberland when\nrailways broke in upon the undertaking before it was half finished.\nAbout the same time, Ohio built a canal across the state, affording\nwater communication between Lake Erie and the Ohio River through a rich\nwheat belt. Passengers could now travel by canal boat into the West with\ncomparative ease and comfort, if not at a rapid speed, and the bulkiest\nof freight could be easily handled. Moreover, the rate charged for\ncarrying goods was cut by the Erie Canal from $32 a ton per hundred\nmiles to $1. New Orleans was destined to lose her primacy in the\nMississippi Valley.\n\nThe diversion of traffic to Eastern markets was also stimulated by\nsteamboats which appeared on the Ohio about 1810, three years after\nFulton had made his famous trip on the Hudson. It took twenty men to\nsail and row a five-ton scow up the river at a speed of from ten to\ntwenty miles a day. In 1825, Timothy Flint traveled a hundred miles a\nday on the new steamer _Grecian_ \"against the whole weight of the\nMississippi current.\" Three years later the round trip from Louisville\nto New Orleans was cut to eight days. Heavy produce that once had to\nfloat down to New Orleans could be carried upstream and sent to the East\nby way of the canal systems.\n\n[Illustration: _From an old print_\n\nAN EARLY MISSISSIPPI STEAMBOAT]\n\nThus the far country was brought near. The timid no longer hesitated at\nthe thought of the perilous journey. All routes were crowded with\nWestern immigrants. The forests fell before the ax like grain before the\nsickle. Clearings scattered through the woods spread out into a great\nmosaic of farms stretching from the Southern Appalachians to Lake\nMichigan. The national census of 1830 gave 937,000 inhabitants to Ohio;\n343,000 to Indiana; 157,000 to Illinois; 687,000 to Kentucky; and\n681,000 to Tennessee.\n\n[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION, 1830]\n\nWith the increase in population and the growth of agriculture came\npolitical influence. People who had once petitioned Congress now sent\ntheir own representatives. Men who had hitherto accepted without\nprotests Presidents from the seaboard expressed a new spirit of dissent\nin 1824 by giving only three electoral votes for John Quincy Adams; and\nfour years later they sent a son of the soil from Tennessee, Andrew\nJackson, to take Washington's chair as chief executive of the\nnation--the first of a long line of Presidents from the Mississippi\nbasin.\n\n\n=References=\n\nW.G. Brown, _The Lower South in American History_.\n\nB.A. Hinsdale, _The Old North West_ (2 vols.).\n\nA.B. Hulbert, _Great American Canals_ and _The Cumberland Road_.\n\nT. Roosevelt, _Thomas H. Benton_.\n\nP.J. Treat, _The National Land System_ (1785-1820).\n\nF.J. Turner, _Rise of the New West_ (American Nation Series).\n\nJ. Winsor, _The Westward Movement_.\n\n\n=Questions=\n\n1. How did the West come to play a role in the Revolution?\n\n2. What preparations were necessary to settlement?\n\n3. Give the principal provisions of the Northwest Ordinance.\n\n4. Explain how freehold land tenure happened to predominate in the West.\n\n5. Who were the early settlers in the West? What routes did they take?\nHow did they travel?\n\n6. Explain the Eastern opposition to the admission of new Western\nstates. Show how it was overcome.\n\n7. Trace a connection between the economic system of the West and the\nspirit of the people.\n\n8. Who were among the early friends of Western development?\n\n9. Describe the difficulties of trade between the East and the West.\n\n10. Show how trade was promoted.\n\n\n=Research Topics=\n\n=Northwest Ordinance.=--Analysis of text in Macdonald, _Documentary\nSource Book_. Roosevelt, _Winning of the West_, Vol. V, pp. 5-57.\n\n=The West before the Revolution.=--Roosevelt, Vol. I.\n\n=The West during the Revolution.=--Roosevelt, Vols. II and III.\n\n=Tennessee.=--Roosevelt, Vol. V, pp. 95-119 and Vol. VI, pp. 9-87.\n\n=The Cumberland Road.=--A.B. Hulbert, _The Cumberland Road_.\n\n=Early Life in the Middle West.=--Callender, _Economic History of the\nUnited States_, pp. 617-633; 636-641.\n\n=Slavery in the Southwest.=--Callender, pp. 641-652.\n\n=Early Land Policy.=--Callender, pp. 668-680.\n\n=Westward Movement of Peoples.=--Roosevelt, Vol. IV, pp. 7-39.\n\nLists of books dealing with the early history of Western states are\ngiven in Hart, Channing, and Turner, _Guide to the Study and Reading of\nAmerican History_ (rev. ed.), pp. 62-89.\n\n=Kentucky.=--Roosevelt, Vol. IV, pp. 176-263.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XI\n\nJACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY\n\n\nThe New England Federalists, at the Hartford convention, prophesied that\nin time the West would dominate the East. \"At the adoption of the\nConstitution,\" they said, \"a certain balance of power among the original\nstates was considered to exist, and there was at that time and yet is\namong those parties a strong affinity between their great and general\ninterests. By the admission of these [new] states that balance has been\nmaterially affected and unless the practice be modified must ultimately\nbe destroyed. The Southern states will first avail themselves of their\nnew confederates to govern the East, and finally the Western states,\nmultiplied in number, and augmented in population, will control the\ninterests of the whole.\" Strangely enough the fulfillment of this\nprophecy was being prepared even in Federalist strongholds by the rise\nof a new urban democracy that was to make common cause with the farmers\nbeyond the mountains.\n\n\nTHE DEMOCRATIC MOVEMENT IN THE EAST\n\n=The Aristocratic Features of the Old Order.=--The Revolutionary\nfathers, in setting up their first state constitutions, although they\noften spoke of government as founded on the consent of the governed, did\nnot think that consistency required giving the vote to all adult males.\nOn the contrary they looked upon property owners as the only safe\n\"depositary\" of political power. They went back to the colonial\ntradition that related taxation and representation. This, they argued,\nwas not only just but a safeguard against the \"excesses of democracy.\"\n\nIn carrying their theory into execution they placed taxpaying or\nproperty qualifications on the right to vote. Broadly speaking, these\nlimitations fell into three classes. Three states, Pennsylvania (1776),\nNew Hampshire (1784), and Georgia (1798), gave the ballot to all who\npaid taxes, without reference to the value of their property. Three,\nVirginia, Delaware, and Rhode Island, clung firmly to the ancient\nprinciples that only freeholders could be intrusted with electoral\nrights. Still other states, while closely restricting the suffrage,\naccepted the ownership of other things as well as land in fulfillment of\nthe requirements. In Massachusetts, for instance, the vote was granted\nto all men who held land yielding an annual income of three pounds or\npossessed other property worth sixty pounds.\n\nThe electors thus enfranchised, numerous as they were, owing to the wide\ndistribution of land, often suffered from a very onerous disability. In\nmany states they were able to vote only for persons of wealth because\nheavy property qualifications were imposed on public officers. In New\nHampshire, the governor had to be worth five hundred pounds, one-half in\nland; in Massachusetts, one thousand pounds, all freehold; in Maryland,\nfive thousand pounds, one thousand of which was freehold; in North\nCarolina, one thousand pounds freehold; and in South Carolina, ten\nthousand pounds freehold. A state senator in Massachusetts had to be the\nowner of a freehold worth three hundred pounds or personal property\nworth six hundred pounds; in New Jersey, one thousand pounds' worth of\nproperty; in North Carolina, three hundred acres of land; in South\nCarolina, two thousand pounds freehold. For members of the lower house\nof the legislature lower qualifications were required.\n\nIn most of the states the suffrage or office holding or both were\nfurther restricted by religious provisions. No single sect was powerful\nenough to dominate after the Revolution, but, for the most part,\nCatholics and Jews were either disfranchised or excluded from office.\nNorth Carolina and Georgia denied the ballot to any one who was not a\nProtestant. Delaware withheld it from all who did not believe in the\nTrinity and the inspiration of the Scriptures. Massachusetts and\nMaryland limited it to Christians. Virginia and New York, advanced for\ntheir day, made no discrimination in government on account of religious\nopinion.\n\n=The Defense of the Old Order.=--It must not be supposed that property\nqualifications were thoughtlessly imposed at the outset or considered of\nlittle consequence in practice. In the beginning they were viewed as\nfundamental. As towns grew in size and the number of landless citizens\nincreased, the restrictions were defended with even more vigor. In\nMassachusetts, the great Webster upheld the rights of property in\ngovernment, saying: \"It is entirely just that property should have its\ndue weight and consideration in political arrangements.... The\ndisastrous revolutions which the world has witnessed, those political\nthunderstorms and earthquakes which have shaken the pillars of society\nto their deepest foundations, have been revolutions against property.\"\nIn Pennsylvania, a leader in local affairs cried out against a plan to\nremove the taxpaying limitation on the suffrage: \"What does the delegate\npropose? To place the vicious vagrant, the wandering Arabs, the Tartar\nhordes of our large cities on the level with the virtuous and good man?\"\nIn Virginia, Jefferson himself had first believed in property\nqualifications and had feared with genuine alarm the \"mobs of the great\ncities.\" It was near the end of the eighteenth century before he\naccepted the idea of manhood suffrage. Even then he was unable to\nconvince the constitution-makers of his own state. \"It is not an idle\nchimera of the brain,\" urged one of them, \"that the possession of land\nfurnishes the strongest evidence of permanent, common interest with, and\nattachment to, the community.... It is upon this foundation I wish to\nplace the right of suffrage. This is the best general standard which can\nbe resorted to for the purpose of determining whether the persons to be\ninvested with the right of suffrage are such persons as could be,\nconsistently with the safety and well-being of the community, intrusted\nwith the exercise of that right.\"\n\n=Attacks on the Restricted Suffrage.=--The changing circumstances of\nAmerican life, however, soon challenged the rule of those with property.\nProminent among the new forces were the rising mercantile and business\ninterests. Where the freehold qualification was applied, business men\nwho did not own land were deprived of the vote and excluded from office.\nIn New York, for example, the most illiterate farmer who had one hundred\npounds' worth of land could vote for state senator and governor, while\nthe landless banker or merchant could not. It is not surprising,\ntherefore, to find business men taking the lead in breaking down\nfreehold limitations on the suffrage. The professional classes also were\ninterested in removing the barriers which excluded many of them from\npublic affairs. It was a schoolmaster, Thomas Dorr, who led the popular\nuprising in Rhode Island which brought the exclusive rule by freeholders\nto an end.\n\nIn addition to the business and professional classes, the mechanics of\nthe towns showed a growing hostility to a system of government that\ngenerally barred them from voting or holding office. Though not\nnumerous, they had early begun to exercise an influence on the course of\npublic affairs. They had led the riots against the Stamp Act, overturned\nKing George's statue, and \"crammed stamps down the throats of\ncollectors.\" When the state constitutions were framed they took a lively\ninterest, particularly in New York City and Philadelphia. In June, 1776,\nthe \"mechanicks in union\" in New York protested against putting the new\nstate constitution into effect without their approval, declaring that\nthe right to vote on the acceptance or rejection of a fundamental law\n\"is the birthright of every man to whatever state he may belong.\" Though\ntheir petition was rejected, their spirit remained. When, a few years\nlater, the federal Constitution was being framed, the mechanics watched\nthe process with deep concern; they knew that one of its main objects\nwas to promote trade and commerce, affecting directly their daily bread.\nDuring the struggle over ratification, they passed resolutions approving\nits provisions and they often joined in parades organized to stir up\nsentiment for the Constitution, even though they could not vote for\nmembers of the state conventions and so express their will directly.\nAfter the organization of trade unions they collided with the courts of\nlaw and thus became interested in the election of judges and lawmakers.\n\nThose who attacked the old system of class rule found a strong moral\nsupport in the Declaration of Independence. Was it not said that all men\nare created equal? Whoever runs may read. Was it not declared that\ngovernments derive their just power from the consent of the governed?\nThat doctrine was applied with effect to George III and seemed\nappropriate for use against the privileged classes of Massachusetts or\nVirginia. \"How do the principles thus proclaimed,\" asked the\nnon-freeholders of Richmond, in petitioning for the ballot, \"accord with\nthe existing regulation of the suffrage? A regulation which, instead of\nthe equality nature ordains, creates an odious distinction between\nmembers of the same community ... and vests in a favored class, not in\nconsideration of their public services but of their private possessions,\nthe highest of all privileges.\"\n\n=Abolition of Property Qualifications.=--By many minor victories rather\nthan by any spectacular triumphs did the advocates of manhood suffrage\ncarry the day. Slight gains were made even during the Revolution or\nshortly afterward. In Pennsylvania, the mechanics, by taking an active\npart in the contest over the Constitution of 1776, were able to force\nthe qualification down to the payment of a small tax. Vermont came into\nthe union in 1792 without any property restrictions. In the same year\nDelaware gave the vote to all men who paid taxes. Maryland, reckoned one\nof the most conservative of states, embarked on the experiment of\nmanhood suffrage in 1809; and nine years later, Connecticut, equally\nconservative, decided that all taxpayers were worthy of the ballot.\n\nFive states, Massachusetts, New York, Virginia, Rhode Island, and North\nCarolina, remained obdurate while these changes were going on around\nthem; finally they had to yield themselves. The last struggle in\nMassachusetts took place in the constitutional convention of 1820. There\nWebster, in the prime of his manhood, and John Adams, in the closing\nyears of his old age, alike protested against such radical innovations\nas manhood suffrage. Their protests were futile. The property test was\nabolished and a small tax-paying qualification was substituted. New York\nsurrendered the next year and, after trying some minor restrictions for\nfive years, went completely over to white manhood suffrage in 1826.\nRhode Island clung to her freehold qualification through thirty years of\nagitation. Then Dorr's Rebellion, almost culminating in bloodshed,\nbrought about a reform in 1843 which introduced a slight tax-paying\nqualification as an alternative to the freehold. Virginia and North\nCarolina were still unconvinced. The former refused to abandon ownership\nof land as the test for political rights until 1850 and the latter until\n1856. Although religious discriminations and property qualifications for\noffice holders were sometimes retained after the establishment of\nmanhood suffrage, they were usually abolished along with the monopoly of\ngovernment enjoyed by property owners and taxpayers.\n\n[Illustration: THOMAS DORR AROUSING HIS FOLLOWERS]\n\nAt the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth century, the white\nmale industrial workers and the mechanics of the Northern cities, at\nleast, could lay aside the petition for the ballot and enjoy with the\nfree farmer a voice in the government of their common country.\n\"Universal democracy,\" sighed Carlyle, who was widely read in the United\nStates, \"whatever we may think of it has declared itself the inevitable\nfact of the days in which we live; and he who has any chance to instruct\nor lead in these days must begin by admitting that ... Where no\ngovernment is wanted, save that of the parish constable, as in America\nwith its boundless soil, every man being able to find work and\nrecompense for himself, democracy may subsist; not elsewhere.\" Amid the\ngrave misgivings of the first generation of statesmen, America was\ncommitted to the great adventure, in the populous towns of the East as\nwell as in the forests and fields of the West.\n\n\nTHE NEW DEMOCRACY ENTERS THE ARENA\n\nThe spirit of the new order soon had a pronounced effect on the\nmachinery of government and the practice of politics. The enfranchised\nelectors were not long in demanding for themselves a larger share in\nadministration.\n\n=The Spoils System and Rotation in Office.=--First of all they wanted\noffice for themselves, regardless of their fitness. They therefore\nextended the system of rewarding party workers with government\npositions--a system early established in several states, notably New\nYork and Pennsylvania. Closely connected with it was the practice of\nfixing short terms for officers and making frequent changes in\npersonnel. \"Long continuance in office,\" explained a champion of this\nidea in Pennsylvania in 1837, \"unfits a man for the discharge of its\nduties, by rendering him arbitrary and aristocratic, and tends to beget,\nfirst life office, and then hereditary office, which leads to the\ndestruction of free government.\" The solution offered was the historic\ndoctrine of \"rotation in office.\" At the same time the principle of\npopular election was extended to an increasing number of officials who\nhad once been appointed either by the governor or the legislature. Even\ngeologists, veterinarians, surveyors, and other technical officers were\ndeclared elective on the theory that their appointment \"smacked of\nmonarchy.\"\n\n=Popular Election of Presidential Electors.=--In a short time the spirit\nof democracy, while playing havoc with the old order in state\ngovernment, made its way upward into the federal system. The framers of\nthe Constitution, bewildered by many proposals and unable to agree on\nany single plan, had committed the choice of presidential electors to\nthe discretion of the state legislatures. The legislatures, in turn,\ngreedy of power, early adopted the practice of choosing the electors\nthemselves; but they did not enjoy it long undisturbed. Democracy,\nthundering at their doors, demanded that they surrender the privilege to\nthe people. Reluctantly they yielded, sometimes granting popular\nelection and then withdrawing it. The drift was inevitable, and the\nclimax came with the advent of Jacksonian democracy. In 1824, Vermont,\nNew York, Delaware, South Carolina, Georgia, and Louisiana, though some\nhad experimented with popular election, still left the choice of\nelectors with the legislature. Eight years later South Carolina alone\nheld to the old practice. Popular election had become the final word.\nThe fanciful idea of an electoral college of \"good and wise men,\"\nselected without passion or partisanship by state legislatures acting as\ndeliberative bodies, was exploded for all time; the election of the\nnation's chief magistrate was committed to the tempestuous methods of\ndemocracy.\n\n=The Nominating Convention.=--As the suffrage was widened and the\npopular choice of presidential electors extended, there arose a violent\nprotest against the methods used by the political parties in nominating\ncandidates. After the retirement of Washington, both the Republicans and\nthe Federalists found it necessary to agree upon their favorites before\nthe election, and they adopted a colonial device--the pre-election\ncaucus. The Federalist members of Congress held a conference and\nselected their candidate, and the Republicans followed the example. In\na short time the practice of nominating by a \"congressional caucus\"\nbecame a recognized institution. The election still remained with the\npeople; but the power of picking candidates for their approval passed\ninto the hands of a small body of Senators and Representatives.\n\n\nA reaction against this was unavoidable. To friends of \"the plain\npeople,\" like Andrew Jackson, it was intolerable, all the more so\nbecause the caucus never favored him with the nomination. More\nconservative men also found grave objections to it. They pointed out\nthat, whereas the Constitution intended the President to be an\nindependent officer, he had now fallen under the control of a caucus of\ncongressmen. The supremacy of the legislative branch had been obtained\nby an extra-legal political device. To such objections were added\npractical considerations. In 1824, when personal rivalry had taken the\nplace of party conflicts, the congressional caucus selected as the\ncandidate, William H. Crawford, of Georgia, a man of distinction but no\ngreat popularity, passing by such an obvious hero as General Jackson.\nThe followers of the General were enraged and demanded nothing short of\nthe death of \"King Caucus.\" Their clamor was effective. Under their\nattacks, the caucus came to an ignominious end.\n\nIn place of it there arose in 1831 a new device, the national nominating\nconvention, composed of delegates elected by party voters for the sole\npurpose of nominating candidates. Senators and Representatives were\nstill prominent in the party councils, but they were swamped by hundreds\nof delegates \"fresh from the people,\" as Jackson was wont to say. In\nfact, each convention was made up mainly of office holders and office\nseekers, and the new institution was soon denounced as vigorously as\nKing Caucus had been, particularly by statesmen who failed to obtain a\nnomination. Still it grew in strength and by 1840 was firmly\nestablished.\n\n=The End of the Old Generation.=--In the election of 1824, the\nrepresentatives of the \"aristocracy\" made their last successful stand.\nUntil then the leadership by men of \"wealth and talents\" had been\nundisputed. There had been five Presidents--Washington, John Adams,\nJefferson, Madison, and Monroe--all Eastern men brought up in prosperous\nfamilies with the advantages of culture which come from leisure and the\npossession of life's refinements. None of them had ever been compelled\nto work with his hands for a livelihood. Four of them had been\nslaveholders. Jefferson was a philosopher, learned in natural science, a\nmaster of foreign languages, a gentleman of dignity and grace of manner,\nnotwithstanding his studied simplicity. Madison, it was said, was armed\n\"with all the culture of his century.\" Monroe was a graduate of William\nand Mary, a gentleman of the old school. Jefferson and his three\nsuccessors called themselves Republicans and professed a genuine faith\nin the people but they were not \"of the people\" themselves; they were\nnot sons of the soil or the workshop. They were all men of \"the grand\n\nold order of society\" who gave finish and style even to popular\ngovernment.\n\nMonroe was the last of the Presidents belonging to the heroic epoch of\nthe Revolution. He had served in the war for independence, in the\nCongress under the Articles of Confederation, and in official capacity\nafter the adoption of the Constitution. In short, he was of the age that\nhad wrought American independence and set the government afloat. With\nhis passing, leadership went to a new generation; but his successor,\nJohn Quincy Adams, formed a bridge between the old and the new in that\nhe combined a high degree of culture with democratic sympathies.\nWashington had died in 1799, preceded but a few months by Patrick Henry\nand followed in four years by Samuel Adams. Hamilton had been killed in\na duel with Burr in 1804. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams were yet alive\nin 1824 but they were soon to pass from the scene, reconciled at last,\nfull of years and honors. Madison was in dignified retirement, destined\nto live long enough to protest against the doctrine of nullification\nproclaimed by South Carolina before death carried him away at the ripe\nold age of eighty-five.\n\n=The Election of John Quincy Adams (1824).=--The campaign of 1824 marked\nthe end of the \"era of good feeling\" inaugurated by the collapse of the\nFederalist party after the election of 1816. There were four leading\ncandidates, John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, and W.H.\nCrawford. The result of the election was a division of the electoral\nvotes into four parts and no one received a majority. Under the\nConstitution, therefore, the selection of President passed to the House\nof Representatives. Clay, who stood at the bottom of the poll, threw his\nweight to Adams and assured his triumph, much to the chagrin of\nJackson's friends. They thought, with a certain justification, that\ninasmuch as the hero of New Orleans had received the largest electoral\nvote, the House was morally bound to accept the popular judgment and\nmake him President. Jackson shook hands cordially with Adams on the day\nof the inauguration, but never forgave him for being elected.\n\nWhile Adams called himself a Republican in politics and often spoke of\n\"the rule of the people,\" he was regarded by Jackson's followers as \"an\naristocrat.\" He was not a son of the soil. Neither was he acquainted at\nfirst hand with the labor of farmers and mechanics. He had been educated\nat Harvard and in Europe. Like his illustrious father, John Adams, he\nwas a stern and reserved man, little given to seeking popularity.\nMoreover, he was from the East and the frontiersmen of the West regarded\nhim as a man \"born with a silver spoon in his mouth.\" Jackson's\nsupporters especially disliked him because they thought their hero\nentitled to the presidency. Their anger was deepened when Adams\nappointed Clay to the office of Secretary of State; and they set up a\ncry that there had been a \"deal\" by which Clay had helped to elect Adams\nto get office for himself.\n\nThough Adams conducted his administration with great dignity and in a\nfine spirit of public service, he was unable to overcome the opposition\nwhich he encountered on his election to office or to win popularity in\nthe West and South. On the contrary, by advocating government assistance\nin building roads and canals and public grants in aid of education,\narts, and sciences, he ran counter to the current which had set in\nagainst appropriations of federal funds for internal improvements. By\nsigning the Tariff Bill of 1828, soon known as the \"Tariff of\nAbominations,\" he made new enemies without adding to his friends in New\nYork, Pennsylvania, and Ohio where he sorely needed them. Handicapped by\nthe false charge that he had been a party to a \"corrupt bargain\" with\nClay to secure his first election; attacked for his advocacy of a high\nprotective tariff; charged with favoring an \"aristocracy of\noffice-holders\" in Washington on account of his refusal to discharge\ngovernment clerks by the wholesale, Adams was retired from the White\nHouse after he had served four years.\n\n=The Triumph of Jackson in 1828.=--Probably no candidate for the\npresidency ever had such passionate popular support as Andrew Jackson\nhad in 1828. He was truly a man of the people. Born of poor parents in\nthe upland region of South Carolina, schooled in poverty and adversity,\nwithout the advantages of education or the refinements of cultivated\nleisure, he seemed the embodiment of the spirit of the new American\ndemocracy. Early in his youth he had gone into the frontier of Tennessee\nwhere he soon won a name as a fearless and intrepid Indian fighter. On\nthe march and in camp, he endeared himself to his men by sharing their\nhardships, sleeping on the ground with them, and eating parched corn\nwhen nothing better could be found for the privates. From local\nprominence he sprang into national fame by his exploit at the battle of\nNew Orleans. His reputation as a military hero was enhanced by the\nfeeling that he had been a martyr to political treachery in 1824. The\nfarmers of the West and South claimed him as their own. The mechanics of\nthe Eastern cities, newly enfranchised, also looked upon him as their\nfriend. Though his views on the tariff, internal improvements, and other\nissues before the country were either vague or unknown, he was readily\nelected President.\n\nThe returns of the electoral vote in 1828 revealed the sources of\nJackson's power. In New England, he received but one ballot, from\nMaine; he had a majority of the electors in New York and all of them in\nPennsylvania; and he carried every state south of Maryland and beyond\nthe Appalachians. Adams did not get a single electoral vote in the South\nand West. The prophecy of the Hartford convention had been fulfilled.\n\n[Illustration: ANDREW JACKSON]\n\nWhen Jackson took the oath of office on March 4, 1829, the government of\nthe United States entered into a new era. Until this time the\ninauguration of a President--even that of Jefferson, the apostle of\nsimplicity--had brought no rude shock to the course of affairs at the\ncapital. Hitherto the installation of a President meant that an\nold-fashioned gentleman, accompanied by a few servants, had driven to\nthe White House in his own coach, taken the oath with quiet dignity,\nappointed a few new men to the higher posts, continued in office the\nlong list of regular civil employees, and begun his administration with\nrespectable decorum. Jackson changed all this. When he was inaugurated,\nmen and women journeyed hundreds of miles to witness the ceremony. Great\nthrongs pressed into the White House, \"upset the bowls of punch, broke\nthe glasses, and stood with their muddy boots on the satin-covered\nchairs to see the people's President.\" If Jefferson's inauguration was,\nas he called it, the \"great revolution,\" Jackson's inauguration was a\ncataclysm.\n\n\nTHE NEW DEMOCRACY AT WASHINGTON\n\n=The Spoils System.=--The staid and respectable society of Washington\nwas disturbed by this influx of farmers and frontiersmen. To speak of\npolitics became \"bad form\" among fashionable women. The clerks and\ncivil servants of the government who had enjoyed long and secure tenure\nof office became alarmed at the clamor of new men for their positions.\nDoubtless the major portion of them had opposed the election of Jackson\nand looked with feelings akin to contempt upon him and his followers.\nWith a hunter's instinct, Jackson scented his prey. Determined to have\nnone but his friends in office, he made a clean sweep, expelling old\nemployees to make room for men \"fresh from the people.\" This was a new\ncustom. Other Presidents had discharged a few officers for engaging in\nopposition politics. They had been careful in making appointments not to\nchoose inveterate enemies; but they discharged relatively few men on\naccount of their political views and partisan activities.\n\nBy wholesale removals and the frank selection of officers on party\ngrounds--a practice already well intrenched in New York--Jackson\nestablished the \"spoils system\" at Washington. The famous slogan, \"to\nthe victor belong the spoils of victory,\" became the avowed principle of\nthe national government. Statesmen like Calhoun denounced it; poets like\nJames Russell Lowell ridiculed it; faithful servants of the government\nsuffered under it; but it held undisturbed sway for half a century\nthereafter, each succeeding generation outdoing, if possible, its\npredecessor in the use of public office for political purposes. If any\none remarked that training and experience were necessary qualifications\nfor important public positions, he met Jackson's own profession of\nfaith: \"The duties of any public office are so simple or admit of being\nmade so simple that any man can in a short time become master of them.\"\n\n=The Tariff and Nullification.=--Jackson had not been installed in power\nvery long before he was compelled to choose between states' rights and\nnationalism. The immediate occasion of the trouble was the tariff--a\nmatter on which Jackson did not have any very decided views. His mind\ndid not run naturally to abstruse economic questions; and owing to the\ndivided opinion of the country it was \"good politics\" to be vague and\nambiguous in the controversy. Especially was this true, because the\ntariff issue was threatening to split the country into parties again.\n\n_The Development of the Policy of \"Protection.\"_--The war of 1812 and\nthe commercial policies of England which followed it had accentuated the\nneed for American economic independence. During that conflict, the\nUnited States, cut off from English manufactures as during the\nRevolution, built up home industries to meet the unusual call for iron,\nsteel, cloth, and other military and naval supplies as well as the\ndemands from ordinary markets. Iron foundries and textile mills sprang\nup as in the night; hundreds of business men invested fortunes in\nindustrial enterprises so essential to the military needs of the\ngovernment; and the people at large fell into the habit of buying\nAmerican-made goods again. As the London _Times_ tersely observed of the\nAmericans, \"their first war with England made them independent; their\nsecond war made them formidable.\"\n\nIn recognition of this state of affairs, the tariff of 1816 was\ndesigned: _first_, to prevent England from ruining these \"infant\nindustries\" by dumping the accumulated stores of years suddenly upon\nAmerican markets; and, _secondly_, to enlarge in the manufacturing\ncenters the demand for American agricultural produce. It accomplished\nthe purposes of its framers. It kept in operation the mills and furnaces\nso recently built. It multiplied the number of industrial workers and\nenhanced the demand for the produce of the soil. It brought about\nanother very important result. It turned the capital and enterprise of\nNew England from shipping to manufacturing, and converted her statesmen,\nonce friends of low tariffs, into ardent advocates of protection.\n\nIn the early years of the nineteenth century, the Yankees had bent their\nenergies toward building and operating ships to carry produce from\nAmerica to Europe and manufactures from Europe to America. For this\nreason, they had opposed the tariff of 1816 calculated to increase\ndomestic production and cut down the carrying trade. Defeated in their\nefforts, they accepted the inevitable and turned to manufacturing. Soon\nthey were powerful friends of protection for American enterprise. As the\nmoney invested and the labor employed in the favored industries\nincreased, the demand for continued and heavier protection grew apace.\nEven the farmers who furnished raw materials, like wool, flax, and hemp,\nbegan to see eye to eye with the manufacturers. So the textile interests\nof New England, the iron masters of Connecticut, New Jersey, and\nPennsylvania, the wool, hemp, and flax growers of Ohio, Kentucky, and\nTennessee, and the sugar planters of Louisiana developed into a\nformidable combination in support of a high protective tariff.\n\n_The Planting States Oppose the Tariff._--In the meantime, the cotton\nstates on the seaboard had forgotten about the havoc wrought during the\nNapoleonic wars when their produce rotted because there were no ships to\ncarry it to Europe. The seas were now open. The area devoted to cotton\nhad swiftly expanded as Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana were opened\nup. Cotton had in fact become \"king\" and the planters depended for their\nprosperity, as they thought, upon the sale of their staple to English\nmanufacturers whose spinning and weaving mills were the wonder of the\nworld. Manufacturing nothing and having to buy nearly everything except\nfarm produce and even much of that for slaves, the planters naturally\nwanted to purchase manufactures in the cheapest market, England, where\nthey sold most of their cotton. The tariff, they contended, raised the\nprice of the goods they had to buy and was thus in fact a tribute laid\non them for the benefit of the Northern mill owners.\n\n_The Tariff of Abominations._--They were overborne, however, in 1824 and\nagain in 1828 when Northern manufacturers and Western farmers forced\nCongress to make an upward revision of the tariff. The Act of 1828 known\nas \"the Tariff of Abominations,\" though slightly modified in 1832, was\n\"the straw which broke the camel's back.\" Southern leaders turned in\nrage against the whole system. The legislatures of Virginia, North\nCarolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama denounced it; a general\nconvention of delegates held at Augusta issued a protest of defiance\nagainst it; and South Carolina, weary of verbal battles, decided to\nprevent its enforcement.\n\n_South Carolina Nullifies the Tariff._--The legislature of that state,\non October 26, 1832, passed a bill calling for a state convention which\nduly assembled in the following month. In no mood for compromise, it\nadopted the famous Ordinance of Nullification after a few days' debate.\nEvery line of this document was clear and firm. The tariff, it opened,\ngives \"bounties to classes and individuals ... at the expense and to the\ninjury and oppression of other classes and individuals\"; it is a\nviolation of the Constitution of the United States and therefore null\nand void; its enforcement in South Carolina is unlawful; if the federal\ngovernment attempts to coerce the state into obeying the law, \"the\npeople of this state will thenceforth hold themselves absolved from all\nfurther obligations to maintain or preserve their political connection\nwith the people of the other states and will forthwith proceed to\norganize a separate government and do all other acts and things which\nsovereign and independent states may of right do.\"\n\n_Southern States Condemn Nullification._--The answer of the country to\nthis note of defiance, couched in the language used in the Kentucky\nresolutions and by the New England Federalists during the war of 1812,\nwas quick and positive. The legislatures of the Southern states, while\ncondemning the tariff, repudiated the step which South Carolina had\ntaken. Georgia responded: \"We abhor the doctrine of nullification as\nneither a peaceful nor a constitutional remedy.\" Alabama found it\n\"unsound in theory and dangerous in practice.\" North Carolina replied\nthat it was \"revolutionary in character, subversive of the Constitution\nof the United States.\" Mississippi answered: \"It is disunion by\nforce--it is civil war.\" Virginia spoke more softly, condemning the\ntariff and sustaining the principle of the Virginia resolutions but\ndenying that South Carolina could find in them any sanction for her\nproceedings.\n\n_Jackson Firmly Upholds the Union._--The eyes of the country were turned\nupon Andrew Jackson. It was known that he looked with no friendly\nfeelings upon nullification, for, at a Jefferson dinner in the spring of\n1830 while the subject was in the air, he had with laconic firmness\nannounced a toast: \"Our federal union; it must be preserved.\" When two\nyears later the open challenge came from South Carolina, he replied that\nhe would enforce the law, saying with his frontier directness: \"If a\nsingle drop of blood shall be shed there in opposition to the laws of\nthe United States, I will hang the first man I can lay my hands on\nengaged in such conduct upon the first tree that I can reach.\" He made\nready to keep his word by preparing for the use of military and naval\nforces in sustaining the authority of the federal government. Then in a\nlong and impassioned proclamation to the people of South Carolina he\npointed out the national character of the union, and announced his\nsolemn resolve to preserve it by all constitutional means. Nullification\nhe branded as \"incompatible with the existence of the union,\ncontradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized\nby its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was\nfounded, and destructive of the great objects for which it was formed.\"\n\n_A Compromise._--In his messages to Congress, however, Jackson spoke the\nlanguage of conciliation. A few days before issuing his proclamation he\nsuggested that protection should be limited to the articles of domestic\nmanufacture indispensable to safety in war time, and shortly afterward\nhe asked for new legislation to aid him in enforcing the laws. With two\npropositions before it, one to remove the chief grounds for South\nCarolina's resistance and the other to apply force if it was continued,\nCongress bent its efforts to avoid a crisis. On February 12, 1833,\nHenry Clay laid before the Senate a compromise tariff bill providing for\nthe gradual reduction of the duties until by 1842 they would reach the\nlevel of the law which Calhoun had supported in 1816. About the same\ntime the \"force bill,\" designed to give the President ample authority in\nexecuting the law in South Carolina, was taken up. After a short but\nacrimonious debate, both measures were passed and signed by President\nJackson on the same day, March 2. Looking upon the reduction of the\ntariff as a complete vindication of her policy and an undoubted victory,\nSouth Carolina rescinded her ordinance and enacted another nullifying\nthe force bill.\n\n[Illustration: _From an old print._\n\nDANIEL WEBSTER]\n\n_The Webster-Hayne Debate._--Where the actual victory lay in this\nquarrel, long the subject of high dispute, need not concern us to-day.\nPerhaps the chief result of the whole affair was a clarification of the\nissue between the North and the South--a definite statement of the\nprinciples for which men on both sides were years afterward to lay down\ntheir lives. On behalf of nationalism and a perpetual union, the stanch\nold Democrat from Tennessee had, in his proclamation on nullification,\nspoken a language that admitted of only one meaning. On behalf of\nnullification, Senator Hayne, of South Carolina, a skilled lawyer and\ncourtly orator, had in a great speech delivered in the Senate in\nJanuary, 1830, set forth clearly and cogently the doctrine that the\nunion is a compact among sovereign states from which the parties may\nlawfully withdraw. It was this address that called into the arena\nDaniel Webster, Senator from Massachusetts, who, spreading the mantle\nof oblivion over the Hartford convention, delivered a reply to Hayne\nthat has been reckoned among the powerful orations of all time--a plea\nfor the supremacy of the Constitution and the national character of the\nunion.\n\n=The War on the United States Bank.=--If events forced the issue of\nnationalism and nullification upon Jackson, the same could not be said\nof his attack on the bank. That institution, once denounced by every\ntrue Jeffersonian, had been reestablished in 1816 under the\nadministration of Jefferson's disciple, James Madison. It had not been\nin operation very long, however, before it aroused bitter opposition,\nespecially in the South and the West. Its notes drove out of circulation\nthe paper currency of unsound banks chartered by the states, to the\ngreat anger of local financiers. It was accused of favoritism in making\nloans, of conferring special privileges upon politicians in return for\ntheir support at Washington. To all Jackson's followers it was \"an\ninsidious money power.\" One of them openly denounced it as an\ninstitution designed \"to strengthen the arm of wealth and counterpoise\nthe influence of extended suffrage in the disposition of public\naffairs.\"\n\nThis sentiment President Jackson fully shared. In his first message to\nCongress he assailed the bank in vigorous language. He declared that its\nconstitutionality was in doubt and alleged that it had failed to\nestablish a sound and uniform currency. If such an institution was\nnecessary, he continued, it should be a public bank, owned and managed\nby the government, not a private concern endowed with special privileges\nby it. In his second and third messages, Jackson came back to the\nsubject, leaving the decision, however, to \"an enlightened people and\ntheir representatives.\"\n\nMoved by this frank hostility and anxious for the future, the bank\napplied to Congress for a renewal of its charter in 1832, four years\nbefore the expiration of its life. Clay, with his eye upon the\npresidency and an issue for the campaign, warmly supported the\napplication. Congress, deeply impressed by his leadership, passed the\nbill granting the new charter, and sent the open defiance to Jackson.\nHis response was an instant veto. The battle was on and it raged with\nfury until the close of his second administration, ending in the\ndestruction of the bank, a disordered currency, and a national panic.\n\nIn his veto message, Jackson attacked the bank as unconstitutional and\neven hinted at corruption. He refused to assent to the proposition that\nthe Supreme Court had settled the question of constitutionality by the\ndecision in the McCulloch case. \"Each public officer,\" he argued, \"who\ntakes an oath to support the Constitution, swears that he will support\nit as he understands it, not as it is understood by others.\"\n\nNot satisfied with his veto and his declaration against the bank,\nJackson ordered the Secretary of the Treasury to withdraw the government\ndeposits which formed a large part of the institution's funds. This\naction he followed up by an open charge that the bank had used money\nshamefully to secure the return of its supporters to Congress. The\nSenate, stung by this charge, solemnly resolved that Jackson had\n\"assumed upon himself authority and power not conferred by the\nConstitution and laws, but in derogation of both.\"\n\nThe effects of the destruction of the bank were widespread. When its\ncharter expired in 1836, banking was once more committed to the control\nof the states. The state legislatures, under a decision rendered by the\nSupreme Court after the death of Marshall, began to charter banks under\nstate ownership and control, with full power to issue paper money--this\nin spite of the provision in the Constitution that states shall not\nissue bills of credit or make anything but gold and silver coin legal\ntender in the payment of debts. Once more the country was flooded by\npaper currency of uncertain value. To make matters worse, Jackson\nadopted the practice of depositing huge amounts of government funds in\nthese banks, not forgetting to render favors to those institutions which\nsupported him in politics--\"pet banks,\" as they were styled at the\ntime. In 1837, partially, though by no means entirely, as a result of\nthe abolition of the bank, the country was plunged into one of the most\ndisastrous panics which it ever experienced.\n\n=Internal Improvements Checked.=--The bank had presented to Jackson a\nvery clear problem--one of destruction. Other questions were not so\nsimple, particularly the subject of federal appropriations in aid of\nroads and other internal improvements. Jefferson had strongly favored\ngovernment assistance in such matters, but his administration was\nfollowed by a reaction. Both Madison and Monroe vetoed acts of Congress\nappropriating public funds for public roads, advancing as their reason\nthe argument that the Constitution authorized no such laws. Jackson,\npuzzled by the clamor on both sides, followed their example without\nmaking the constitutional bar absolute. Congress, he thought, might\nlawfully build highways of a national and military value, but he\nstrongly deprecated attacks by local interests on the federal treasury.\n\n=The Triumph of the Executive Branch.=--Jackson's reelection in 1832\nserved to confirm his opinion that he was the chosen leader of the\npeople, freed and instructed to ride rough shod over Congress and even\nthe courts. No President before or since ever entertained in times of\npeace such lofty notions of executive prerogative. The entire body of\nfederal employees he transformed into obedient servants of his wishes, a\nsign or a nod from him making and undoing the fortunes of the humble and\nthe mighty. His lawful cabinet of advisers, filling all of the high\nposts in the government, he treated with scant courtesy, preferring\nrather to secure his counsel and advice from an unofficial body of\nfriends and dependents who, owing to their secret methods and back\nstairs arrangements, became known as \"the kitchen cabinet.\" Under the\nleadership of a silent, astute, and resourceful politician, Amos\nKendall, this informal gathering of the faithful both gave and carried\nout decrees and orders, communicating the President's lightest wish or\nstrictest command to the uttermost part of the country. Resolutely and\nin the face of bitter opposition Jackson had removed the deposits from\nthe United States Bank. When the Senate protested against this arbitrary\nconduct, he did not rest until it was forced to expunge the resolution\nof condemnation; in time one of his lieutenants with his own hands was\nable to tear the censure from the records. When Chief Justice Marshall\nissued a decree against Georgia which did not suit him, Jackson,\naccording to tradition, blurted out that Marshall could go ahead and\nenforce his own orders. To the end he pursued his willful way, finally\neven choosing his own successor.\n\n\nTHE RISE OF THE WHIGS\n\n=Jackson's Measures Arouse Opposition.=--Measures so decided, policies\nso radical, and conduct so high-handed could not fail to arouse against\nJackson a deep and exasperated opposition. The truth is the conduct of\nhis entire administration profoundly disturbed the business and finances\nof the country. It was accompanied by conditions similar to those which\nexisted under the Articles of Confederation. A paper currency, almost as\nunstable and irritating as the worthless notes of revolutionary days,\nflooded the country, hindering the easy transaction of business. The use\nof federal funds for internal improvements, so vital to the exchange of\ncommodities which is the very life of industry, was blocked by executive\nvetoes. The Supreme Court, which, under Marshall, had held refractory\nstates to their obligations under the Constitution, was flouted; states'\nrights judges, deliberately selected by Jackson for the bench, began to\nsap and undermine the rulings of Marshall. The protective tariff, under\nwhich the textile industry of New England, the iron mills of\nPennsylvania, and the wool, flax, and hemp farms of the West had\nflourished, had received a severe blow in the compromise of 1833 which\npromised a steady reduction of duties. To cap the climax, Jackson's\nparty, casting aside the old and reputable name of Republican, boldly\nchose for its title the term \"Democrat,\" throwing down the gauntlet to\nevery conservative who doubted the omniscience of the people. All these\nthings worked together to evoke an opposition that was sharp and\ndetermined.\n\n[Illustration: AN OLD CARTOON RIDICULING CLAY'S TARIFF AND INTERNAL\nIMPROVEMENT PROGRAM]\n\n=Clay and the National Republicans.=--In this opposition movement,\nleadership fell to Henry Clay, a son of Kentucky, rather than to Daniel\nWebster of Massachusetts. Like Jackson, Clay was born in a home haunted\nby poverty. Left fatherless early and thrown upon his own resources, he\nwent from Virginia into Kentucky where by sheer force of intellect he\nrose to eminence in the profession of law. Without the martial gifts or\nthe martial spirit of Jackson, he slipped more easily into the social\nhabits of the East at the same time that he retained his hold on the\naffections of the boisterous West. Farmers of Ohio, Indiana, and\nKentucky loved him; financiers of New York and Philadelphia trusted him.\nHe was thus a leader well fitted to gather the forces of opposition\ninto union against Jackson.\n\nAround Clay's standard assembled a motley collection, representing every\nspecies of political opinion, united by one tie only--hatred for \"Old\nHickory.\" Nullifiers and less strenuous advocates of states' rights were\nyoked with nationalists of Webster's school; ardent protectionists were\nbound together with equally ardent free traders, all fraternizing in one\ngrand confusion of ideas under the title of \"National Republicans.\" Thus\nthe ancient and honorable term selected by Jefferson and his party, now\nabandoned by Jacksonian Democracy, was adroitly adopted to cover the\nsupporters of Clay. The platform of the party, however, embraced all the\nold Federalist principles: protection for American industry; internal\nimprovements; respect for the Supreme Court; resistance to executive\ntyranny; and denunciation of the spoils system. Though Jackson was\neasily victorious in 1832, the popular vote cast for Clay should have\ngiven him some doubts about the faith of \"the whole people\" in the\nwisdom of his \"reign.\"\n\n=Van Buren and the Panic of 1837.=--Nothing could shake the General's\nsuperb confidence. At the end of his second term he insisted on\nselecting his own successor; at a national convention, chosen by party\nvoters, but packed with his office holders and friends, he nominated\nMartin Van Buren of New York. Once more he proved his strength by\ncarrying the country for the Democrats. With a fine flourish, he\nattended the inauguration of Van Buren and then retired, amid the\napplause and tears of his devotees, to the Hermitage, his home in\nTennessee.\n\nFortunately for him, Jackson escaped the odium of a disastrous panic\nwhich struck the country with terrible force in the following summer.\nAmong the contributory causes of this crisis, no doubt, were the\ndestruction of the bank and the issuance of the \"specie circular\" of\n\n1836 which required the purchasers of public lands to pay for them in\ncoin, instead of the paper notes of state banks. Whatever the dominating\ncause, the ruin was widespread. Bank after bank went under; boom towns\nin the West collapsed; Eastern mills shut down; and working people in\nthe industrial centers, starving from unemployment, begged for relief.\nVan Buren braved the storm, offering no measure of reform or assistance\nto the distracted people. He did seek security for government funds by\nsuggesting the removal of deposits from private banks and the\nestablishment of an independent treasury system, with government\ndepositaries for public funds, in several leading cities. This plan was\nfinally accepted by Congress in 1840.\n\nHad Van Buren been a captivating figure he might have lived down the\ndiscredit of the panic unjustly laid at his door; but he was far from\nbeing a favorite with the populace. Though a man of many talents, he\nowed his position to the quiet and adept management of Jackson rather\nthan to his own personal qualities. The men of the frontier did not care\nfor him. They suspected that he ate from \"gold plate\" and they could not\nforgive him for being an astute politician from New York. Still the\nDemocratic party, remembering Jackson's wishes, renominated him\nunanimously in 1840 and saw him go down to utter defeat.\n\n=The Whigs and General Harrison.=--By this time, the National\nRepublicans, now known as Whigs--a title taken from the party of\nopposition to the Crown in England, had learned many lessons. Taking a\nleaf out of the Democratic book, they nominated, not Clay of Kentucky,\nwell known for his views on the bank, the tariff, and internal\nimprovements, but a military hero, General William Henry Harrison, a man\nof uncertain political opinions. Harrison, a son of a Virginia signer of\nthe Declaration of Independence, sprang into public view by winning a\nbattle more famous than important, \"Tippecanoe\"--a brush with the\nIndians in Indiana. He added to his laurels by rendering praiseworthy\nservices during the war of 1812. When days of peace returned he was\nrewarded by a grateful people with a seat in Congress. Then he retired\nto quiet life in a little village near Cincinnati. Like Jackson he was\nheld to be a son of the South and the West. Like Jackson he was a\nmilitary hero, a lesser light, but still a light. Like Old Hickory he\nrode into office on a tide of popular feeling against an Eastern man\naccused of being something of an aristocrat. His personal popularity was\nsufficient. The Whigs who nominated him shrewdly refused to adopt a\nplatform or declare their belief in anything. When some Democrat\nasserted that Harrison was a backwoodsman whose sole wants were a jug of\nhard cider and a log cabin, the Whigs treated the remark not as an\ninsult but as proof positive that Harrison deserved the votes of Jackson\nmen. The jug and the cabin they proudly transformed into symbols of the\ncampaign, and won for their chieftain 234 electoral votes, while Van\nBuren got only sixty.\n\n=Harrison and Tyler.=--The Hero of Tippecanoe was not long to enjoy the\nfruits of his victory. The hungry horde of Whig office seekers descended\nupon him like wolves upon the fold. If he went out they waylaid him; if\nhe stayed indoors, he was besieged; not even his bed chamber was spared.\nHe was none too strong at best and he took a deep cold on the day of his\ninauguration. Between driving out Democrats and appeasing Whigs, he fell\nmortally ill. Before the end of a month he lay dead at the capitol.\n\nHarrison's successor, John Tyler, the Vice President, whom the Whigs had\nnominated to catch votes in Virginia, was more of a Democrat than\nanything else, though he was not partisan enough to please anybody. The\nWhigs railed at him because he would not approve the founding of another\nUnited States Bank. The Democrats stormed at him for refusing, until\nnear the end of his term, to sanction the annexation of Texas, which had\ndeclared its independence of Mexico in 1836. His entire administration,\nmarked by unseemly wrangling, produced only two measures of importance.\nThe Whigs, flushed by victory, with the aid of a few protectionist\nDemocrats, enacted, in 1842, a new tariff law destroying the compromise\nwhich had brought about the truce between the North and the South, in\nthe days of nullification. The distinguished leader of the Whigs, Daniel\nWebster, as Secretary of State, in negotiation with Lord Ashburton\nrepresenting Great Britain, settled the long-standing dispute between\nthe two countries over the Maine boundary. A year after closing this\nchapter in American diplomacy, Webster withdrew to private life, leaving\nthe President to endure alone the buffets of political fortune.\n\nTo the end, the Whigs regarded Tyler as a traitor to their cause; but\nthe judgment of history is that it was a case of the biter bitten. They\nhad nominated him for the vice presidency as a man of views acceptable\nto Southern Democrats in order to catch their votes, little reckoning\nwith the chances of his becoming President. Tyler had not deceived them\nand, thoroughly soured, he left the White House in 1845 not to appear in\npublic life again until the days of secession, when he espoused the\nSouthern confederacy. Jacksonian Democracy, with new leadership, serving\na new cause--slavery--was returned to power under James K. Polk, a\nfriend of the General from Tennessee. A few grains of sand were to run\nthrough the hour glass before the Whig party was to be broken and\nscattered as the Federalists had been more than a generation before.\n\n\nTHE INTERACTION OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN OPINION\n\n=Democracy in England and France.=--During the period of Jacksonian\nDemocracy, as in all epochs of ferment, there was a close relation\nbetween the thought of the New World and the Old. In England, the\nsuccesses of the American experiment were used as arguments in favor of\noverthrowing the aristocracy which George III had manipulated with such\neffect against America half a century before. In the United States, on\nthe other hand, conservatives like Chancellor Kent, the stout opponent\nof manhood suffrage in New York, cited the riots of the British working\nclasses as a warning against admitting the same classes to a share in\nthe government of the United States. Along with the agitation of opinion\nwent epoch-making events. In 1832, the year of Jackson's second\ntriumph, the British Parliament passed its first reform bill, which\nconferred the ballot--not on workingmen as yet--but on mill owners and\nshopkeepers whom the landlords regarded with genuine horror. The initial\nstep was thus taken in breaking down the privileges of the landed\naristocracy and the rich merchants of England.\n\nAbout the same time a popular revolution occurred in France. The Bourbon\nfamily, restored to the throne of France by the allied powers after\ntheir victory over Napoleon in 1815, had embarked upon a policy of\narbitrary government. To use the familiar phrase, they had learned\nnothing and forgotten nothing. Charles X, who came to the throne in\n1824, set to work with zeal to undo the results of the French\nRevolution, to stifle the press, restrict the suffrage, and restore the\nclergy and the nobility to their ancient rights. His policy encountered\nequally zealous opposition and in 1830 he was overthrown. The popular\nparty, under the leadership of Lafayette, established, not a republic as\nsome of the radicals had hoped, but a \"liberal\" middle-class monarchy\nunder Louis Philippe. This second French Revolution made a profound\nimpression on Americans, convincing them that the whole world was moving\ntoward democracy. The mayor, aldermen, and citizens of New York City\njoined in a great parade to celebrate the fall of the Bourbons. Mingled\nwith cheers for the new order in France were hurrahs for \"the people's\nown, Andrew Jackson, the Hero of New Orleans and President of the United\nStates!\"\n\n=European Interest in America.=--To the older and more settled\nEuropeans, the democratic experiment in America was either a menace or\nan inspiration. Conservatives viewed it with anxiety; liberals with\noptimism. Far-sighted leaders could see that the tide of democracy was\nrising all over the world and could not be stayed. Naturally the country\nthat had advanced furthest along the new course was the place in which\nto find arguments for and against proposals that Europe should make\nexperiments of the same character.\n\n=De Tocqueville's _Democracy in America_.=--In addition to the casual\ntraveler there began to visit the United States the thoughtful observer\nbent on finding out what manner of nation this was springing up in the\nwilderness. Those who looked with sympathy upon the growing popular\nforces of England and France found in the United States, in spite of\nmany blemishes and defects, a guarantee for the future of the people's\nrule in the Old World. One of these, Alexis de Tocqueville, a French\nliberal of mildly democratic sympathies, made a journey to this country\nin 1831; he described in a very remarkable volume, _Democracy in\nAmerica_, the grand experiment as he saw it. On the whole he was\nconvinced. After examining with a critical eye the life and labor of the\nAmerican people, as well as the constitutions of the states and the\nnation, he came to the conclusion that democracy with all its faults was\nboth inevitable and successful. Slavery he thought was a painful\ncontrast to the other features of American life, and he foresaw what\nproved to be the irrepressible conflict over it. He believed that\nthrough blundering the people were destined to learn the highest of all\narts, self-government on a grand scale. The absence of a leisure class,\ndevoted to no calling or profession, merely enjoying the refinements of\nlife and adding to its graces--the flaw in American culture that gave\ndeep distress to many a European leader--de Tocqueville thought a\nnecessary virtue in the republic. \"Amongst a democratic people where\nthere is no hereditary wealth, every man works to earn a living, or has\nworked, or is born of parents who have worked. A notion of labor is\ntherefore presented to the mind on every side as the necessary, natural,\nand honest condition of human existence.\" It was this notion of a\ngovernment in the hands of people who labored that struck the French\npublicist as the most significant fact in the modern world.\n\n=Harriet Martineau's Visit to America.=--This phase of American life\nalso profoundly impressed the brilliant English writer, Harriet\nMartineau. She saw all parts of the country, the homes of the rich and\nthe log cabins of the frontier; she traveled in stagecoaches, canal\nboats, and on horseback; and visited sessions of Congress and auctions\nat slave markets. She tried to view the country impartially and the\nthing that left the deepest mark on her mind was the solidarity of the\npeople in one great political body. \"However various may be the tribes\nof inhabitants in those states, whatever part of the world may have been\ntheir birthplace, or that of their fathers, however broken may be their\nlanguage, however servile or noble their employments, however exalted or\ndespised their state, all are declared to be bound together by equal\npolitical obligations.... In that self-governing country all are held to\nhave an equal interest in the principles of its institutions and to be\nbound in equal duty to watch their workings.\" Miss Martineau was also\nimpressed with the passion of Americans for land ownership and\ncontrasted the United States favorably with England where the tillers of\nthe soil were either tenants or laborers for wages.\n\n=Adverse Criticism.=--By no means all observers and writers were\nconvinced that America was a success. The fastidious traveler, Mrs.\nTrollope, who thought the English system of church and state was ideal,\nsaw in the United States only roughness and ignorance. She lamented the\n\"total and universal want of manners both in males and females,\" adding\nthat while \"they appear to have clear heads and active intellects,\"\nthere was \"no charm, no grace in their conversation.\" She found\neverywhere a lack of reverence for kings, learning, and rank. Other\ncritics were even more savage. The editor of the _Foreign Quarterly_\npetulantly exclaimed that the United States was \"a brigand\nconfederation.\" Charles Dickens declared the country to be \"so maimed\nand lame, so full of sores and ulcers that her best friends turn from\nthe loathsome creature in disgust.\" Sydney Smith, editor of the\n_Edinburgh Review_, was never tired of trying his caustic wit at the\nexpense of America. \"Their Franklins and Washingtons and all the other\nsages and heroes of their revolution were born and bred subjects of the\nking of England,\" he observed in 1820. \"During the thirty or forty\nyears of their independence they have done absolutely nothing for the\nsciences, for the arts, for literature, or even for the statesmanlike\nstudies of politics or political economy.... In the four quarters of the\nglobe who reads an American book? Or goes to an American play? Or looks\nat an American picture or statue?\" To put a sharp sting into his taunt\nhe added, forgetting by whose authority slavery was introduced and\nfostered: \"Under which of the old tyrannical governments of Europe is\nevery sixth man a slave whom his fellow creatures may buy and sell?\"\n\nSome Americans, while resenting the hasty and often superficial\njudgments of European writers, winced under their satire and took\nthought about certain particulars in the indictments brought against\nthem. The mass of the people, however, bent on the great experiment,\ngave little heed to carping critics who saw the flaws and not the\nachievements of our country--critics who were in fact less interested in\nAmerica than in preventing the rise and growth of democracy in Europe.\n\n\n=References=\n\nJ.S. Bassett, _Life of Andrew Jackson_.\n\nJ.W. Burgess, _The Middle Period_.\n\nH. Lodge, _Daniel Webster_.\n\nW. Macdonald, _Jacksonian Democracy_ (American Nation Series).\n\nOstrogorski, _Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties_, Vol.\nII.\n\nC.H. Peck, _The Jacksonian Epoch_.\n\nC. Schurz, _Henry Clay_.\n\n\n=Questions=\n\n1. By what devices was democracy limited in the first days of our\nRepublic?\n\n2. On what grounds were the limitations defended? Attacked?\n\n3. Outline the rise of political democracy in the United States.\n\n4. Describe three important changes in our political system.\n\n5. Contrast the Presidents of the old and the new generations.\n\n6. Account for the unpopularity of John Adams' administration.\n\n7. What had been the career of Andrew Jackson before 1829?\n\n8. Sketch the history of the protective tariff and explain the theory\nunderlying it.\n\n9. Explain the growth of Southern opposition to the tariff.\n\n10. Relate the leading events connected with nullification in South\nCarolina.\n\n11. State Jackson's views and tell the outcome of the controversy.\n\n12. Why was Jackson opposed to the bank? How did he finally destroy it?\n\n13. The Whigs complained of Jackson's \"executive tyranny.\" What did they\nmean?\n\n14. Give some of the leading events in Clay's career.\n\n15. How do you account for the triumph of Harrison in 1840?\n\n16. Why was Europe especially interested in America at this period? Who\nwere some of the European writers on American affairs?\n\n\n=Research Topics=\n\n=Jackson's Criticisms of the Bank.=--Macdonald, _Documentary Source\nBook_, pp. 320-329.\n\n=Financial Aspects of the Bank Controversy.=--Dewey, _Financial History\nof the United States_, Sections 86-87; Elson, _History of the United\nStates_, pp. 492-496.\n\n=Jackson's View of the Union.=--See his proclamation on nullification in\nMacdonald, pp. 333-340.\n\n=Nullification.=--McMaster, _History of the People of the United\nStates_, Vol. VI, pp. 153-182; Elson, pp. 487-492.\n\n=The Webster-Hayne Debate.=--Analyze the arguments. Extensive extracts\nare given in Macdonald's larger three-volume work, _Select Documents of\nUnited States History, 1776-1761_, pp. 239-260.\n\n=The Character of Jackson's Administration.=--Woodrow Wilson, _History\nof the American People_, Vol. IV, pp. 1-87; Elson, pp. 498-501.\n\n=The People in 1830.=--From contemporary writings in Hart, _American\nHistory Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 509-530.\n\n=Biographical Studies.=--Andrew Jackson, J.Q. Adams, Henry Clay, Daniel\nWebster, J.C. Calhoun, and W.H. Harrison.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XII\n\nTHE MIDDLE BORDER AND THE GREAT WEST\n\n\n\"We shall not send an emigrant beyond the Mississippi in a hundred\nyears,\" exclaimed Livingston, the principal author of the Louisiana\npurchase. When he made this astounding declaration, he doubtless had\nbefore his mind's eye the great stretches of unoccupied lands between\nthe Appalachians and the Mississippi. He also had before him the history\nof the English colonies, which told him of the two centuries required to\nsettle the seaboard region. To practical men, his prophecy did not seem\nfar wrong; but before the lapse of half that time there appeared beyond\nthe Mississippi a tier of new states, reaching from the Gulf of Mexico\nto the southern boundary of Minnesota, and a new commonwealth on the\nPacific Ocean where American emigrants had raised the Bear flag of\nCalifornia.\n\n\nTHE ADVANCE OF THE MIDDLE BORDER\n\n=Missouri.=--When the middle of the nineteenth century had been reached,\nthe Mississippi River, which Daniel Boone, the intrepid hunter, had\ncrossed during Washington's administration \"to escape from civilization\"\nin Kentucky, had become the waterway for a vast empire. The center of\npopulation of the United States had passed to the Ohio Valley. Missouri,\nwith its wide reaches of rich lands, low-lying, level, and fertile, well\nadapted to hemp raising, had drawn to its borders thousands of planters\nfrom the old Southern states--from Virginia and the Carolinas as well as\nfrom Kentucky and Tennessee. When the great compromise of 1820-21\nadmitted her to the union, wearing \"every jewel of sovereignty,\" as a\nflorid orator announced, migratory slave owners were assured that their\nproperty would be safe in Missouri. Along the western shore of the\nMississippi and on both banks of the Missouri to the uttermost limits of\nthe state, plantations tilled by bondmen spread out in broad expanses.\nIn the neighborhood of Jefferson City the slaves numbered more than a\nfourth of the population.\n\nInto this stream of migration from the planting South flowed another\ncurrent of land-tilling farmers; some from Kentucky, Tennessee, and\nMississippi, driven out by the onrush of the planters buying and\nconsolidating small farms into vast estates; and still more from the\nEast and the Old World. To the northwest over against Iowa and to the\nsouthwest against Arkansas, these yeomen laid out farms to be tilled by\ntheir own labor. In those regions the number of slaves seldom rose above\nfive or six per cent of the population. The old French post, St. Louis,\nenriched by the fur trade of the Far West and the steamboat traffic of\nthe river, grew into a thriving commercial city, including among its\nseventy-five thousand inhabitants in 1850 nearly forty thousand\nforeigners, German immigrants from Pennsylvania and Europe being the\nlargest single element.\n\n=Arkansas.=--Below Missouri lay the territory of Arkansas, which had\nlong been the paradise of the swarthy hunter and the restless\nfrontiersman fleeing from the advancing borders of farm and town. In\nsearch of the life, wild and free, where the rifle supplied the game and\na few acres of ground the corn and potatoes, they had filtered into the\nterritory in an unending drift, \"squatting\" on the land. Without so much\nas asking the leave of any government, territorial or national, they\nclaimed as their own the soil on which they first planted their feet.\nLike the Cherokee Indians, whom they had as neighbors, whose very\ncustoms and dress they sometimes adopted, the squatters spent their days\nin the midst of rough plenty, beset by chills, fevers, and the ills of\nthe flesh, but for many years unvexed by political troubles or the\nrestrictions of civilized life.\n\nUnfortunately for them, however, the fertile valleys of the Mississippi\nand Arkansas were well adapted to the cultivation of cotton and tobacco\nand their sylvan peace was soon broken by an invasion of planters. The\nnewcomers, with their servile workers, spread upward in the valley\ntoward Missouri and along the southern border westward to the Red River.\nIn time the slaves in the tier of counties against Louisiana ranged from\nthirty to seventy per cent of the population. This marked the doom of\nthe small farmer, swept Arkansas into the main current of planting\npolitics, and led to a powerful lobby at Washington in favor of\nadmission to the union, a boon granted in 1836.\n\n=Michigan.=--In accordance with a well-established custom, a free state\nwas admitted to the union to balance a slave state. In 1833, the people\nof Michigan, a territory ten times the size of Connecticut, announced\nthat the time had come for them to enjoy the privileges of a\ncommonwealth. All along the southern border the land had been occupied\nlargely by pioneers from New England, who built prim farmhouses and\nadopted the town-meeting plan of self-government after the fashion of\nthe old home. The famous post of Detroit was growing into a flourishing\ncity as the boats plying on the Great Lakes carried travelers, settlers,\nand freight through the narrows. In all, according to the census, there\nwere more than ninety thousand inhabitants in the territory; so it was\nnot without warrant that they clamored for statehood. Congress, busy as\never with politics, delayed; and the inhabitants of Michigan, unable to\nrestrain their impatience, called a convention, drew up a constitution,\nand started a lively quarrel with Ohio over the southern boundary. The\nhand of Congress was now forced. Objections were made to the new\nconstitution on the ground that it gave the ballot to all free white\nmales, including aliens not yet naturalized; but the protests were\noverborne in a long debate. The boundary was fixed, and Michigan, though\nshorn of some of the land she claimed, came into the union in 1837.\n\n=Wisconsin.=--Across Lake Michigan to the west lay the territory of\nWisconsin, which shared with Michigan the interesting history of the\nNorthwest, running back into the heroic days when French hunters and\nmissionaries were planning a French empire for the great monarch, Louis\nXIV. It will not be forgotten that the French rangers of the woods, the\nblack-robed priests, prepared for sacrifice, even to death, the trappers\nof the French agencies, and the French explorers--Marquette, Joliet, and\nMenard--were the first white men to paddle their frail barks through the\nnorthern waters. They first blazed their trails into the black forests\nand left traces of their work in the names of portages and little\nvillages. It was from these forests that Red Men in full war paint\njourneyed far to fight under the _fleur-de-lis_ of France when the\nsoldiers of King Louis made their last stand at Quebec and Montreal\nagainst the imperial arms of Britain. It was here that the British flag\nwas planted in 1761 and that the great Pontiac conspiracy was formed two\nyears later to overthrow British dominion.\n\nWhen, a generation afterward, the Stars and Stripes supplanted the Union\nJack, the French were still almost the only white men in the region.\nThey were soon joined by hustling Yankee fur traders who did battle\nroyal against British interlopers. The traders cut their way through\nforest trails and laid out the routes through lake and stream and over\nportages for the settlers and their families from the states \"back\nEast.\" It was the forest ranger who discovered the water power later\nused to turn the busy mills grinding the grain from the spreading farm\nlands. In the wake of the fur hunters, forest men, and farmers came\nminers from Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri crowding in to exploit the\nlead ores of the northwest, some of them bringing slaves to work their\nclaims. Had it not been for the gold fever of 1849 that drew the\nwielders of pick and shovel to the Far West, Wisconsin would early have\ntaken high rank among the mining regions of the country.\n\nFrom a favorable point of vantage on Lake Michigan, the village of\nMilwaukee, a center for lumber and grain transport and a place of entry\nfor Eastern goods, grew into a thriving city. It claimed twenty thousand\ninhabitants, when in 1848 Congress admitted Wisconsin to the union.\nAlready the Germans, Irish, and Scandinavians had found their way into\nthe territory. They joined Americans from the older states in clearing\nforests, building roads, transforming trails into highways, erecting\nmills, and connecting streams with canals to make a network of routes\nfor the traffic that poured to and from the Great Lakes.\n\n=Iowa and Minnesota.=--To the southwest of Wisconsin beyond the\nMississippi, where the tall grass of the prairies waved like the sea,\nfarmers from New England, New York, and Ohio had prepared Iowa for\nstatehood. A tide of immigration that might have flowed into Missouri\nwent northward; for freemen, unaccustomed to slavery and slave markets,\npreferred the open country above the compromise line. With incredible\nswiftness, they spread farms westward from the Mississippi. With Yankee\ningenuity they turned to trading on the river, building before 1836\nthree prosperous centers of traffic: Dubuque, Davenport, and Burlington.\nTrue to their old traditions, they founded colleges and academies that\nreligion and learning might be cherished on the frontier as in the\nstates from which they came. Prepared for self-government, the Iowans\nlaid siege to the door of Congress and were admitted to the union in\n1846.\n\nAbove Iowa, on the Mississippi, lay the territory of Minnesota--the home\nof the Dakotas, the Ojibways, and the Sioux. Like Michigan and\nWisconsin, it had been explored early by the French scouts, and the\nfirst white settlement was the little French village of Mendota. To the\npeople of the United States, the resources of the country were first\nrevealed by the historic journey of Zebulon Pike in 1805 and by American\nfur traders who were quick to take advantage of the opportunity to ply\ntheir arts of hunting and bartering in fresh fields. In 1839 an\nAmerican settlement was planted at Marina on the St. Croix, the outpost\nof advancing civilization. Within twenty years, the territory, boasting\na population of 150,000, asked for admission to the union. In 1858 the\nplea was granted and Minnesota showed her gratitude three years later by\nbeing first among the states to offer troops to Lincoln in the hour of\nperil.\n\n\nON TO THE PACIFIC--TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR\n\n=The Uniformity of the Middle West.=--There was a certain monotony about\npioneering in the Northwest and on the middle border. As the long\nstretches of land were cleared or prepared for the plow, they were laid\nout like checkerboards into squares of forty, eighty, one hundred sixty,\nor more acres, each the seat of a homestead. There was a striking\nuniformity also about the endless succession of fertile fields spreading\nfar and wide under the hot summer sun. No majestic mountains relieved\nthe sweep of the prairie. Few monuments of other races and antiquity\nwere there to awaken curiosity about the region. No sonorous bells in\nold missions rang out the time of day. The chaffering Red Man bartering\nblankets and furs for powder and whisky had passed farther on. The\npopulation was made up of plain farmers and their families engaged in\nsevere and unbroken labor, chopping down trees, draining fever-breeding\nswamps, breaking new ground, and planting from year to year the same\nrotation of crops. Nearly all the settlers were of native American stock\ninto whose frugal and industrious lives the later Irish and German\nimmigrants fitted, on the whole, with little friction. Even the Dutch\noven fell before the cast-iron cooking stove. Happiness and sorrow,\ndespair and hope were there, but all encompassed by the heavy tedium of\nprosaic sameness.\n\n[Illustration: SANTA BARBARA MISSION]\n\n=A Contrast in the Far West and Southwest.=--As George Rogers Clark and\nDaniel Boone had stirred the snug Americans of the seaboard to seek\ntheir fortunes beyond the Appalachians, so now Kit Carson, James Bowie,\nSam Houston, Davy Crockett, and John C. Fremont were to lead the way\ninto a new land, only a part of which was under the American flag. The\nsetting for this new scene in the westward movement was thrown out in a\nwide sweep from the headwaters of the Mississippi to the banks of the\nRio Grande; from the valleys of the Sabine and Red rivers to Montana and\nthe Pacific slope. In comparison with the middle border, this region\npresented such startling diversities that only the eye of faith could\nforesee the unifying power of nationalism binding its communities with\nthe older sections of the country. What contrasts indeed! The blue grass\nregion of Kentucky or the rich, black soil of Illinois--the painted\ndesert, the home of the sage brush and the coyote! The level prairies of\nIowa--the mighty Rockies shouldering themselves high against the\nhorizon! The long bleak winters of Wisconsin--California of endless\nsummer! The log churches of Indiana or Illinois--the quaint missions of\nSan Antonio, Tucson, and Santa Barbara! The little state of\nDelaware--the empire of Texas, one hundred and twenty times its area!\nAnd scattered about through the Southwest were signs of an ancient\ncivilization--fragments of four-and five-story dwellings, ruined dams,\naqueducts, and broken canals, which told of once prosperous peoples\nwho, by art and science, had conquered the aridity of the desert and\nlifted themselves in the scale of culture above the savages of the\nplain.\n\nThe settlers of this vast empire were to be as diverse in their origins\nand habits as those of the colonies on the coast had been. Americans of\nEnglish, Irish, and Scotch-Irish descent came as usual from the Eastern\nstates. To them were added the migratory Germans as well. Now for the\nfirst time came throngs of Scandinavians. Some were to make their homes\non quiet farms as the border advanced against the setting sun. Others\nwere to be Indian scouts, trappers, fur hunters, miners, cowboys, Texas\nplanters, keepers of lonely posts on the plain and the desert, stage\ndrivers, pilots of wagon trains, pony riders, fruit growers, \"lumber\njacks,\" and smelter workers. One common bond united them--a passion for\nthe self-government accorded to states. As soon as a few thousand\nsettlers came together in a single territory, there arose a mighty shout\nfor a position beside the staid commonwealths of the East and the South.\nStatehood meant to the pioneers self-government, dignity, and the right\nto dispose of land, minerals, and timber in their own way. In the quest\nfor this local autonomy there arose many a wordy contest in Congress,\neach of the political parties lending a helping hand in the admission of\na state when it gave promise of adding new congressmen of the \"right\npolitical persuasion,\" to use the current phrase.\n\n=Southern Planters and Texas.=--While the farmers of the North found the\nbroad acres of the Western prairies stretching on before them apparently\nin endless expanse, it was far different with the Southern planters.\nEver active in their search for new fields as they exhausted the virgin\nsoil of the older states, the restless subjects of King Cotton quickly\nreached the frontier of Louisiana. There they paused; but only for a\nmoment. The fertile land of Texas just across the boundary lured them on\nand the Mexican republic to which it belonged extended to them a more\nthan generous welcome. Little realizing the perils lurking in a\n\"peaceful penetration,\" the authorities at Mexico City opened wide the\ndoors and made large grants of land to American contractors, who agreed\nto bring a number of families into Texas. The omnipresent Yankee, in the\nperson of Moses Austin of Connecticut, hearing of this good news in the\nSouthwest, obtained a grant in 1820 to settle three hundred Americans\nnear Bexar--a commission finally carried out to the letter by his son\nand celebrated in the name given to the present capital of the state of\nTexas. Within a decade some twenty thousand Americans had crossed the\nborder.\n\n=Mexico Closes the Door.=--The government of Mexico, unaccustomed to\nsuch enterprise and thoroughly frightened by its extent, drew back in\ndismay. Its fears were increased as quarrels broke out between the\nAmericans and the natives in Texas. Fear grew into consternation when\nefforts were made by President Jackson to buy the territory for the\nUnited States. Mexico then sought to close the flood gates. It stopped\nall American colonization schemes, canceled many of the land grants, put\na tariff on farming implements, and abolished slavery. These barriers\nwere raised too late. A call for help ran through the western border of\nthe United States. The sentinels of the frontier answered. Davy\nCrockett, the noted frontiersman, bear hunter, and backwoods politician;\nJames Bowie, the dexterous wielder of the knife that to this day bears\nhis name; and Sam Houston, warrior and pioneer, rushed to the aid of\ntheir countrymen in Texas. Unacquainted with the niceties of diplomacy,\nimpatient at the formalities of international law, they soon made it\nknown that in spite of Mexican sovereignty they would be their own\nmasters.\n\n=The Independence of Texas Declared.=--Numbering only about one-fourth\nof the population in Texas, they raised the standard of revolt in 1836\nand summoned a convention. Following in the footsteps of their\nancestors, they issued a declaration of independence signed mainly by\nAmericans from the slave states. Anticipating that the government of\nMexico would not quietly accept their word of defiance as final, they\ndispatched a force to repel \"the invading army,\" as General Houston\ncalled the troops advancing under the command of Santa Ana, the Mexican\npresident. A portion of the Texan soldiers took their stand in the\nAlamo, an old Spanish mission in the cottonwood trees in the town of San\nAntonio. Instead of obeying the order to blow up the mission and retire,\nthey held their ground until they were completely surrounded and cut off\nfrom all help. Refusing to surrender, they fought to the bitter end, the\nlast man falling a victim to the sword. Vengeance was swift. Within\nthree months General Houston overwhelmed Santa Ana at the San Jacinto,\ntaking him prisoner of war and putting an end to all hopes for the\nrestoration of Mexican sovereignty over Texas.\n\nThe Lone Star Republic, with Houston at the head, then sought admission\nto the United States. This seemed at first an easy matter. All that was\nrequired to bring it about appeared to be a treaty annexing Texas to the\nunion. Moreover, President Jackson, at the height of his popularity, had\na warm regard for General Houston and, with his usual sympathy for rough\nand ready ways of doing things, approved the transaction. Through an\nAmerican representative in Mexico, Jackson had long and anxiously\nlabored, by means none too nice, to wring from the Mexican republic the\ncession of the coveted territory. When the Texans took matters into\ntheir own hands, he was more than pleased; but he could not marshal the\napproval of two-thirds of the Senators required for a treaty of\nannexation. Cautious as well as impetuous, Jackson did not press the\nissue; he went out of office in 1837 with Texas uncertain as to her\nfuture.\n\n=Northern Opposition to Annexation.=--All through the North the\nopposition to annexation was clear and strong. Anti-slavery agitators\ncould hardly find words savage enough to express their feelings.\n\"Texas,\" exclaimed Channing in a letter to Clay, \"is but the first step\nof aggression. I trust indeed that Providence will beat back and humble\nour cupidity and ambition. I now ask whether as a people we are\nprepared to seize on a neighboring territory for the end of extending\nslavery? I ask whether as a people we can stand forth in the sight of\nGod, in the sight of nations, and adopt this atrocious policy? Sooner\nperish! Sooner be our name blotted out from the record of nations!\"\nWilliam Lloyd Garrison called for the secession of the Northern states\nif Texas was brought into the union with slavery. John Quincy Adams\nwarned his countrymen that they were treading in the path of the\nimperialism that had brought the nations of antiquity to judgment and\ndestruction. Henry Clay, the Whig candidate for President, taking into\naccount changing public sentiment, blew hot and cold, losing the state\nof New York and the election of 1844 by giving a qualified approval of\nannexation. In the same campaign, the Democrats boldly demanded the\n\"Reannexation of Texas,\" based on claims which the United States once\nhad to Spanish territory beyond the Sabine River.\n\n=Annexation.=--The politicians were disposed to walk very warily. Van\nBuren, at heart opposed to slavery extension, refused to press the issue\nof annexation. Tyler, a pro-slavery Democrat from Virginia, by a strange\nfling of fortune carried into office as a nominal Whig, kept his mind\nfirmly fixed on the idea of reelection and let the troublesome matter\nrest until the end of his administration was in sight. He then listened\nwith favor to the voice of the South. Calhoun stated what seemed to be a\nconvincing argument: All good Americans have their hearts set on the\nConstitution; the admission of Texas is absolutely essential to the\npreservation of the union; it will give a balance of power to the South\nas against the North growing with incredible swiftness in wealth and\npopulation. Tyler, impressed by the plea, appointed Calhoun to the\noffice of Secretary of State in 1844, authorizing him to negotiate the\ntreaty of annexation--a commission at once executed. This scheme was\nblocked in the Senate where the necessary two-thirds vote could not be\nsecured. Balked but not defeated, the advocates of annexation drew up a\njoint resolution which required only a majority vote in both houses,\nand in February of the next year, just before Tyler gave way to Polk,\nthey pushed it through Congress. So Texas, amid the groans of Boston and\nthe hurrahs of Charleston, folded up her flag and came into the union.\n\n[Illustration: TEXAS AND THE TERRITORY IN DISPUTE]\n\n=The Mexican War.=--The inevitable war with Mexico, foretold by the\nabolitionists and feared by Henry Clay, ensued, the ostensible cause\nbeing a dispute over the boundaries of the new state. The Texans claimed\nall the lands down to the Rio Grande. The Mexicans placed the border of\nTexas at the Nueces River and a line drawn thence in a northerly\ndirection. President Polk, accepting the Texan view of the controversy,\nordered General Zachary Taylor to move beyond the Nueces in defense of\nAmerican sovereignty. This act of power, deemed by the Mexicans an\ninvasion of their territory, was followed by an attack on our troops.\n\nPresident Polk, not displeased with the turn of events, announced that\nAmerican blood had been \"spilled on American soil\" and that war existed\n\"by the act of Mexico.\" Congress, in a burst of patriotic fervor,\nbrushed aside the protests of those who deplored the conduct of the\ngovernment as wanton aggression on a weaker nation and granted money and\nsupplies to prosecute the war. The few Whigs in the House of\nRepresentatives, who refused to vote in favor of taking up arms,\naccepted the inevitable with such good grace as they could command. All\nthrough the South and the West the war was popular. New England\ngrumbled, but gave loyal, if not enthusiastic, support to a conflict\nprecipitated by policies not of its own choosing. Only a handful of firm\nobjectors held out. James Russell Lowell, in his _Biglow Papers_, flung\nscorn and sarcasm to the bitter end.\n\n=The Outcome of the War.=--The foregone conclusion was soon reached.\nGeneral Taylor might have delivered the fatal thrust from northern\nMexico if politics had not intervened. Polk, anxious to avoid raising up\nanother military hero for the Whigs to nominate for President, decided\nto divide the honors by sending General Scott to strike a blow at the\ncapital, Mexico City. The deed was done with speed and pomp and two\nheroes were lifted into presidential possibilities. In the Far West a\nthird candidate was made, John C. Fremont, who, in cooperation with\nCommodores Sloat and Stockton and General Kearney, planted the Stars and\nStripes on the Pacific slope.\n\nIn February, 1848, the Mexicans came to terms, ceding to the victor\nCalifornia, Arizona, New Mexico, and more--a domain greater in extent\nthan the combined areas of France and Germany. As a salve to the wound,\nthe vanquished received fifteen million dollars in cash and the\ncancellation of many claims held by American citizens. Five years later,\nthrough the negotiations of James Gadsden, a further cession of lands\nalong the southern border of Arizona and New Mexico was secured on\npayment of ten million dollars.\n\n=General Taylor Elected President.=--The ink was hardly dry upon the\ntreaty that closed the war before \"rough and ready\" General Taylor, a\nslave owner from Louisiana, \"a Whig,\" as he said, \"but not an ultra\nWhig,\" was put forward as the Whig candidate for President. He himself\nhad not voted for years and he was fairly innocent in matters political.\nThe tariff, the currency, and internal improvements, with a magnificent\ngesture he referred to the people's representatives in Congress,\noffering to enforce the laws as made, if elected. Clay's followers\nmourned. Polk stormed but could not win even a renomination at the hands\nof the Democrats. So it came about that the hero of Buena Vista,\ncelebrated for his laconic order, \"Give 'em a little more grape, Captain\nBragg,\" became President of the United States.\n\n\nTHE PACIFIC COAST AND UTAH\n\n=Oregon.=--Closely associated in the popular mind with the contest about\nthe affairs of Texas was a dispute with Great Britain over the\npossession of territory in Oregon. In their presidential campaign of\n1844, the Democrats had coupled with the slogan, \"The Reannexation of\nTexas,\" two other cries, \"The Reoccupation of Oregon,\" and \"Fifty-four\nForty or Fight.\" The last two slogans were founded on American\ndiscoveries and explorations in the Far Northwest. Their appearance in\npolitics showed that the distant Oregon country, larger in area than New\nEngland, New York, and Pennsylvania combined, was at last receiving from\nthe nation the attention which its importance warranted.\n\n_Joint Occupation and Settlement._--Both England and the United States\nhad long laid claim to Oregon and in 1818 they had agreed to occupy the\nterritory jointly--a contract which was renewed ten years later for an\nindefinite period. Under this plan, citizens of both countries were free\nto hunt and settle anywhere in the region. The vanguard of British fur\ntraders and Canadian priests was enlarged by many new recruits, with\nAmericans not far behind them. John Jacob Astor, the resourceful New\nYork merchant, sent out trappers and hunters who established a trading\npost at Astoria in 1811. Some twenty years later, American\nmissionaries--among them two very remarkable men, Jason Lee and Marcus\nWhitman--were preaching the gospel to the Indians.\n\nThrough news from the fur traders and missionaries, Eastern farmers\nheard of the fertile lands awaiting their plows on the Pacific slope;\nthose with the pioneering spirit made ready to take possession of the\nnew country. In 1839 a band went around by Cape Horn. Four years later a\ngreat expedition went overland. The way once broken, others followed\nrapidly. As soon as a few settlements were well established, the\npioneers held a mass meeting and agreed upon a plan of government. \"We,\nthe people of Oregon territory,\" runs the preamble to their compact,\n\"for the purposes of mutual protection and to secure peace and\nprosperity among ourselves, agree to adopt the following laws and\nregulations until such time as the United States of America extend their\njurisdiction over us.\" Thus self-government made its way across the\nRocky Mountains.\n\n[Illustration: THE OREGON COUNTRY AND THE DISPUTED BOUNDARY]\n\n_The Boundary Dispute with England Adjusted._--By this time it was\nevident that the boundaries of Oregon must be fixed. Having made the\nquestion an issue in his campaign, Polk, after his election in 1844,\npressed it upon the attention of the country. In his inaugural address\nand his first message to Congress he reiterated the claim of the\nDemocratic platform that \"our title to the whole territory of Oregon is\nclear and unquestionable.\" This pretension Great Britain firmly\nrejected, leaving the President a choice between war and compromise.\n\nPolk, already having the contest with Mexico on his hands, sought and\nobtained a compromise. The British government, moved by a hint from the\nAmerican minister, offered a settlement which would fix the boundary at\nthe forty-ninth parallel instead of \"fifty-four forty,\" and give it\nVancouver Island. Polk speedily chose this way out of the dilemma.\nInstead of making the decision himself, however, and drawing up a\ntreaty, he turned to the Senate for \"counsel.\" As prearranged with party\nleaders, the advice was favorable to the plan. The treaty, duly drawn in\n1846, was ratified by the Senate after an acrimonious debate. \"Oh!\nmountain that was delivered of a mouse,\" exclaimed Senator Benton, \"thy\nname shall be fifty-four forty!\" Thirteen years later, the southern part\nof the territory was admitted to the union as the state of Oregon,\nleaving the northern and eastern sections in the status of a territory.\n\n=California.=--With the growth of the northwestern empire, dedicated by\nnature to freedom, the planting interests might have been content, had\nfortune not wrested from them the fair country of California. Upon this\nhuge territory they had set their hearts. The mild climate and fertile\nsoil seemed well suited to slavery and the planters expected to extend\ntheir sway to the entire domain. California was a state of more than\n155,000 square miles--about seventy times the size of the state of\nDelaware. It could readily be divided into five or six large states, if\nthat became necessary to preserve the Southern balance of power.\n\n_Early American Relations with California._--Time and tide, it seems,\nwere not on the side of the planters. Already Americans of a far\ndifferent type were invading the Pacific slope. Long before Polk ever\ndreamed of California, the Yankee with his cargo of notions had been\naround the Horn. Daring skippers had sailed out of New England harbors\nwith a variety of goods, bent their course around South America to\nCalifornia, on to China and around the world, trading as they went and\nleaving pots, pans, woolen cloth, guns, boots, shoes, salt fish, naval\nstores, and rum in their wake. \"Home from Californy!\" rang the cry in\nmany a New England port as a good captain let go his anchor on his\nreturn from the long trading voyage in the Pacific.\n\n[Illustration: THE OVERLAND TRAILS]\n\n_The Overland Trails._--Not to be outdone by the mariners of the deep,\nwestern scouts searched for overland routes to the Pacific. Zebulon\nPike, explorer and pathfinder, by his expedition into the Southwest\nduring Jefferson's administration, had discovered the resources of New\nSpain and had shown his countrymen how easy it was to reach Santa Fe\nfrom the upper waters of the Arkansas River. Not long afterward, traders\nlaid open the route, making Franklin, Missouri, and later Fort\nLeavenworth the starting point. Along the trail, once surveyed, poured\ncaravans heavily guarded by armed men against marauding Indians. Sand\nstorms often wiped out all signs of the route; hunger and thirst did\nmany a band of wagoners to death; but the lure of the game and the\nprofits at the end kept the business thriving. Huge stocks of cottons,\nglass, hardware, and ammunition were drawn almost across the continent\nto be exchanged at Santa Fe for furs, Indian blankets, silver, and\nmules; and many a fortune was made out of the traffic.\n\n_Americans in California._--Why stop at Santa Fe? The question did not\nlong remain unanswered. In 1829, Ewing Young broke the path to Los\nAngeles. Thirteen years later Fremont made the first of his celebrated\nexpeditions across plain, desert, and mountain, arousing the interest of\nthe entire country in the Far West. In the wake of the pathfinders went\nadventurers, settlers, and artisans. By 1847, more than one-fifth of the\ninhabitants in the little post of two thousand on San Francisco Bay were\nfrom the United States. The Mexican War, therefore, was not the\nbeginning but the end of the American conquest of California--a conquest\ninitiated by Americans who went to till the soil, to trade, or to follow\nsome mechanical pursuit.\n\n_The Discovery of Gold._--As if to clinch the hold on California already\nsecured by the friends of free soil, there came in 1848 the sudden\ndiscovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in the Sacramento Valley. When this\nexciting news reached the East, a mighty rush began to California, over\nthe trails, across the Isthmus of Panama, and around Cape Horn. Before\ntwo years had passed, it is estimated that a hundred thousand people, in\nsearch of fortunes, had arrived in California--mechanics, teachers,\ndoctors, lawyers, farmers, miners, and laborers from the four corners of\nthe earth.\n\n[Illustration: _From an old print_\n\nSAN FRANCISCO IN 1849]\n\n_California a Free State._--With this increase in population there\nnaturally resulted the usual demand for admission to the union. Instead\nof waiting for authority from Washington, the Californians held a\nconvention in 1849 and framed their constitution. With impatience, the\ndelegates brushed aside the plea that \"the balance of power between the\nNorth and South\" required the admission of their state as a slave\ncommonwealth. Without a dissenting voice, they voted in favor of freedom\nand boldly made their request for inclusion among the United States.\nPresident Taylor, though a Southern man, advised Congress to admit the\napplicant. Robert Toombs of Georgia vowed to God that he preferred\nsecession. Henry Clay, the great compromiser, came to the rescue and in\n1850 California was admitted as a free state.\n\n=Utah.=--On the long road to California, in the midst of forbidding and\nbarren wastes, a religious sect, the Mormons, had planted a colony\ndestined to a stormy career. Founded in 1830 under the leadership of\nJoseph Smith of New York, the sect had suffered from many cruel buffets\nof fortune. From Ohio they had migrated into Missouri where they were\nset upon and beaten. Some of them were murdered by indignant neighbors.\nHarried out of Missouri, they went into Illinois only to see their\ndirector and prophet, Smith, first imprisoned by the authorities and\nthen shot by a mob. Having raised up a cloud of enemies on account of\nboth their religious faith and their practice of allowing a man to have\nmore than one wife, they fell in heartily with the suggestion of a new\nleader, Brigham Young, that they go into the Far West beyond the plains\nof Kansas--into the forlorn desert where the wicked would cease from\ntroubling and the weary could be at rest, as they read in the Bible. In\n1847, Young, with a company of picked men, searched far and wide until\nhe found a suitable spot overlooking the Salt Lake Valley. Returning to\nIllinois, he gathered up his followers, now numbering several thousand,\nand in one mighty wagon caravan they all went to their distant haven.\n\n_Brigham Young and His Economic System._--In Brigham Young the Mormons\nhad a leader of remarkable power who gave direction to the redemption of\nthe arid soil, the management of property, and the upbuilding of\nindustry. He promised them to make the desert blossom as the rose, and\nverily he did it. He firmly shaped the enterprise of the colony along\nco-operative lines, holding down the speculator and profiteer with one\nhand and giving encouragement to the industrious poor with the other.\nWith the shrewdness befitting a good business man, he knew how to draw\nthe line between public and private interest. Land was given outright to\neach family, but great care was exercised in the distribution so that\nnone should have great advantage over another. The purchase of supplies\nand the sale of produce were carried on through a cooperative store, the\nprofits of which went to the common good. Encountering for the first\ntime in the history of the Anglo-Saxon race the problem of aridity, the\nMormons surmounted the most perplexing obstacles with astounding skill.\nThey built irrigation works by cooperative labor and granted water\nrights to all families on equitable terms.\n\n_The Growth of Industries._--Though farming long remained the major\ninterest of the colony, the Mormons, eager to be self-supporting in\nevery possible way, bent their efforts also to manufacturing and later\nto mining. Their missionaries, who hunted in the highways and byways of\nEurope for converts, never failed to stress the economic advantages of\nthe sect. \"We want,\" proclaimed President Young to all the earth, \"a\ncompany of woolen manufacturers to come with machinery and take the wool\nfrom the sheep and convert it into the best clothes. We want a company\nof potters; we need them; the clay is ready and the dishes wanted.... We\nwant some men to start a furnace forthwith; the iron, coal, and molders\nare waiting.... We have a printing press and any one who can take good\nprinting and writing paper to the Valley will be a blessing to\nthemselves and the church.\" Roads and bridges were built; millions were\nspent in experiments in agriculture and manufacturing; missionaries at a\nhuge cost were maintained in the East and in Europe; an army was kept\nfor defense against the Indians; and colonies were planted in the\noutlying regions. A historian of Deseret, as the colony was called by\nthe Mormons, estimated in 1895 that by the labor of their hands the\npeople had produced nearly half a billion dollars in wealth since the\ncoming of the vanguard.\n\n_Polygamy Forbidden._--The hope of the Mormons that they might forever\nremain undisturbed by outsiders was soon dashed to earth, for hundreds\nof farmers and artisans belonging to other religious sects came to\nsettle among them. In 1850 the colony was so populous and prosperous\nthat it was organized into a territory of the United States and brought\nunder the supervision of the federal government. Protests against\npolygamy were raised in the colony and at the seat of authority three\nthousand miles away at Washington. The new Republican party in 1856\nproclaimed it \"the right and duty of Congress to prohibit in the\nTerritories those twin relics of barbarism, polygamy and slavery.\" In\ndue time the Mormons had to give up their marriage practices which were\ncondemned by the common opinion of all western civilization; but they\nkept their religious faith. Monuments to their early enterprise are seen\nin the Temple and the Tabernacle, the irrigation works, and the great\nwealth of the Church.\n\n\nSUMMARY OF WESTERN DEVELOPMENT AND NATIONAL POLITICS\n\nWhile the statesmen of the old generation were solving the problems of\ntheir age, hunters, pioneers, and home seekers were preparing new\nproblems beyond the Alleghanies. The West was rising in population and\nwealth. Between 1783 and 1829, eleven states were added to the original\nthirteen. All but two were in the West. Two of them were in the\nLouisiana territory beyond the Mississippi. Here the process of\ncolonization was repeated. Hardy frontier people cut down the forests,\nbuilt log cabins, laid out farms, and cut roads through the wilderness.\nThey began a new civilization just as the immigrants to Virginia or\nMassachusetts had done two centuries earlier.\n\nLike the seaboard colonists before them, they too cherished the spirit\nof independence and power. They had not gone far upon their course\nbefore they resented the monopoly of the presidency by the East. In 1829\nthey actually sent one of their own cherished leaders, Andrew Jackson,\nto the White House. Again in 1840, in 1844, in 1848, and in 1860, the\nMississippi Valley could boast that one of its sons had been chosen for\nthe seat of power at Washington. Its democratic temper evoked a cordial\nresponse in the towns of the East where the old aristocracy had been put\naside and artisans had been given the ballot.\n\nFor three decades the West occupied the interest of the nation. Under\nJackson's leadership, it destroyed the second United States Bank. When\nhe smote nullification in South Carolina, it gave him cordial support.\nIt approved his policy of parceling out government offices among party\nworkers--\"the spoils system\" in all its fullness. On only one point did\nit really dissent. The West heartily favored internal improvements, the\nappropriation of federal funds for highways, canals, and railways.\nJackson had misgivings on this question and awakened sharp criticism by\nvetoing a road improvement bill.\n\nFrom their point of vantage on the frontier, the pioneers pressed on\nwestward. They pushed into Texas, created a state, declared their\nindependence, demanded a place in the union, and precipitated a war with\nMexico. They crossed the trackless plain and desert, laying out trails\nto Santa Fe, to Oregon, and to California. They were upon the scene when\nthe Mexican War brought California under the Stars and Stripes. They had\nlaid out their farms in the Willamette Valley when the slogan\n\"Fifty-Four Forty or Fight\" forced a settlement of the Oregon boundary.\nCalifornia and Oregon were already in the union when there arose the\nGreat Civil War testing whether this nation or any nation so conceived\nand so dedicated could long endure.\n\n\n=References=\n\nG.P. Brown, _Westward Expansion_ (American Nation Series).\n\n\nK. Coman, _Economic Beginnings of the Far West_ (2 vols.).\n\nF. Parkman, _California and the Oregon Trail_.\n\nR.S. Ripley, _The War with Mexico_.\n\nW.C. Rives, _The United States and Mexico, 1821-48_ (2 vols.).\n\n\n=Questions=\n\n1. Give some of the special features in the history of Missouri,\nArkansas, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota.\n\n2. Contrast the climate and soil of the Middle West and the Far West.\n\n3. How did Mexico at first encourage American immigration?\n\n4. What produced the revolution in Texas? Who led in it?\n\n5. Narrate some of the leading events in the struggle over annexation to\nthe United States.\n\n6. What action by President Polk precipitated war?\n\n7. Give the details of the peace settlement with Mexico.\n\n8. What is meant by the \"joint occupation\" of Oregon?\n\n9. How was the Oregon boundary dispute finally settled?\n\n10. Compare the American \"invasion\" of California with the migration\ninto Texas.\n\n11. Explain how California became a free state.\n\n12. Describe the early economic policy of the Mormons.\n\n\n=Research Topics=\n\n=The Independence of Texas.=--McMaster, _History of the People of the\nUnited States_, Vol. VI, pp. 251-270. Woodrow Wilson, _History of the\nAmerican People_, Vol. IV, pp. 102-126.\n\n=The Annexation of Texas.=--McMaster, Vol. VII. The passages on\nannexation are scattered through this volume and it is an exercise in\ningenuity to make a connected story of them. Source materials in Hart,\n_American History Told by Contemporaries_, Vol. III, pp. 637-655; Elson,\n_History of the United States_, pp. 516-521, 526-527.\n\n=The War with Mexico.=--Elson, pp. 526-538.\n\n=The Oregon Boundary Dispute.=--Schafer, _History of the Pacific\nNorthwest_ (rev. ed.), pp. 88-104; 173-185.\n\n=The Migration to Oregon.=--Schafer, pp. 105-172. Coman, _Economic\nBeginnings of the Far West_, Vol. II, pp. 113-166.\n\n=The Santa Fe Trail.=--Coman, _Economic Beginnings_, Vol. II, pp. 75-93.\n\n=The Conquest of California.=--Coman, Vol. II, pp. 297-319.\n\n=Gold in California.=--McMaster, Vol. VII, pp. 585-614.\n\n=The Mormon Migration.=--Coman, Vol. II, pp. 167-206.\n\n=Biographical Studies.=--Fremont, Generals Scott and Taylor, Sam\nHouston, and David Crockett.\n\n=The Romance of Western Exploration.=--J.G. Neihardt, _The Splendid\nWayfaring_. J.G. Neihardt, _The Song of Hugh Glass_.\n\n\n\n\nPART V. SECTIONAL CONFLICT AND RECONSTRUCTION\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XIII\n\nTHE RISE OF THE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM\n\n\nIf Jefferson could have lived to see the Stars and Stripes planted on\nthe Pacific Coast, the broad empire of Texas added to the planting\nstates, and the valley of the Willamette waving with wheat sown by\nfarmers from New England, he would have been more than fortified in his\nfaith that the future of America lay in agriculture. Even a stanch old\nFederalist like Gouverneur Morris or Josiah Quincy would have mournfully\nconceded both the prophecy and the claim. Manifest destiny never seemed\nmore clearly written in the stars.\n\nAs the farmers from the Northwest and planters from the Southwest poured\nin upon the floor of Congress, the party of Jefferson, christened anew\nby Jackson, grew stronger year by year. Opponents there were, no doubt,\ndisgruntled critics and Whigs by conviction; but in 1852 Franklin\nPierce, the Democratic candidate for President, carried every state in\nthe union except Massachusetts, Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee. This\nvictory, a triumph under ordinary circumstances, was all the more\nsignificant in that Pierce was pitted against a hero of the Mexican War,\nGeneral Scott, whom the Whigs, hoping to win by rousing the martial\nardor of the voters, had nominated. On looking at the election returns,\nthe new President calmly assured the planters that \"the general\nprinciple of reduction of duties with a view to revenue may now be\nregarded as the settled policy of the country.\" With equal confidence,\nhe waved aside those agitators who devoted themselves \"to the supposed\ninterests of the relatively few Africans in the United States.\" Like a\nwatchman in the night he called to the country: \"All's well.\"\n\nThe party of Hamilton and Clay lay in the dust.\n\n\nTHE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION\n\nAs pride often goeth before a fall, so sanguine expectation is sometimes\nthe symbol of defeat. Jackson destroyed the bank. Polk signed the tariff\nbill of 1846 striking an effective blow at the principle of protection\nfor manufactures. Pierce promised to silence the abolitionists. His\nsuccessor was to approve a drastic step in the direction of free trade.\nNevertheless all these things left untouched the springs of power that\nwere in due time to make America the greatest industrial nation on the\nearth; namely, vast national resources, business enterprise, inventive\ngenius, and the free labor supply of Europe. Unseen by the thoughtless,\nunrecorded in the diaries of wiseacres, rarely mentioned in the speeches\nof statesmen, there was swiftly rising such a tide in the affairs of\nAmerica as Jefferson and Hamilton never dreamed of in their little\nphilosophies.\n\n=The Inventors.=--Watt and Boulton experimenting with steam in England,\nWhitney combining wood and steel into a cotton gin, Fulton and Fitch\napplying the steam engine to navigation, Stevens and Peter Cooper trying\nout the \"iron horse\" on \"iron highways,\" Slater building spinning mills\nin Pawtucket, Howe attaching the needle to the flying wheel, Morse\nspanning a continent with the telegraph, Cyrus Field linking the markets\nof the new world with the old along the bed of the Atlantic, McCormick\nbreaking the sickle under the reaper--these men and a thousand more were\ndestroying in a mighty revolution of industry the world of the\nstagecoach and the tallow candle which Washington and Franklin had\ninherited little changed from the age of Caesar. Whitney was to make\ncotton king. Watt and Fulton were to make steel and steam masters of the\nworld. Agriculture was to fall behind in the race for supremacy.\n\n=Industry Outstrips Planting.=--The story of invention, that tribute to\nthe triumph of mind over matter, fascinating as a romance, need not be\ntreated in detail here. The effects of invention on social and political\nlife, multitudinous and never-ending, form the very warp and woof of\nAmerican progress from the days of Andrew Jackson to the latest hour.\nNeither the great civil conflict--the clash of two systems--nor the\nproblems of the modern age can be approached without an understanding of\nthe striking phases of industrialism.\n\n[Illustration: A NEW ENGLAND MILL BUILT IN 1793]\n\nFirst and foremost among them was the uprush of mills managed by\ncaptains of industry and manned by labor drawn from farms, cities, and\nforeign lands. For every planter who cleared a domain in the Southwest\nand gathered his army of bondmen about him, there rose in the North a\nmagician of steam and steel who collected under his roof an army of free\nworkers.\n\nIn seven league boots this new giant strode ahead of the Southern giant.\nBetween 1850 and 1859, to use dollars and cents as the measure of\nprogress, the value of domestic manufactures including mines and\nfisheries rose from $1,019,106,616 to $1,900,000,000, an increase of\neighty-six per cent in ten years. In this same period the total\nproduction of naval stores, rice, sugar, tobacco, and cotton, the\nstaples of the South, went only from $165,000,000, in round figures, to\n$204,000,000. At the halfway point of the century, the capital invested\nin industry, commerce, and cities far exceeded the value of all the farm\nland between the Atlantic and the Pacific; thus the course of economy\nhad been reversed in fifty years. Tested by figures of production, King\nCotton had shriveled by 1860 to a petty prince in comparison, for each\nyear the captains of industry turned out goods worth nearly twenty times\nall the bales of cotton picked on Southern plantations. Iron, boots and\nshoes, and leather goods pouring from Northern mills surpassed in value\nthe entire cotton output.\n\n=The Agrarian West Turns to Industry.=--Nor was this vast enterprise\nconfined to the old Northeast where, as Madison had sagely remarked,\ncommerce was early dominant. \"Cincinnati,\" runs an official report in\n1854, \"appears to be a great central depot for ready-made clothing and\nits manufacture for the Western markets may be said to be one of the\ngreat trades of that city.\" There, wrote another traveler, \"I heard the\ncrack of the cattle driver's whip and the hum of the factory: the West\nand the East meeting.\" Louisville and St. Louis were already famous for\ntheir clothing trades and the manufacture of cotton bagging. Five\nhundred of the two thousand woolen mills in the country in 1860 were in\nthe Western states. Of the output of flour and grist mills, which almost\nreached in value the cotton crop of 1850, the Ohio Valley furnished a\nrapidly growing share. The old home of Jacksonian democracy, where\nFederalists had been almost as scarce as monarchists, turned slowly\nbackward, as the needle to the pole, toward the principle of protection\nfor domestic industry, espoused by Hamilton and defended by Clay.\n\n=The Extension of Canals and Railways.=--As necessary to mechanical\nindustry as steel and steam power was the great market, spread over a\nwide and diversified area and knit together by efficient means of\ntransportation. This service was supplied to industry by the steamship,\nwhich began its career on the Hudson in 1807; by the canals, of which\nthe Erie opened in 1825 was the most noteworthy; and by the railways,\nwhich came into practical operation about 1830.\n\n[Illustration: _From an old print_\n\nAN EARLY RAILWAY]\n\nWith sure instinct the Eastern manufacturer reached out for the markets\nof the Northwest territory where free farmers were producing annually\nstaggering crops of corn, wheat, bacon, and wool. The two great canal\nsystems--the Erie connecting New York City with the waterways of the\nGreat Lakes and the Pennsylvania chain linking Philadelphia with the\nheadwaters of the Ohio--gradually turned the tide of trade from New\nOrleans to the Eastern seaboard. The railways followed the same paths.\nBy 1860, New York had rail connections with Chicago and St. Louis, one\nof the routes running through the Hudson and Mohawk valleys and along\nthe Great Lakes, the other through Philadelphia and Pennsylvania and\nacross the rich wheat fields of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Baltimore,\nnot to be outdone by her two rivals, reached out over the mountains for\nthe Western trade and in 1857 had trains running into St. Louis.\n\nIn railway enterprise the South took more interest than in canals, and\nthe friends of that section came to its aid. To offset the magnet\ndrawing trade away from the Mississippi Valley, lines were built from\nthe Gulf to Chicago, the Illinois Central part of the project being a\nmonument to the zeal and industry of a Democrat, better known in\npolitics than in business, Stephen A. Douglas. The swift movement of\ncotton and tobacco to the North or to seaports was of common concern to\nplanters and manufacturers. Accordingly lines were flung down along the\nSouthern coast, linking Richmond, Charleston, and Savannah with the\nNorthern markets. Other lines struck inland from the coast, giving a\nrail outlet to the sea for Raleigh, Columbia, Atlanta, Chattanooga,\nNashville, and Montgomery. Nevertheless, in spite of this enterprise,\nthe mileage of all the Southern states in 1860 did not equal that of\nOhio, Indiana, and Illinois combined.\n\n=Banking and Finance.=--Out of commerce and manufactures and the\nconstruction and operation of railways came such an accumulation of\ncapital in the Northern states as merchants of old never imagined. The\nbanks of the four industrial states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New\nYork, and Pennsylvania in 1860 had funds greater than the banks in all\nthe other states combined. New York City had become the money market of\nAmerica, the center to which industrial companies, railway promoters,\nfarmers, and planters turned for capital to initiate and carry on their\noperations. The banks of Louisiana, South Carolina, Georgia, and\nVirginia, it is true, had capital far in excess of the banks of the\nNorthwest; but still they were relatively small compared with the\nfinancial institutions of the East.\n\n=The Growth of the Industrial Population.=--A revolution of such\nmagnitude in industry, transport, and finance, overturning as it did the\nagrarian civilization of the old Northwest and reaching out to the very\nborders of the country, could not fail to bring in its train\nconsequences of a striking character. Some were immediate and obvious.\nOthers require a fullness of time not yet reached to reveal their\ncomplete significance. Outstanding among them was the growth of an\nindustrial population, detached from the land, concentrated in cities,\nand, to use Jefferson's phrase, dependent upon \"the caprices and\ncasualties of trade\" for a livelihood. This was a result, as the great\nVirginian had foreseen, which flowed inevitably from public and private\nefforts to stimulate industry as against agriculture.\n\n[Illustration: LOWELL, MASSACHUSETTS, IN 1838, AN EARLY INDUSTRIAL\nTOWN]\n\nIt was estimated in 1860, on the basis of the census figures, that\nmechanical production gave employment to 1,100,000 men and 285,000\nwomen, making, if the average number of dependents upon them be\nreckoned, nearly six million people or about one-sixth of the population\nof the country sustained from manufactures. \"This,\" runs the official\nrecord, \"was exclusive of the number engaged in the production of many\nof the raw materials and of the food for manufacturers; in the\ndistribution of their products, such as merchants, clerks, draymen,\nmariners, the employees of railroads, expresses, and steamboats; of\ncapitalists, various artistic and professional classes, as well as\ncarpenters, bricklayers, painters, and the members of other mechanical\ntrades not classed as manufactures. It is safe to assume, then, that\none-third of the whole population is supported, directly, or indirectly,\nby manufacturing industry.\" Taking, however, the number of persons\ndirectly supported by manufactures, namely about six millions, reveals\nthe astounding fact that the white laboring population, divorced from\nthe soil, already exceeded the number of slaves on Southern farms and\nplantations.\n\n_Immigration._--The more carefully the rapid growth of the industrial\npopulation is examined, the more surprising is the fact that such an\nimmense body of free laborers could be found, particularly when it is\nrecalled to what desperate straits the colonial leaders were put in\nsecuring immigrants,--slavery, indentured servitude, and kidnapping\nbeing the fruits of their necessities. The answer to the enigma is to be\nfound partly in European conditions and partly in the cheapness of\ntransportation after the opening of the era of steam navigation. Shrewd\nobservers of the course of events had long foreseen that a flood of\ncheap labor was bound to come when the way was made easy. Some, among\nthem Chief Justice Ellsworth, went so far as to prophesy that white\nlabor would in time be so abundant that slavery would disappear as the\nmore costly of the two labor systems. The processes of nature were aided\nby the policies of government in England and Germany.\n\n_The Coming of the Irish._--The opposition of the Irish people to the\nEnglish government, ever furious and irrepressible, was increased in the\nmid forties by an almost total failure of the potato crop, the main\nsupport of the peasants. Catholic in religion, they had been compelled\nto support a Protestant church. Tillers of the soil by necessity, they\nwere forced to pay enormous tributes to absentee landlords in England\nwhose claim to their estates rested upon the title of conquest and\nconfiscation. Intensely loyal to their race, the Irish were subjected in\nall things to the Parliament at London, in which their small minority of\nrepresentatives had little influence save in holding a balance of power\nbetween the two contending English parties. To the constant political\nirritation, the potato famine added physical distress beyond\ndescription. In cottages and fields and along the highways the victims\nof starvation lay dead by the hundreds, the relief which charity\nafforded only bringing misery more sharply to the foreground. Those who\nwere fortunate enough to secure passage money sought escape to America.\nIn 1844 the total immigration into the United States was less than\neighty thousand; in 1850 it had risen by leaps and bounds to more than\nthree hundred thousand. Between 1820 and 1860 the immigrants from the\nUnited Kingdom numbered 2,750,000, of whom more than one-half were\nIrish. It has been said with a touch of exaggeration that the American\ncanals and railways of those days were built by the labor of Irishmen.\n\n_The German Migration._--To political discontent and economic distress,\nsuch as was responsible for the coming of the Irish, may likewise be\ntraced the source of the Germanic migration. The potato blight that fell\nupon Ireland visited the Rhine Valley and Southern Germany at the same\ntime with results as pitiful, if less extensive. The calamity inflicted\nby nature was followed shortly by another inflicted by the despotic\nconduct of German kings and princes. In 1848 there had occurred\nthroughout Europe a popular uprising in behalf of republics and\ndemocratic government. For a time it rode on a full tide of success.\nKings were overthrown, or compelled to promise constitutional\ngovernment, and tyrannical ministers fled from their palaces. Then came\nreaction. Those who had championed the popular cause were imprisoned,\nshot, or driven out of the land. Men of attainments and distinction,\nwhose sole offense was opposition to the government of kings and\nprinces, sought an asylum in America, carrying with them to the land of\ntheir adoption the spirit of liberty and democracy. In 1847 over fifty\nthousand Germans came to America, the forerunners of a migration that\nincreased, almost steadily, for many years. The record of 1860 showed\nthat in the previous twenty years nearly a million and a half had found\nhomes in the United States. Far and wide they scattered, from the mills\nand shops of the seacoast towns to the uttermost frontiers of Wisconsin\nand Minnesota.\n\n_The Labor of Women and Children._--If the industries, canals, and\nrailways of the country were largely manned by foreign labor, still\nimportant native sources must not be overlooked; above all, the women\nand children of the New England textile districts. Spinning and weaving,\nby a tradition that runs far beyond the written records of mankind,\nbelonged to women. Indeed it was the dexterous housewives, spinsters,\nand boys and girls that laid the foundations of the textile industry in\nAmerica, foundations upon which the mechanical revolution was built. As\nthe wheel and loom were taken out of the homes to the factories operated\nby water power or the steam engine, the women and, to use Hamilton's\nphrase, \"the children of tender years,\" followed as a matter of course.\n\"The cotton manufacture alone employs six thousand persons in Lowell,\"\nwrote a French observer in 1836; \"of this number nearly five thousand\nare young women from seventeen to twenty-four years of age, the\ndaughters of farmers from the different New England states.\" It was not\nuntil after the middle of the century that foreign lands proved to be\nthe chief source from which workers were recruited for the factories of\nNew England. It was then that the daughters of the Puritans, outdone by\nthe competition of foreign labor, both of men and women, left the\nspinning jenny and the loom to other hands.\n\n=The Rise of Organized Labor.=--The changing conditions of American\nlife, marked by the spreading mill towns of New England, New York, and\nPennsylvania and the growth of cities like Buffalo, Cincinnati,\nLouisville, St. Louis, Detroit, and Chicago in the West, naturally\nbrought changes, as Jefferson had prophesied, in \"manners and morals.\" A\nfew mechanics, smiths, carpenters, and masons, widely scattered through\nfarming regions and rural villages, raise no such problems as tens of\nthousands of workers collected in one center in daily intercourse,\nlearning the power of cooperation and union.\n\nEven before the coming of steam and machinery, in the \"good old days\" of\nhandicrafts, laborers in many trades--printers, shoemakers, carpenters,\nfor example--had begun to draw together in the towns for the advancement\nof their interests in the form of higher wages, shorter days, and\nmilder laws. The shoemakers of Philadelphia, organized in 1794,\nconducted a strike in 1799 and held together until indicted seven years\nlater for conspiracy. During the twenties and thirties, local labor\nunions sprang up in all industrial centers and they led almost\nimmediately to city federations of the several crafts.\n\nAs the thousands who were dependent upon their daily labor for their\nlivelihood mounted into the millions and industries spread across the\ncontinent, the local unions of craftsmen grew into national craft\norganizations bound together by the newspapers, the telegraph, and the\nrailways. Before 1860 there were several such national trade unions,\nincluding the plumbers, printers, mule spinners, iron molders, and stone\ncutters. All over the North labor leaders arose--men unknown to general\nhistory but forceful and resourceful characters who forged links binding\nscattered and individual workers into a common brotherhood. An attempt\nwas even made in 1834 to federate all the crafts into a permanent\nnational organization; but it perished within three years through lack\nof support. Half a century had to elapse before the American Federation\nof Labor was to accomplish this task.\n\nAll the manifestations of the modern labor movement had appeared, in\ngerm at least, by the time the mid-century was reached: unions, labor\nleaders, strikes, a labor press, a labor political program, and a labor\npolitical party. In every great city industrial disputes were a common\noccurrence. The papers recorded about four hundred in two years,\n1853-54, local affairs but forecasting economic struggles in a larger\nfield. The labor press seems to have begun with the founding of the\n_Mechanics' Free Press_ in Philadelphia in 1828 and the establishment of\nthe New York _Workingman's Advocate_ shortly afterward. These\nsemi-political papers were in later years followed by regular trade\npapers designed to weld together and advance the interests of particular\ncrafts. Edited by able leaders, these little sheets with limited\ncirculation wielded an enormous influence in the ranks of the workers.\n\n=Labor and Politics.=--As for the political program of labor, the main\nplanks were clear and specific: the abolition of imprisonment for debt,\nmanhood suffrage in states where property qualifications still\nprevailed, free and universal education, laws protecting the safety and\nhealth of workers in mills and factories, abolition of lotteries, repeal\nof laws requiring militia service, and free land in the West.\n\nInto the labor papers and platforms there sometimes crept a note of\nhostility to the masters of industry, a sign of bitterness that excited\nlittle alarm while cheap land in the West was open to the discontented.\nThe Philadelphia workmen, in issuing a call for a local convention,\ninvited \"all those of our fellow citizens who live by their own labor\nand none other.\" In Newcastle county, Delaware, the association of\nworking people complained in 1830: \"The poor have no laws; the laws are\nmade by the rich and of course for the rich.\" Here and there an\nextremist went to the length of advocating an equal division of wealth\namong all the people--the crudest kind of communism.\n\nAgitation of this character produced in labor circles profound distrust\nof both Whigs and Democrats who talked principally about tariffs and\nbanks; it resulted in attempts to found independent labor parties. In\nPhiladelphia, Albany, New York City, and New England, labor candidates\nwere put up for elections in the early thirties and in a few cases were\nvictorious at the polls. \"The balance of power has at length got into\nthe hands of the working people, where it properly belongs,\"\ntriumphantly exclaimed the _Mechanics' Free Press_ of Philadelphia in\n1829. But the triumph was illusory. Dissensions appeared in the labor\nranks. The old party leaders, particularly of Tammany Hall, the\nDemocratic party organization in New York City, offered concessions to\nlabor in return for votes. Newspapers unsparingly denounced \"trade union\npoliticians\" as \"demagogues,\" \"levellers,\" and \"rag, tag, and bobtail\";\nand some of them, deeming labor unrest the sour fruit of manhood\nsuffrage, suggested disfranchisement as a remedy. Under the influence\nof concessions and attacks the political fever quickly died away, and\nthe end of the decade left no remnant of the labor political parties.\nLabor leaders turned to a task which seemed more substantial and\npractical, that of organizing workingmen into craft unions for the\ndefinite purpose of raising wages and reducing hours.\n\n\nTHE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND NATIONAL POLITICS\n\n=Southern Plans for Union with the West.=--It was long the design of\nSouthern statesmen like Calhoun to hold the West and the South together\nin one political party. The theory on which they based their hope was\nsimple. Both sections were agricultural--the producers of raw materials\nand the buyers of manufactured goods. The planters were heavy purchasers\nof Western bacon, pork, mules, and grain. The Mississippi River and its\ntributaries formed the natural channel for the transportation of heavy\nproduce southward to the plantations and outward to Europe. Therefore,\nran their political reasoning, the interests of the two sections were\none. By standing together in favor of low tariffs, they could buy their\nmanufactures cheaply in Europe and pay for them in cotton, tobacco, and\ngrain. The union of the two sections under Jackson's management seemed\nperfect.\n\n=The East Forms Ties with the West.=--Eastern leaders were not blind to\nthe ambitions of Southern statesmen. On the contrary, they also\nrecognized the importance of forming strong ties with the agrarian West\nand drawing the produce of the Ohio Valley to Philadelphia and New York.\nThe canals and railways were the physical signs of this economic union,\nand the results, commercial and political, were soon evident. By the\nmiddle of the century, Southern economists noted the change, one of\nthem, De Bow, lamenting that \"the great cities of the North have\nseverally penetrated the interior with artificial lines until they have\ntaken from the open and untaxed current of the Mississippi the commerce\nproduced on its borders.\" To this writer it was an astounding thing to\nbehold \"the number of steamers that now descend the upper Mississippi\nRiver, loaded to the guards with produce, as far as the mouth of the\nIllinois River and then turn up that stream with their cargoes to be\nshipped to New York _via_ Chicago. The Illinois canal has not only swept\nthe whole produce along the line of the Illinois River to the East, but\nit is drawing the products of the upper Mississippi through the same\nchannel; thus depriving New Orleans and St. Louis of a rich portion of\ntheir former trade.\"\n\nIf to any shippers the broad current of the great river sweeping down to\nNew Orleans offered easier means of physical communication to the sea\nthan the canals and railways, the difference could be overcome by the\ncredit which Eastern bankers were able to extend to the grain and\nproduce buyers, in the first instance, and through them to the farmers\non the soil. The acute Southern observer just quoted, De Bow, admitted\nwith evident regret, in 1852, that \"last autumn, the rich regions of\nOhio, Indiana, and Illinois were flooded with the local bank notes of\nthe Eastern States, advanced by the New York houses on produce to be\nshipped by way of the canals in the spring.... These moneyed facilities\nenable the packer, miller, and speculator to hold on to their produce\nuntil the opening of navigation in the spring and they are no longer\nobliged, as formerly, to hurry off their shipments during the winter by\nthe way of New Orleans in order to realize funds by drafts on their\nshipments. The banking facilities at the East are doing as much to draw\ntrade from us as the canals and railways which Eastern capital is\nconstructing.\" Thus canals, railways, and financial credit were swiftly\nforging bonds of union between the old home of Jacksonian Democracy in\nthe West and the older home of Federalism in the East. The nationalism\nto which Webster paid eloquent tribute became more and more real with\nthe passing of time. The self-sufficiency of the pioneer was broken down\nas he began to watch the produce markets of New York and Philadelphia\nwhere the prices of corn and hogs fixed his earnings for the year.\n\n=The West and Manufactures.=--In addition to the commercial bonds\nbetween the East and the West there was growing up a common interest in\nmanufactures. As skilled white labor increased in the Ohio Valley, the\nindustries springing up in the new cities made Western life more like\nthat of the industrial East than like that of the planting South.\nMoreover, the Western states produced some important raw materials for\nAmerican factories, which called for protection against foreign\ncompetition, notably, wool, hemp, and flax. As the South had little or\nno foreign competition in cotton and tobacco, the East could not offer\nprotection for her raw materials in exchange for protection for\nindustries. With the West, however, it became possible to establish\nreciprocity in tariffs; that is, for example, to trade a high rate on\nwool for a high rate on textiles or iron.\n\n=The South Dependent on the North.=--While East and West were drawing\ntogether, the distinctions between North and South were becoming more\nmarked; the latter, having few industries and producing little save raw\nmaterials, was being forced into the position of a dependent section. As\na result of the protective tariff, Southern planters were compelled to\nturn more and more to Northern mills for their cloth, shoes, hats, hoes,\nplows, and machinery. Nearly all the goods which they bought in Europe\nin exchange for their produce came overseas to Northern ports, whence\ntransshipments were made by rail and water to Southern points of\ndistribution. Their rice, cotton, and tobacco, in as far as they were\nnot carried to Europe in British bottoms, were transported by Northern\nmasters. In these ways, a large part of the financial operations\nconnected with the sale of Southern produce and the purchase of goods in\nexchange passed into the hands of Northern merchants and bankers who,\nnaturally, made profits from their transactions. Finally, Southern\nplanters who wanted to buy more land and more slaves on credit borrowed\nheavily in the North where huge accumulations made the rates of interest\nlower than the smaller banks of the South could afford.\n\n=The South Reckons the Cost of Economic Dependence.=--As Southern\ndependence upon Northern capital became more and more marked, Southern\nleaders began to chafe at what they regarded as restraints laid upon\ntheir enterprise. In a word, they came to look upon the planter as a\ntribute-bearer to the manufacturer and financier. \"The South,\"\nexpostulated De Bow, \"stands in the attitude of feeding ... a vast\npopulation of [Northern] merchants, shipowners, capitalists, and others\nwho, without claims on her progeny, drink up the life blood of her\ntrade.... Where goes the value of our labor but to those who, taking\nadvantage of our folly, ship for us, buy for us, sell to us, and, after\nturning our own capital to their profitable account, return laden with\nour money to enjoy their easily earned opulence at home.\"\n\nSouthern statisticians, not satisfied with generalities, attempted to\nfigure out how great was this tribute in dollars and cents. They\nestimated that the planters annually lent to Northern merchants the full\nvalue of their exports, a hundred millions or more, \"to be used in the\nmanipulation of foreign imports.\" They calculated that no less than\nforty millions all told had been paid to shipowners in profits. They\nreckoned that, if the South were to work up her own cotton, she would\nrealize from seventy to one hundred millions a year that otherwise went\nNorth. Finally, to cap the climax, they regretted that planters spent\nsome fifteen millions a year pleasure-seeking in the alluring cities and\nsummer resorts of the North.\n\n=Southern Opposition to Northern Policies.=--Proceeding from these\npremises, Southern leaders drew the logical conclusion that the entire\nprogram of economic measures demanded in the North was without exception\nadverse to Southern interests and, by a similar chain of reasoning,\ninjurious to the corn and wheat producers of the West. Cheap labor\nafforded by free immigration, a protective tariff raising prices of\nmanufactures for the tiller of the soil, ship subsidies increasing the\ntonnage of carrying trade in Northern hands, internal improvements\nforging new economic bonds between the East and the West, a national\nbanking system giving strict national control over the currency as a\nsafeguard against paper inflation--all these devices were regarded in\nthe South as contrary to the planting interest. They were constantly\ncompared with the restrictive measures by which Great Britain more than\nhalf a century before had sought to bind American interests.\n\nAs oppression justified a war for independence once, statesmen argued,\nso it can justify it again. \"It is curious as it is melancholy and\ndistressing,\" came a broad hint from South Carolina, \"to see how\nstriking is the analogy between the colonial vassalage to which the\nmanufacturing states have reduced the planting states and that which\nformerly bound the Anglo-American colonies to the British empire....\nEngland said to her American colonies: 'You shall not trade with the\nrest of the world for such manufactures as are produced in the mother\ncountry.' The manufacturing states say to their Southern colonies: 'You\nshall not trade with the rest of the world for such manufactures as we\nproduce.'\" The conclusion was inexorable: either the South must control\nthe national government and its economic measures, or it must declare,\nas America had done four score years before, its political and economic\nindependence. As Northern mills multiplied, as railways spun their\nmighty web over the face of the North, and as accumulated capital rose\ninto the hundreds of millions, the conviction of the planters and their\nstatesmen deepened into desperation.\n\n=Efforts to Start Southern Industries Fail.=--A few of them, seeing the\npredominance of the North, made determined efforts to introduce\nmanufactures into the South. To the leaders who were averse to secession\nand nullification this seemed the only remedy for the growing disparity\nin the power of the two sections. Societies for the encouragement of\nmechanical industries were formed, the investment of capital was sought,\nand indeed a few mills were built on Southern soil. The results were\nmeager. The natural resources, coal and water power, were abundant; but\nthe enterprise for direction and the skilled labor were wanting. The\nstream of European immigration flowed North and West, not South. The\nIrish or German laborer, even if he finally made his home in a city, had\nbefore him, while in the North, the alternative of a homestead on\nWestern land. To him slavery was a strange, if not a repelling,\ninstitution. He did not take to it kindly nor care to fix his home where\nit flourished. While slavery lasted, the economy of the South was\ninevitably agricultural. While agriculture predominated, leadership with\nequal necessity fell to the planting interest. While the planting\ninterest ruled, political opposition to Northern economy was destined to\ngrow in strength.\n\n=The Southern Theory of Sectionalism.=--In the opinion of the statesmen\nwho frankly represented the planting interest, the industrial system was\nits deadly enemy. Their entire philosophy of American politics was\nsummed up in a single paragraph by McDuffie, a spokesman for South\nCarolina: \"Owing to the federative character of our government, the\ngreat geographical extent of our territory, and the diversity of the\npursuits of our citizens in different parts of the union, it has so\nhappened that two great interests have sprung up, standing directly\nopposed to each other. One of these consists of those manufactures which\nthe Northern and Middle states are capable of producing but which, owing\nto the high price of labor and the high profits of capital in those\nstates, cannot hold competition with foreign manufactures without the\naid of bounties, directly or indirectly given, either by the general\ngovernment or by the state governments. The other of these interests\nconsists of the great agricultural staples of the Southern states which\ncan find a market only in foreign countries and which can be\nadvantageously sold only in exchange for foreign manufactures which come\nin competition with those of the Northern and Middle states.... These\ninterests then stand diametrically and irreconcilably opposed to each\nother. The interest, the pecuniary interest of the Northern\nmanufacturer, is directly promoted by every increase of the taxes\nimposed upon Southern commerce; and it is unnecessary to add that the\ninterest of the Southern planter is promoted by every diminution of\ntaxes imposed upon the productions of their industry. If, under these\ncircumstances, the manufacturers were clothed with the power of imposing\ntaxes, at their pleasure, upon the foreign imports of the planter, no\ndoubt would exist in the mind of any man that it would have all the\ncharacteristics of an absolute and unqualified despotism.\" The economic\nsoundness of this reasoning, a subject of interesting speculation for\nthe economist, is of little concern to the historian. The historical\npoint is that this opinion was widely held in the South and with the\nprogress of time became the prevailing doctrine of the planting\nstatesmen.\n\nTheir antagonism was deepened because they also became convinced, on\nwhat grounds it is not necessary to inquire, that the leaders of the\nindustrial interest thus opposed to planting formed a consolidated\n\"aristocracy of wealth,\" bent upon the pursuit and attainment of\npolitical power at Washington. \"By the aid of various associated\ninterests,\" continued McDuffie, \"the manufacturing capitalists have\nobtained a complete and permanent control over the legislation of\nCongress on this subject [the tariff].... Men confederated together upon\nselfish and interested principles, whether in pursuit of the offices or\nthe bounties of the government, are ever more active and vigilant than\nthe great majority who act from disinterested and patriotic impulses.\nHave we not witnessed it on this floor, sir? Who ever knew the tariff\nmen to divide on any question affecting their confederated interests?...\nThe watchword is, stick together, right or wrong upon every question\naffecting the common cause. Such, sir, is the concert and vigilance and\nsuch the combinations by which the manufacturing party, acting upon the\ninterests of some and the prejudices of others, have obtained a decided\nand permanent control over public opinion in all the tariff states.\"\nThus, as the Southern statesman would have it, the North, in matters\naffecting national policies, was ruled by a \"confederated interest\"\nwhich menaced the planting interest. As the former grew in magnitude and\nattached to itself the free farmers of the West through channels of\ntrade and credit, it followed as night the day that in time the planters\nwould be overshadowed and at length overborne in the struggle of giants.\nWhether the theory was sound or not, Southern statesmen believed it and\nacted upon it.\n\n\n=References=\n\nM. Beard, _Short History of the American Labor Movement_.\n\nE.L. Bogart, _Economic History of the United States_.\n\nJ.R. Commons, _History of Labour in the United States_ (2 vols.).\n\nE.R. Johnson, _American Railway Transportation_.\n\nC.D. Wright, _Industrial Evolution of the United States_.\n\n\n=Questions=\n\n1. What signs pointed to a complete Democratic triumph in 1852?\n\n2. What is the explanation of the extraordinary industrial progress of\nAmerica?\n\n3. Compare the planting system with the factory system.\n\n4. In what sections did industry flourish before the Civil War? Why?\n\n5. Show why transportation is so vital to modern industry and\nagriculture.\n\n6. Explain how it was possible to secure so many people to labor in\nAmerican industries.\n\n7. Trace the steps in the rise of organized labor before 1860.\n\n8. What political and economic reforms did labor demand?\n\n9. Why did the East and the South seek closer ties with the West?\n\n10. Describe the economic forces which were drawing the East and the\nWest together.\n\n11. In what way was the South economically dependent upon the North?\n\n12 State the national policies generally favored in the North and\ncondemned in the South.\n\n13. Show how economic conditions in the South were unfavorable to\nindustry.\n\n14. Give the Southern explanation of the antagonism between the North\nand the South.\n\n\n=Research Topics=\n\n=The Inventions.=--Assign one to each student. Satisfactory accounts are\nto be found in any good encyclopedia, especially the Britannica.\n\n=River and Lake Commerce.=--Callender, _Economic History of the United\nStates_, pp. 313-326.\n\n=Railways and Canals.=--Callender, pp. 326-344; 359-387. Coman,\n_Industrial History of the United States_, pp. 216-225.\n\n=The Growth of Industry, 1815-1840.=--Callender, pp. 459-471. From 1850\nto 1860, Callender, pp. 471-486.\n\n=Early Labor Conditions.=--Callender, pp. 701-718.\n\n=Early Immigration.=--Callender, pp. 719-732.\n\n=Clay's Home Market Theory of the Tariff.=--Callender, pp. 498-503.\n\n=The New England View of the Tariff.=--Callender, pp. 503-514.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XIV\n\nTHE PLANTING SYSTEM AND NATIONAL POLITICS\n\n\nJames Madison, the father of the federal Constitution, after he had\nwatched for many days the battle royal in the national convention of\n1787, exclaimed that the contest was not between the large and the small\nstates, but between the commercial North and the planting South. From\nthe inauguration of Washington to the election of Lincoln the sectional\nconflict, discerned by this penetrating thinker, exercised a profound\ninfluence on the course of American politics. It was latent during the\n\"era of good feeling\" when the Jeffersonian Republicans adopted\nFederalist policies; it flamed up in the contest between the Democrats\nand Whigs. Finally it raged in the angry political quarrel which\nculminated in the Civil War.\n\n\nSLAVERY--NORTH AND SOUTH\n\n=The Decline of Slavery in the North.=--At the time of the adoption of\nthe Constitution, slavery was lawful in all the Northern states except\nMassachusetts. There were almost as many bondmen in New York as in\nGeorgia. New Jersey had more than Delaware or Tennessee, indeed nearly\nas many as both combined. All told, however, there were only about forty\nthousand in the North as against nearly seven hundred thousand in the\nSouth. Moreover, most of the Northern slaves were domestic servants, not\nlaborers necessary to keep mills going or fields under cultivation.\n\nThere was, in the North, a steadily growing moral sentiment against the\nsystem. Massachusetts abandoned it in 1780. In the same year,\nPennsylvania provided for gradual emancipation. New Hampshire, where\nthere had been only a handful, Connecticut with a few thousand\ndomestics, and New Jersey early followed these examples. New York, in\n1799, declared that all children born of slaves after July 4 of that\nyear should be free, though held for a term as apprentices; and in 1827\nit swept away the last vestiges of slavery. So with the passing of the\ngeneration that had framed the Constitution, chattel servitude\ndisappeared in the commercial states, leaving behind only such\ndiscriminations as disfranchisement or high property qualifications on\ncolored voters.\n\n=The Growth of Northern Sentiment against Slavery.=--In both sections of\nthe country there early existed, among those more or less\nphilosophically inclined, a strong opposition to slavery on moral as\nwell as economic grounds. In the constitutional convention of 1787,\nGouverneur Morris had vigorously condemned it and proposed that the\nwhole country should bear the cost of abolishing it. About the same time\na society for promoting the abolition of slavery, under the presidency\nof Benjamin Franklin, laid before Congress a petition that serious\nattention be given to the emancipation of \"those unhappy men who alone\nin this land of freedom are degraded into perpetual bondage.\" When\nCongress, acting on the recommendations of President Jefferson, provided\nfor the abolition of the foreign slave trade on January 1, 1808, several\nNorthern members joined with Southern members in condemning the system\nas well as the trade. Later, colonization societies were formed to\nencourage the emancipation of slaves and their return to Africa. James\nMadison was president and Henry Clay vice president of such an\norganization.\n\nThe anti-slavery sentiment of which these were the signs was\nnevertheless confined to narrow circles and bore no trace of bitterness.\n\n\"We consider slavery your calamity, not your crime,\" wrote a\ndistinguished Boston clergyman to his Southern brethren, \"and we will\nshare with you the burden of putting an end to it. We will consent that\nthe public lands shall be appropriated to this object.... I deprecate\neverything which sows discord and exasperating sectional animosities.\"\n\n=Uncompromising Abolition.=--In a little while the spirit of generosity\nwas gone. Just as Jacksonian Democracy rose to power there appeared a\nnew kind of anti-slavery doctrine--the dogmatism of the abolition\nagitator. For mild speculation on the evils of the system was\nsubstituted an imperious and belligerent demand for instant\nemancipation. If a date must be fixed for its appearance, the year 1831\nmay be taken when William Lloyd Garrison founded in Boston his\nanti-slavery paper, _The Liberator_. With singleness of purpose and\nutter contempt for all opposing opinions and arguments, he pursued his\ncourse of passionate denunciation. He apologized for having ever\n\"assented to the popular but pernicious doctrine of gradual abolition.\"\nHe chose for his motto: \"Immediate and unconditional emancipation!\" He\npromised his readers that he would be \"harsh as truth and uncompromising\nas justice\"; that he would not \"think or speak or write with\nmoderation.\" Then he flung out his defiant call: \"I am in earnest--I\nwill not equivocate--I will not excuse--I will not retreat a single\ninch--and I will be heard....\n\n 'Such is the vow I take, so help me God.'\"\n\nThough Garrison complained that \"the apathy of the people is enough to\nmake every statue leap from its pedestal,\" he soon learned how alive the\nmasses were to the meaning of his propaganda. Abolition orators were\nstoned in the street and hissed from the platform. Their meeting places\nwere often attacked and sometimes burned to the ground. Garrison himself\nwas assaulted in the streets of Boston, finding refuge from the angry\nmob behind prison bars. Lovejoy, a publisher in Alton, Illinois, for his\nwillingness to give abolition a fair hearing, was brutally murdered; his\nprinting press was broken to pieces as a warning to all those who\ndisturbed the nation's peace of mind. The South, doubly frightened by a\nslave revolt in 1831 which ended in the murder of a number of men,\nwomen, and children, closed all discussion of slavery in that section.\n\"Now,\" exclaimed Calhoun, \"it is a question which admits of neither\nconcession nor compromise.\"\n\nAs the opposition hardened, the anti-slavery agitation gathered in force\nand intensity. Whittier blew his blast from the New England hills:\n\n \"No slave-hunt in our borders--no pirate on our strand;\n No fetters in the Bay State--no slave upon our land.\"\n\nLowell, looking upon the espousal of a great cause as the noblest aim of\nhis art, ridiculed and excoriated bondage in the South. Those\nabolitionists, not gifted as speakers or writers, signed petitions\nagainst slavery and poured them in upon Congress. The flood of them was\nso continuous that the House of Representatives, forgetting its\ntraditions, adopted in 1836 a \"gag rule\" which prevented the reading of\nappeals and consigned them to the waste basket. Not until the Whigs were\nin power nearly ten years later was John Quincy Adams able, after a\nrelentless campaign, to carry a motion rescinding the rule.\n\nHow deep was the impression made upon the country by this agitation for\nimmediate and unconditional emancipation cannot be measured. If the\npopular vote for those candidates who opposed not slavery, but its\nextension to the territories, be taken as a standard, it was slight\nindeed. In 1844, the Free Soil candidate, Birney, polled 62,000 votes\nout of over a million and a half; the Free Soil vote of the next\ncampaign went beyond a quarter of a million, but the increase was due to\nthe strength of the leader, Martin Van Buren; four years afterward it\nreceded to 156,000, affording all the outward signs for the belief that\nthe pleas of the abolitionist found no widespread response among the\npeople. Yet the agitation undoubtedly ran deeper than the ballot box.\nYoung statesmen of the North, in whose hands the destiny of frightful\nyears was to lie, found their indifference to slavery broken and their\nconsciences stirred by the unending appeal and the tireless reiteration.\nCharles Sumner afterward boasted that he read the _Liberator_ two years\nbefore Wendell Phillips, the young Boston lawyer who cast aside his\nprofession to take up the dangerous cause.\n\n=Early Southern Opposition to Slavery.=--In the South, the sentiment\nagainst slavery was strong; it led some to believe that it would also\ncome to an end there in due time. Washington disliked it and directed in\nhis will that his own slaves should be set free after the death of his\nwife. Jefferson, looking into the future, condemned the system by which\nhe also lived, saying: \"Can the liberties of a nation be thought secure\nwhen we have removed their only firm basis, a conviction in the minds of\nthe people that their liberties are the gift of God? Are they not to be\nviolated but with His wrath? Indeed I tremble for my country when I\nreflect that God is just; that His justice cannot sleep forever.\" Nor\ndid Southern men confine their sentiments to expressions of academic\nopinion. They accepted in 1787 the Ordinance which excluded slavery from\nthe Northwest territory forever and also the Missouri Compromise, which\nshut it out of a vast section of the Louisiana territory.\n\n=The Revolution in the Slave System.=--Among the representatives of\nSouth Carolina and Georgia, however, the anti-slavery views of\nWashington and Jefferson were by no means approved; and the drift of\nSouthern economy was decidedly in favor of extending and perpetuating,\nrather than abolishing, the system of chattel servitude. The invention\nof the cotton gin and textile machinery created a market for cotton\nwhich the planters, with all their skill and energy, could hardly\nsupply. Almost every available acre was brought under cotton culture as\nthe small farmers were driven steadily from the seaboard into the\nuplands or to the Northwest.\n\nThe demand for slaves to till the swiftly expanding fields was enormous.\nThe number of bondmen rose from 700,000 in Washington's day to more than\nthree millions in 1850. At the same time slavery itself was transformed.\nInstead of the homestead where the same family of masters kept the same\nfamilies of slaves from generation to generation, came the plantation\nsystem of the Far South and Southwest where masters were ever moving and\never extending their holdings of lands and slaves. This in turn reacted\non the older South where the raising of slaves for the market became a\nregular and highly profitable business.\n\n[Illustration: _From an old print_\n\nJOHN C. CALHOUN]\n\n=Slavery Defended as a Positive Good.=--As the abolition agitation\nincreased and the planting system expanded, apologies for slavery became\nfainter and fainter in the South. Then apologies were superseded by\nclaims that slavery was a beneficial scheme of labor control. Calhoun,\nin a famous speech in the Senate in 1837, sounded the new note by\ndeclaring slavery \"instead of an evil, a good--a positive good.\" His\nreasoning was as follows: in every civilized society one portion of the\ncommunity must live on the labor of another; learning, science, and the\narts are built upon leisure; the African slave, kindly treated by his\nmaster and mistress and looked after in his old age, is better off than\nthe free laborers of Europe; and under the slave system conflicts\nbetween capital and labor are avoided. The advantages of slavery in this\nrespect, he concluded, \"will become more and more manifest, if left\nundisturbed by interference from without, as the country advances in\nwealth and numbers.\"\n\n=Slave Owners Dominate Politics.=--The new doctrine of Calhoun was\neagerly seized by the planters as they came more and more to overshadow\nthe small farmers of the South and as they beheld the menace of\nabolition growing upon the horizon. It formed, as they viewed matters, a\nmoral defense for their labor system--sound, logical, invincible. It\nwarranted them in drawing together for the protection of an institution\nso necessary, so inevitable, so beneficent.\n\nThough in 1850 the slave owners were only about three hundred and fifty\nthousand in a national population of nearly twenty million whites, they\nhad an influence all out of proportion to their numbers. They were knit\ntogether by the bonds of a common interest. They had leisure and wealth.\nThey could travel and attend conferences and conventions. Throughout the\nSouth and largely in the North, they had the press, the schools, and the\npulpits on their side. They formed, as it were, a mighty union for the\nprotection and advancement of their common cause. Aided by those\nmechanics and farmers of the North who stuck by Jacksonian Democracy\nthrough thick and thin, the planters became a power in the federal\ngovernment. \"We nominate Presidents,\" exultantly boasted a Richmond\nnewspaper; \"the North elects them.\"\n\nThis jubilant Southern claim was conceded by William H. Seward, a\nRepublican Senator from New York, in a speech describing the power of\nslavery in the national government. \"A party,\" he said, \"is in one sense\na joint stock association, in which those who contribute most direct the\naction and management of the concern.... The slaveholders, contributing\nin an overwhelming proportion to the strength of the Democratic party,\nnecessarily dictate and prescribe its policy.\" He went on: \"The\nslaveholding class has become the governing power in each of the\nslaveholding states and it practically chooses thirty of the sixty-two\nmembers of the Senate, ninety of the two hundred and thirty-three\nmembers of the House of Representatives, and one hundred and five of the\ntwo hundred and ninety-five electors of President and Vice-President of\nthe United States.\" Then he considered the slave power in the Supreme\nCourt. \"That tribunal,\" he exclaimed, \"consists of a chief justice and\neight associate justices. Of these, five were called from slave states\nand four from free states. The opinions and bias of each of them were\ncarefully considered by the President and Senate when he was appointed.\nNot one of them was found wanting in soundness of politics, according to\nthe slaveholder's exposition of the Constitution.\" Such was the Northern\nview of the planting interest that, from the arena of national politics,\nchallenged the whole country in 1860.\n\n[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF SLAVES IN THE SOUTHERN STATES]\n\n\nSLAVERY IN NATIONAL POLITICS\n\n=National Aspects of Slavery.=--It may be asked why it was that slavery,\nfounded originally on state law and subject to state government, was\ndrawn into the current of national affairs. The answer is simple. There\nwere, in the first place, constitutional reasons. The Congress of the\nUnited States had to make all needful rules for the government of the\nterritories, the District of Columbia, the forts and other property\nunder national authority; so it was compelled to determine whether\nslavery should exist in the places subject to its jurisdiction. Upon\nCongress was also conferred the power of admitting new states; whenever\na territory asked for admission, the issue could be raised as to whether\nslavery should be sanctioned or excluded. Under the Constitution,\nprovision was made for the return of runaway slaves; Congress had the\npower to enforce this clause by appropriate legislation. Since the\ncontrol of the post office was vested in the federal government, it had\nto face the problem raised by the transmission of abolition literature\nthrough the mails. Finally citizens had the right of petition; it\ninheres in all free government and it is expressly guaranteed by the\nfirst amendment to the Constitution. It was therefore legal for\nabolitionists to present to Congress their petitions, even if they asked\nfor something which it had no right to grant. It was thus impossible,\nconstitutionally, to draw a cordon around the slavery issue and confine\nthe discussion of it to state politics.\n\nThere were, in the second place, economic reasons why slavery was\ninevitably drawn into the national sphere. It was the basis of the\nplanting system which had direct commercial relations with the North and\nEuropean countries; it was affected by federal laws respecting tariffs,\nbounties, ship subsidies, banking, and kindred matters. The planters of\nthe South, almost without exception, looked upon the protective tariff\nas a tribute laid upon them for the benefit of Northern industries. As\nheavy borrowers of money in the North, they were generally in favor of\n\"easy money,\" if not paper currency, as an aid in the repayment of their\ndebts. This threw most of them into opposition to the Whig program for a\nUnited States Bank. All financial aids to American shipping they stoutly\nresisted, preferring to rely upon the cheaper service rendered by\nEnglish shippers. Internal improvements, those substantial ties that\nwere binding the West to the East and turning the traffic from New\nOrleans to Philadelphia and New York, they viewed with alarm. Free\nhomesteads from the public lands, which tended to overbalance the South\nby building free states, became to them a measure dangerous to their\ninterests. Thus national economic policies, which could not by any twist\nor turn be confined to state control, drew the slave system and its\ndefenders into the political conflict that centered at Washington.\n\n=Slavery and the Territories--the Missouri Compromise (1820).=--Though\nmen continually talked about \"taking slavery out of politics,\" it could\nnot be done. By 1818 slavery had become so entrenched and the\nanti-slavery sentiment so strong, that Missouri's quest for admission\nbrought both houses of Congress into a deadlock that was broken only by\ncompromise. The South, having half the Senators, could prevent the\nadmission of Missouri stripped of slavery; and the North, powerful in\nthe House of Representatives, could keep Missouri with slavery out of\nthe union indefinitely. An adjustment of pretensions was the last\nresort. Maine, separated from the parent state of Massachusetts, was\nbrought into the union with freedom and Missouri with bondage. At the\nsame time it was agreed that the remainder of the vast Louisiana\nterritory north of the parallel of 36 o 30' should be, like the old\nNorthwest, forever free; while the southern portion was left to slavery.\nIn reality this was an immense gain for liberty. The area dedicated to\nfree farmers was many times greater than that left to the planters. The\nprinciple was once more asserted that Congress had full power to prevent\nslavery in the territories.\n\n[Illustration: THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE]\n\n=The Territorial Question Reopened by the Wilmot Proviso.=--To the\nSouthern leaders, the annexation of Texas and the conquest of Mexico\nmeant renewed security to the planting interest against the increasing\nwealth and population of the North. Texas, it was said, could be divided\ninto four slave states. The new territories secured by the treaty of\npeace with Mexico contained the promise of at least three more. Thus, as\neach new free soil state knocked for admission into the union, the\nSouth could demand as the price of its consent a new slave state. No\nwonder Southern statesmen saw, in the annexation of Texas and the\nconquest of Mexico, slavery and King Cotton triumphant--secure for all\ntime against adverse legislation. Northern leaders were equally\nconvinced that the Southern prophecy was true. Abolitionists and\nmoderate opponents of slavery alike were in despair. Texas, they\nlamented, would fasten slavery upon the country forevermore. \"No living\nman,\" cried one, \"will see the end of slavery in the United States!\"\n\nIt so happened, however, that the events which, it was thought, would\nsecure slavery let loose a storm against it. A sign appeared first on\nAugust 6, 1846, only a few months after war was declared on Mexico. On\nthat day, David Wilmot, a Democrat from Pennsylvania, introduced into\nthe House of Representatives a resolution to the effect that, as an\nexpress and fundamental condition to the acquisition of any territory\nfrom the republic of Mexico, slavery should be forever excluded from\nevery part of it. \"The Wilmot Proviso,\" as the resolution was popularly\ncalled, though defeated on that occasion, was a challenge to the South.\n\nThe South answered the challenge. Speaking in the House of\nRepresentatives, Robert Toombs of Georgia boldly declared: \"In the\npresence of the living God, if by your legislation you seek to drive us\nfrom the territories of California and New Mexico ... I am for\ndisunion.\" South Carolina announced that the day for talk had passed and\nthe time had come to join her sister states \"in resisting the\napplication of the Wilmot Proviso at any and all hazards.\" A conference,\nassembled at Jackson, Mississippi, in the autumn of 1849, called a\ngeneral convention of Southern states to meet at Nashville the following\nsummer. The avowed purpose was to arrest \"the course of aggression\" and,\nif that was not possible, to provide \"in the last resort for their\nseparate welfare by the formation of a compact and union that will\nafford protection to their liberties and rights.\" States that had\nspurned South Carolina's plea for nullification in 1832 responded to\nthis new appeal with alacrity--an augury of the secession to come.\n\n[Illustration: _From an old print._\n\nHENRY CLAY]\n\n=The Great Debate of 1850.=--The temper of the country was white hot\nwhen Congress convened in December, 1849. It was a memorable session,\nmemorable for the great men who took part in the debates and memorable\nfor the grand Compromise of 1850 which it produced. In the Senate sat\nfor the last time three heroic figures: Webster from the North, Calhoun\nfrom the South, and Clay from a border state. For nearly forty years\nthese three had been leaders of men. All had grown old and gray in\nservice. Calhoun was already broken in health and in a few months was to\nbe borne from the political arena forever. Clay and Webster had but two\nmore years in their allotted span.\n\nExperience, learning, statecraft--all these things they now marshaled in\na mighty effort to solve the slavery problem. On January 29, 1850, Clay\noffered to the Senate a compromise granting concessions to both sides;\nand a few days later, in a powerful oration, he made a passionate appeal\nfor a union of hearts through mutual sacrifices. Calhoun relentlessly\ndemanded the full measure of justice for the South: equal rights in the\nterritories bought by common blood; the return of runaway slaves as\nrequired by the Constitution; the suppression of the abolitionists; and\nthe restoration of the balance of power between the North and the South.\nWebster, in his notable \"Seventh of March speech,\" condemned the Wilmot\nProviso, advocated a strict enforcement of the fugitive slave law,\ndenounced the abolitionists, and made a final plea for the Constitution,\nunion, and liberty. This was the address which called forth from\nWhittier the poem, \"Ichabod,\" deploring the fall of the mighty one whom\nhe thought lost to all sense of faith and honor.\n\n=The Terms of the Compromise of 1850.=--When the debates were closed,\nthe results were totaled in a series of compromise measures, all of\nwhich were signed in September, 1850, by the new President, Millard\nFillmore, who had taken office two months before on the death of Zachary\nTaylor. By these acts the boundaries of Texas were adjusted and the\nterritory of New Mexico created, subject to the provision that all or\nany part of it might be admitted to the union \"with or without slavery\nas their constitution may provide at the time of their admission.\" The\nTerritory of Utah was similarly organized with the same conditions as to\nslavery, thus repudiating the Wilmot Proviso without guaranteeing\nslavery to the planters. California was admitted as a free state under a\nconstitution in which the people of the territory had themselves\nprohibited slavery.\n\nThe slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia, but slavery\nitself existed as before at the capital of the nation. This concession\nto anti-slavery sentiment was more than offset by a fugitive slave law,\ndrastic in spirit and in letter. It placed the enforcement of its terms\nin the hands of federal officers appointed from Washington and so\nremoved it from the control of authorities locally elected. It provided\nthat masters or their agents, on filing claims in due form, might\nsummarily remove their escaped slaves without affording their \"alleged\nfugitives\" the right of trial by jury, the right to witness, the right\nto offer any testimony in evidence. Finally, to \"put teeth\" into the\nact, heavy penalties were prescribed for all who obstructed or assisted\nin obstructing the enforcement of the law. Such was the Great Compromise\nof 1850.\n\n[Illustration: AN OLD CARTOON REPRESENTING WEBSTER \"STEALING CLAY'S\nTHUNDER\"]\n\n=The Pro-slavery Triumph in the Election of 1852.=--The results of the\nelection of 1852 seemed to show conclusively that the nation was weary\nof slavery agitation and wanted peace. Both parties, Whigs and\nDemocrats, endorsed the fugitive slave law and approved the Great\nCompromise. The Democrats, with Franklin Pierce as their leader, swept\nthe country against the war hero, General Winfield Scott, on whom the\nWhigs had staked their hopes. Even Webster, broken with grief at his\nfailure to receive the nomination, advised his friends to vote for\nPierce and turned away from politics to meditate upon approaching death.\nThe verdict of the voters would seem to indicate that for the time\neverybody, save a handful of disgruntled agitators, looked upon Clay's\nsettlement as the last word. \"The people, especially the business men of\nthe country,\" says Elson, \"were utterly weary of the agitation and they\ngave their suffrages to the party that promised them rest.\" The Free\nSoil party, condemning slavery as \"a sin against God and a crime against\nman,\" and advocating freedom for the territories, failed to carry a\nsingle state. In fact it polled fewer votes than it had four years\nearlier--156,000 as against nearly 3,000,000, the combined vote of the\nWhigs and Democrats. It is not surprising, therefore, that President\nPierce, surrounded in his cabinet by strong Southern sympathizers, could\npromise to put an end to slavery agitation and to crush the abolition\nmovement in the bud.\n\n=Anti-slavery Agitation Continued.=--The promise was more difficult to\nfulfill than to utter. In fact, the vigorous execution of one measure\nincluded in the Compromise--the fugitive slave law--only made matters\nworse. Designed as security for the planters, it proved a powerful\ninstrument in their undoing. Slavery five hundred miles away on a\nLouisiana plantation was so remote from the North that only the\nstrongest imagination could maintain a constant rage against it. \"Slave\ncatching,\" \"man hunting\" by federal officers on the streets of\nPhiladelphia, New York, Boston, Chicago, or Milwaukee and in the hamlets\nand villages of the wide-stretching farm lands of the North was another\nmatter. It brought the most odious aspects of slavery home to thousands\nof men and women who would otherwise have been indifferent to the\nsystem. Law-abiding business men, mechanics, farmers, and women, when\nthey saw peaceful negroes, who had resided in their neighborhoods\nperhaps for years, torn away by federal officers and carried back to\nbondage, were transformed into enemies of the law. They helped slaves to\nescape; they snatched them away from officers who had captured them;\nthey broke open jails and carried fugitives off to Canada.\n\nAssistance to runaway slaves, always more or less common in the North,\nwas by this time organized into a system. Regular routes, known as\n\"underground railways,\" were laid out across the free states into\nCanada, and trusted friends of freedom maintained \"underground stations\"\nwhere fugitives were concealed in the daytime between their long night\njourneys. Funds were raised and secret agents sent into the South to\nhelp negroes to flee. One negro woman, Harriet Tubman, \"the Moses of her\npeople,\" with headquarters at Philadelphia, is accredited with nineteen\ninvasions into slave territory and the emancipation of three hundred\nnegroes. Those who worked at this business were in constant peril. One\nunderground operator, Calvin Fairbank, spent nearly twenty years in\nprison for aiding fugitives from justice. Yet perils and prisons did not\nstay those determined men and women who, in obedience to their\nconsciences, set themselves to this lawless work.\n\n[Illustration: HARRIET BEECHER STOWE]\n\nFrom thrilling stories of adventure along the underground railways came\nsome of the scenes and themes of the novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe,\n\"Uncle Tom's Cabin,\" published two years after the Compromise of 1850.\nHer stirring tale set forth the worst features of slavery in vivid word\npictures that caught and held the attention of millions of readers.\nThough the book was unfair to the South and was denounced as a hideous\ndistortion of the truth, it was quickly dramatized and played in every\ncity and town throughout the North. Topsy, Little Eva, Uncle Tom, the\nfleeing slave, Eliza Harris, and the cruel slave driver, Simon Legree,\nwith his baying blood hounds, became living specters in many a home that\nsought to bar the door to the \"unpleasant and irritating business of\nslavery agitation.\"\n\n\nTHE DRIFT OF EVENTS TOWARD THE IRREPRESSIBLE CONFLICT\n\n=Repeal of the Missouri Compromise.=--To practical men, after all, the\n\"rub-a-dub\" agitation of a few abolitionists, an occasional riot over\nfugitive slaves, and the vogue of a popular novel seemed of slight or\ntransient importance. They could point with satisfaction to the election\nreturns of 1852; but their very security was founded upon shifting\nsands. The magnificent triumph of the pro-slavery Democrats in 1852\nbrought a turn in affairs that destroyed the foundations under their\nfeet. Emboldened by their own strength and the weakness of their\nopponents, they now dared to repeal the Missouri Compromise. The leader\nin this fateful enterprise was Stephen A. Douglas, Senator from\nIllinois, and the occasion for the deed was the demand for the\norganization of territorial government in the regions west of Iowa and\nMissouri.\n\nDouglas, like Clay and Webster before him, was consumed by a strong\npassion for the presidency, and, to reach his goal, it was necessary to\nwin the support of the South. This he undoubtedly sought to do when he\nintroduced on January 4, 1854, a bill organizing the Nebraska territory\non the principle of the Compromise of 1850; namely, that the people in\nthe territory might themselves decide whether they would have slavery or\nnot. Unwittingly the avalanche was started.\n\nAfter a stormy debate, in which important amendments were forced on\nDouglas, the Kansas-Nebraska Bill became a law on May 30, 1854. The\nmeasure created two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, and provided that\nthey, or territories organized out of them, could come into the union as\nstates \"with or without slavery as their constitutions may prescribe at\nthe time of their admission.\" Not content with this, the law went on to\ndeclare the Missouri Compromise null and void as being inconsistent with\nthe principle of non-intervention by Congress with slavery in the states\nand territories. Thus by a single blow the very heart of the continent,\ndedicated to freedom by solemn agreement, was thrown open to slavery. A\ndesperate struggle between slave owners and the advocates of freedom was\nthe outcome in Kansas.\n\nIf Douglas fancied that the North would receive the overthrow of the\nMissouri Compromise in the same temper that it greeted Clay's\nsettlement, he was rapidly disillusioned. A blast of rage, terrific in\nits fury, swept from Maine to Iowa. Staid old Boston hanged him in\neffigy with an inscription--\"Stephen A. Douglas, author of the infamous\nNebraska bill: the Benedict Arnold of 1854.\" City after city burned him\nin effigy until, as he himself said, he could travel from the Atlantic\ncoast to Chicago in the light of the fires. Thousands of Whigs and\nFree-soil Democrats deserted their parties which had sanctioned or at\nleast tolerated the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, declaring that the startling\nmeasure showed an evident resolve on the part of the planters to rule\nthe whole country. A gage of defiance was thrown down to the\nabolitionists. An issue was set even for the moderate and timid who had\nbeen unmoved by the agitation over slavery in the Far South. That issue\nwas whether slavery was to be confined within its existing boundaries or\nbe allowed to spread without interference, thereby placing the free\nstates in the minority and surrendering the federal government wholly to\nthe slave power.\n\n=The Rise of the Republican Party.=--Events of terrible significance,\nswiftly following, drove the country like a ship before a gale straight\ninto civil war. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill rent the old parties asunder\nand called into being the Republican party. While that bill was pending\nin Congress, many Northern Whigs and Democrats had come to the\nconclusion that a new party dedicated to freedom in the territories must\nfollow the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. Several places claim to be\nthe original home of the Republican party; but historians generally\nyield it to Wisconsin. At Ripon in that state, a mass meeting of Whigs\nand Democrats assembled in February, 1854, and resolved to form a new\nparty if the Kansas-Nebraska Bill should pass. At a second meeting a\nfusion committee representing Whigs, Free Soilers, and Democrats was\nformed and the name Republican--the name of Jefferson's old party--was\nselected. All over the country similar meetings were held and political\ncommittees were organized.\n\nWhen the presidential campaign of 1856 began the Republicans entered the\ncontest. After a preliminary conference in Pittsburgh in February, they\nheld a convention in Philadelphia at which was drawn up a platform\nopposing the extension of slavery to the territories. John C. Fremont,\nthe distinguished explorer, was named for the presidency. The results\nof the election were astounding as compared with the Free-soil failure\nof the preceding election. Prominent men like Longfellow, Washington\nIrving, William Cullen Bryant, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and George William\nCurtis went over to the new party and 1,341,264 votes were rolled up for\n\"free labor, free speech, free men, free Kansas, and Fremont.\"\nNevertheless the victory of the Democrats was decisive. Their candidate,\nJames Buchanan of Pennsylvania, was elected by a majority of 174 to 114\nelectoral votes.\n\n[Illustration: SLAVE AND FREE SOIL ON EVE OF CIVIL WAR]\n\n=The Dred Scott Decision (1857).=--In his inaugural, Buchanan vaguely\nhinted that in a forthcoming decision the Supreme Court would settle one\nof the vital questions of the day. This was a reference to the Dred\nScott case then pending. Scott was a slave who had been taken by his\nmaster into the upper Louisiana territory, where freedom had been\nestablished by the Missouri Compromise, and then carried back into his\nold state of Missouri. He brought suit for his liberty on the ground\nthat his residence in the free territory made him free. This raised the\nquestion whether the law of Congress prohibiting slavery north of 36 o\n30' was authorized by the federal Constitution or not. The Court might\nhave avoided answering it by saying that even though Scott was free in\nthe territory, he became a slave again in Missouri by virtue of the law\nof that state. The Court, however, faced the issue squarely. It held\nthat Scott had not been free anywhere and that, besides, the Missouri\nCompromise violated the Constitution and was null and void.\n\nThe decision was a triumph for the South. It meant that Congress after\nall had no power to abolish slavery in the territories. Under the decree\nof the highest court in the land, that could be done only by an\namendment to the Constitution which required a two-thirds vote in\nCongress and the approval of three-fourths of the states. Such an\namendment was obviously impossible--the Southern states were too\nnumerous; but the Republicans were not daunted. \"We know,\" said Lincoln,\n\"the Court that made it has often overruled its own decisions and we\nshall do what we can to have it overrule this.\" Legislatures of Northern\nstates passed resolutions condemning the decision and the Republican\nplatform of 1860 characterized the dogma that the Constitution carried\nslavery into the territories as \"a dangerous political heresy at\nvariance with the explicit provisions of that instrument itself ... with\nlegislative and judicial precedent ... revolutionary in tendency and\nsubversive of the peace and harmony of the country.\"\n\n=The Panic of 1857.=--In the midst of the acrimonious dispute over the\nDred Scott decision, came one of the worst business panics which ever\nafflicted the country. In the spring and summer of 1857, fourteen\nrailroad corporations, including the Erie, Michigan Central, and the\nIllinois Central, failed to meet their obligations; banks and insurance\ncompanies, some of them the largest and strongest institutions in the\nNorth, closed their doors; stocks and bonds came down in a crash on the\nmarkets; manufacturing was paralyzed; tens of thousands of working\npeople were thrown out of employment; \"hunger meetings\" of idle men were\nheld in the cities and banners bearing the inscription, \"We want\nbread,\" were flung out. In New York, working men threatened to invade\nthe Council Chamber to demand \"work or bread,\" and the frightened mayor\ncalled for the police and soldiers. For this distressing state of\naffairs many remedies were offered; none with more zeal and persistence\nthan the proposal for a higher tariff to take the place of the law of\nMarch, 1857, a Democratic measure making drastic reductions in the rates\nof duty. In the manufacturing districts of the North, the panic was\nascribed to the \"Democratic assault on business.\" So an old issue was\nagain vigorously advanced, preparatory to the next presidential\ncampaign.\n\n=The Lincoln-Douglas Debates.=--The following year the interest of the\nwhole country was drawn to a series of debates held in Illinois by\nLincoln and Douglas, both candidates for the United States Senate. In\nthe course of his campaign Lincoln had uttered his trenchant saying that\n\"a house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government\ncannot endure permanently half slave and half free.\" At the same time he\nhad accused Douglas, Buchanan, and the Supreme Court of acting in\nconcert to make slavery national. This daring statement arrested the\nattention of Douglas, who was making his campaign on the doctrine of\n\"squatter sovereignty;\" that is, the right of the people of each\nterritory \"to vote slavery up or down.\" After a few long-distance shots\nat each other, the candidates agreed to meet face to face and discuss\nthe issues of the day. Never had such crowds been seen at political\nmeetings in Illinois. Farmers deserted their plows, smiths their forges,\nand housewives their baking to hear \"Honest Abe\" and \"the Little Giant.\"\n\nThe results of the series of debates were momentous. Lincoln clearly\ndefined his position. The South, he admitted, was entitled under the\nConstitution to a fair, fugitive slave law. He hoped that there might be\nno new slave states; but he did not see how Congress could exclude the\npeople of a territory from admission as a state if they saw fit to adopt\na constitution legalizing the ownership of slaves. He favored the\ngradual abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia and the total\nexclusion of it from the territories of the United States by act of\nCongress.\n\nMoreover, he drove Douglas into a hole by asking how he squared\n\"squatter sovereignty\" with the Dred Scott decision; how, in other\nwords, the people of a territory could abolish slavery when the Court\nhad declared that Congress, the superior power, could not do it under\nthe Constitution? To this baffling question Douglas lamely replied that\nthe inhabitants of a territory, by \"unfriendly legislation,\" might make\nproperty in slaves insecure and thus destroy the institution. This\nanswer to Lincoln's query alienated many Southern Democrats who believed\nthat the Dred Scott decision settled the question of slavery in the\nterritories for all time. Douglas won the election to the Senate; but\nLincoln, lifted into national fame by the debates, beat him in the\ncampaign for President two years later.\n\n=John Brown's Raid.=--To the abolitionists the line of argument pursued\nby Lincoln, including his proposal to leave slavery untouched in the\nstates where it existed, was wholly unsatisfactory. One of them, a grim\nand resolute man, inflamed by a hatred for slavery in itself, turned\nfrom agitation to violence. \"These men are all talk; what is needed is\naction--action!\" So spoke John Brown of New York. During the sanguinary\nstruggle in Kansas he hurried to the frontier, gun and dagger in hand,\nto help drive slave owners from the free soil of the West. There he\ncommitted deeds of such daring and cruelty that he was outlawed and a\nprice put upon his head. Still he kept on the path of \"action.\" Aided by\nfunds from Northern friends, he gathered a small band of his followers\naround him, saying to them: \"If God be for us, who can be against us?\"\nHe went into Virginia in the autumn of 1859, hoping, as he explained,\n\"to effect a mighty conquest even though it be like the last victory of\nSamson.\" He seized the government armory at Harper's Ferry, declared\nfree the slaves whom he found, and called upon them to take up arms in\ndefense of their liberty. His was a hope as forlorn as it was desperate.\nArmed forces came down upon him and, after a hard battle, captured him.\nTried for treason, Brown was condemned to death. The governor of\nVirginia turned a deaf ear to pleas for clemency based on the ground\nthat the prisoner was simply a lunatic. \"This is a beautiful country,\"\nsaid the stern old Brown glancing upward to the eternal hills on his way\nto the gallows, as calmly as if he were returning home from a long\njourney. \"So perish all such enemies of Virginia. All such enemies of\nthe Union. All such foes of the human race,\" solemnly announced the\nexecutioner as he fulfilled the judgment of the law.\n\nThe raid and its grim ending deeply moved the country. Abolitionists\nlooked upon Brown as a martyr and tolled funeral bells on the day of his\nexecution. Longfellow wrote in his diary: \"This will be a great day in\nour history; the date of a new revolution as much needed as the old\none.\" Jefferson Davis saw in the affair \"the invasion of a state by a\nmurderous gang of abolitionists bent on inciting slaves to murder\nhelpless women and children\"--a crime for which the leader had met a\nfelon's death. Lincoln spoke of the raid as absurd, the deed of an\nenthusiast who had brooded over the oppression of a people until he\nfancied himself commissioned by heaven to liberate them--an attempt\nwhich ended in \"little else than his own execution.\" To Republican\nleaders as a whole, the event was very embarrassing. They were taunted\nby the Democrats with responsibility for the deed. Douglas declared his\n\"firm and deliberate conviction that the Harper's Ferry crime was the\nnatural, logical, inevitable result of the doctrines and teachings of\nthe Republican party.\" So persistent were such attacks that the\nRepublicans felt called upon in 1860 to denounce Brown's raid \"as among\nthe gravest of crimes.\"\n\n=The Democrats Divided.=--When the Democratic convention met at\nCharleston in the spring of 1860, a few months after Brown's execution,\nit soon became clear that there was danger ahead. Between the extreme\nslavery advocates of the Far South and the so-called pro-slavery\nDemocrats of the Douglas type, there was a chasm which no appeals to\nparty loyalty could bridge. As the spokesman of the West, Douglas knew\nthat, while the North was not abolitionist, it was passionately set\nagainst an extension of slavery into the territories by act of Congress;\nthat squatter sovereignty was the mildest kind of compromise acceptable\nto the farmers whose votes would determine the fate of the election.\nSouthern leaders would not accept his opinion. Yancey, speaking for\nAlabama, refused to palter with any plan not built on the proposition\nthat slavery was in itself right. He taunted the Northern Democrats with\ntaking the view that slavery was wrong, but that they could not do\nanything about it. That, he said, was the fatal error--the cause of all\ndiscord, the source of \"Black Republicanism,\" as well as squatter\nsovereignty. The gauntlet was thus thrown down at the feet of the\nNorthern delegates: \"You must not apologize for slavery; you must\ndeclare it right; you must advocate its extension.\" The challenge, so\nbluntly put, was as bluntly answered. \"Gentlemen of the South,\"\nresponded a delegate from Ohio, \"you mistake us. You mistake us. We will\nnot do it.\"\n\nFor ten days the Charleston convention wrangled over the platform and\nballoted for the nomination of a candidate. Douglas, though in the lead,\ncould not get the two-thirds vote required for victory. For more than\nfifty times the roll of the convention was called without a decision.\nThen in sheer desperation the convention adjourned to meet later at\nBaltimore. When the delegates again assembled, their passions ran as\nhigh as ever. The division into two irreconcilable factions was\nunchanged. Uncompromising delegates from the South withdrew to Richmond,\nnominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky for President, and put forth\na platform asserting the rights of slave owners in the territories and\nthe duty of the federal government to protect them. The delegates who\nremained at Baltimore nominated Douglas and endorsed his doctrine of\nsquatter sovereignty.\n\n=The Constitutional Union Party.=--While the Democratic party was being\ndisrupted, a fragment of the former Whig party, known as the\nConstitutional Unionists, held a convention at Baltimore and selected\nnational candidates: John Bell from Tennessee and Edward Everett from\nMassachusetts. A melancholy interest attached to this assembly. It was\nmainly composed of old men whose political views were those of Clay and\nWebster, cherished leaders now dead and gone. In their platform they\nsought to exorcise the evil spirit of partisanship by inviting their\nfellow citizens to \"support the Constitution of the country, the union\nof the states, and the enforcement of the laws.\" The party that\ncampaigned on this grand sentiment only drew laughter from the Democrats\nand derision from the Republicans and polled less than one-fourth the\nvotes.\n\n=The Republican Convention.=--With the Whigs definitely forced into a\nseparate group, the Republican convention at Chicago was fated to be\nsectional in character, although five slave states did send delegates.\nAs the Democrats were split, the party that had led a forlorn hope four\nyears before was on the high road to success at last. New and powerful\nrecruits were found. The advocates of a high protective tariff and the\nfriends of free homesteads for farmers and workingmen mingled with\nenthusiastic foes of slavery. While still firm in their opposition to\nslavery in the territories, the Republicans went on record in favor of a\nhomestead law granting free lands to settlers and approved customs\nduties designed \"to encourage the development of the industrial\ninterests of the whole country.\" The platform was greeted with cheers\nwhich, according to the stenographic report of the convention, became\nloud and prolonged as the protective tariff and homestead planks were\nread.\n\nHaving skillfully drawn a platform to unite the North in opposition to\nslavery and the planting system, the Republicans were also adroit in\ntheir selection of a candidate. The tariff plank might carry\nPennsylvania, a Democratic state; but Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were\nequally essential to success at the polls. The southern counties of\nthese states were filled with settlers from Virginia, North Carolina,\nand Kentucky who, even if they had no love for slavery, were no friends\nof abolition. Moreover, remembering the old fight on the United States\nBank in Andrew Jackson's day, they were suspicious of men from the East.\nAccordingly, they did not favor the candidacy of Seward, the leading\nRepublican statesman and \"favorite son\" of New York.\n\nAfter much trading and discussing, the convention came to the conclusion\nthat Abraham Lincoln of Illinois was the most \"available\" candidate. He\nwas of Southern origin, born in Kentucky in 1809, a fact that told\nheavily in the campaign in the Ohio Valley. He was a man of the soil,\nthe son of poor frontier parents, a pioneer who in his youth had labored\nin the fields and forests, celebrated far and wide as \"honest Abe, the\nrail-splitter.\" It was well-known that he disliked slavery, but was no\nabolitionist. He had come dangerously near to Seward's radicalism in his\n\"house-divided-against-itself\" speech but he had never committed himself\nto the reckless doctrine that there was a \"higher law\" than the\nConstitution. Slavery in the South he tolerated as a bitter fact;\nslavery in the territories he opposed with all his strength. Of his\nsincerity there could be no doubt. He was a speaker and writer of\nsingular power, commanding, by the use of simple and homely language,\nthe hearts and minds of those who heard him speak or read his printed\nwords. He had gone far enough in his opposition to slavery; but not too\nfar. He was the man of the hour! Amid lusty cheers from ten thousand\nthroats, Lincoln was nominated for the presidency by the Republicans. In\nthe ensuing election, he carried all the free states except New Jersey.\n\n\n=References=\n\nP.E. Chadwick, _Causes of the Civil War_ (American Nation Series).\n\nW.E. Dodd, _Statesmen of the Old South_.\n\nE. Engle, _Southern Sidelights_ (Sympathetic account of the Old South).\n\nA.B. Hart, _Slavery and Abolition_ (American Nation Series).\n\nJ.F. Rhodes, _History of the United States_, Vols. I and II.\n\nT.C. Smith, _Parties and Slavery_ (American Nation Series).\n\n\n=Questions=\n\n1. Trace the decline of slavery in the North and explain it.\n\n2. Describe the character of early opposition to slavery.\n\n3. What was the effect of abolition agitation?\n\n4. Why did anti-slavery sentiment practically disappear in the South?\n\n5. On what grounds did Calhoun defend slavery?\n\n6. Explain how slave owners became powerful in politics.\n\n7. Why was it impossible to keep the slavery issue out of national\npolitics?\n\n8. Give the leading steps in the long controversy over slavery in the\nterritories.\n\n9. State the terms of the Compromise of 1850 and explain its failure.\n\n10. What were the startling events between 1850 and 1860?\n\n11. Account for the rise of the Republican party. What party had used\nthe title before?\n\n12. How did the Dred Scott decision become a political issue?\n\n13. What were some of the points brought out in the Lincoln-Douglas\ndebates?\n\n14. Describe the party division in 1860.\n\n15. What were the main planks in the Republican platform?\n\n\n=Research Topics=\n\n=The Extension of Cotton Planting.=--Callender, _Economic History of the\nUnited States_, pp. 760-768.\n\n=Abolition Agitation.=--McMaster, _History of the People of the United\nStates_, Vol. VI, pp. 271-298.\n\n=Calhoun's Defense of Slavery.=--Harding, _Select Orations Illustrating\nAmerican History_, pp. 247-257.\n\n=The Compromise of 1850.=--Clay's speech in Harding, _Select Orations_,\npp. 267-289. The compromise laws in Macdonald, _Documentary Source Book\nof American History_, pp. 383-394. Narrative account in McMaster, Vol.\nVIII, pp. 1-55; Elson, _History of the United States_, pp. 540-548.\n\n=The Repeal of the Missouri Compromise.=--McMaster, Vol. VIII, pp.\n192-231; Elson, pp. 571-582.\n\n=The Dred Scott Case.=--McMaster, Vol. VIII, pp. 278-282. Compare the\nopinion of Taney and the dissent of Curtis in Macdonald, _Documentary\nSource Book_, pp. 405-420; Elson, pp. 595-598.\n\n=The Lincoln-Douglas Debates.=--Analysis of original speeches in\nHarding, _Select Orations_ pp. 309-341; Elson, pp. 598-604.\n\n=Biographical Studies.=--Calhoun, Clay, Webster, A.H. Stephens, Douglas,\nW.H. Seward, William Lloyd Garrison, Wendell Phillips, and Harriet\nBeecher Stowe.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XV\n\nTHE CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION\n\n\n\"The irrepressible conflict is about to be visited upon us through the\nBlack Republican nominee and his fanatical, diabolical Republican\nparty,\" ran an appeal to the voters of South Carolina during the\ncampaign of 1860. If that calamity comes to pass, responded the governor\nof the state, the answer should be a declaration of independence. In a\nfew days the suspense was over. The news of Lincoln's election came\nspeeding along the wires. Prepared for the event, the editor of the\nCharleston _Mercury_ unfurled the flag of his state amid wild cheers\nfrom an excited throng in the streets. Then he seized his pen and wrote:\n\"The tea has been thrown overboard; the revolution of 1860 has been\ninitiated.\" The issue was submitted to the voters in the choice of\ndelegates to a state convention called to cast off the yoke of the\nConstitution.\n\n\nTHE SOUTHERN CONFEDERACY\n\n=Secession.=--As arranged, the convention of South Carolina assembled in\nDecember and without a dissenting voice passed the ordinance of\nsecession withdrawing from the union. Bells were rung exultantly, the\nroar of cannon carried the news to outlying counties, fireworks lighted\nup the heavens, and champagne flowed. The crisis so long expected had\ncome at last; even the conservatives who had prayed that they might\nescape the dreadful crash greeted it with a sigh of relief.\n\n[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1861\n\nThe border states (in purple) remained loyal.]\n\nSouth Carolina now sent forth an appeal to her sister states--states\nthat had in Jackson's day repudiated nullification as leading to \"the\ndissolution of the union.\" The answer that came this time was in a\ndifferent vein. A month had hardly elapsed before five other\nstates--Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana--had\nwithdrawn from the union. In February, Texas followed. Virginia,\nhesitating until the bombardment of Fort Sumter forced a conclusion,\nseceded in April; but fifty-five of the one hundred and forty-three\ndelegates dissented, foreshadowing the creation of the new state of West\nVirginia which Congress admitted to the union in 1863. In May, North\nCarolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee announced their independence.\n\n=Secession and the Theories of the Union.=--In severing their relations\nwith the union, the seceding states denied every point in the Northern\ntheory of the Constitution. That theory, as every one knows, was\ncarefully formulated by Webster and elaborated by Lincoln. According to\nit, the union was older than the states; it was created before the\nDeclaration of Independence for the purpose of common defense. The\nArticles of Confederation did but strengthen this national bond and the\nConstitution sealed it forever. The federal government was not a\ncreature of state governments. It was erected by the people and derived\nits powers directly from them. \"It is,\" said Webster, \"the people's\nConstitution, the people's government; made for the people; made by the\npeople; and answerable to the people. The people of the United States\nhave declared that this Constitution shall be the supreme law.\" When a\nstate questions the lawfulness of any act of the federal government, it\ncannot nullify that act or withdraw from the union; it must abide by the\ndecision of the Supreme Court of the United States. The union of these\nstates is perpetual, ran Lincoln's simple argument in the first\ninaugural; the federal Constitution has no provision for its own\ntermination; it can be destroyed only by some action not provided for in\nthe instrument itself; even if it is a compact among all the states the\nconsent of all must be necessary to its dissolution; therefore no state\ncan lawfully get out of the union and acts of violence against the\nUnited States are insurrectionary or revolutionary. This was the system\nwhich he believed himself bound to defend by his oath of office\n\"registered in heaven.\"\n\nAll this reasoning Southern statesmen utterly rejected. In their opinion\nthe thirteen original states won their independence as separate and\nsovereign powers. The treaty of peace with Great Britain named them all\nand acknowledged them \"to be free, sovereign, and independent states.\"\nThe Articles of Confederation very explicitly declared that \"each state\nretains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence.\" The Constitution\nwas a \"league of nations\" formed by an alliance of thirteen separate\npowers, each one of which ratified the instrument before it was put into\neffect. They voluntarily entered the union under the Constitution and\nvoluntarily they could leave it. Such was the constitutional doctrine of\nHayne, Calhoun, and Jefferson Davis. In seceding, the Southern states\nhad only to follow legal methods, and the transaction would be correct\nin every particular. So conventions were summoned, elections were held,\nand \"sovereign assemblies of the people\" set aside the Constitution in\nthe same manner as it had been ratified nearly four score years before.\nThus, said the Southern people, the moral judgment was fulfilled and the\nletter of the law carried into effect.\n\n[Illustration: JEFFERSON DAVIS]\n\n=The Formation of the Confederacy.=--Acting on the call of Mississippi,\na congress of delegates from the seceded states met at Montgomery,\nAlabama, and on February 8, 1861, adopted a temporary plan of union. It\nselected, as provisional president, Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, a\nman well fitted by experience and moderation for leadership, a graduate\nof West Point, who had rendered distinguished service on the field of\nbattle in the Mexican War, in public office, and as a member of\nCongress.\n\nIn March, a permanent constitution of the Confederate states was\ndrafted. It was quickly ratified by the states; elections were held in\nNovember; and the government under it went into effect the next year.\nThis new constitution, in form, was very much like the famous instrument\ndrafted at Philadelphia in 1787. It provided for a President, a Senate,\nand a House of Representatives along almost identical lines. In the\npowers conferred upon them, however, there were striking differences.\nThe right to appropriate money for internal improvements was expressly\nwithheld; bounties were not to be granted from the treasury nor import\nduties so laid as to promote or foster any branch of industry. The\ndignity of the state, if any might be bold enough to question it, was\nsafeguarded in the opening line by the declaration that each acted \"in\nits sovereign and independent character\" in forming the Southern union.\n\n=Financing the Confederacy.=--No government ever set out upon its career\nwith more perplexing tasks in front of it. The North had a monetary\nsystem; the South had to create one. The North had a scheme of taxation\nthat produced large revenues from numerous sources; the South had to\nformulate and carry out a financial plan. Like the North, the\nConfederacy expected to secure a large revenue from customs duties,\neasily collected and little felt among the masses. To this expectation\nthe blockade of Southern ports inaugurated by Lincoln in April, 1861,\nsoon put an end. Following the precedent set by Congress under the\nArticles of Confederation, the Southern Congress resorted to a direct\nproperty tax apportioned among the states, only to meet the failure that\nmight have been foretold.\n\nThe Confederacy also sold bonds, the first issue bringing into the\ntreasury nearly all the specie available in the Southern banks. This\nspecie by unhappy management was early sent abroad to pay for supplies,\nsapping the foundations of a sound currency system. Large amounts of\nbonds were sold overseas, commanding at first better terms than those\nof the North in the markets of London, Paris, and Amsterdam, many an\nEnglish lord and statesman buying with enthusiasm and confidence to\nlament within a few years the proofs of his folly. The difficulties of\nbringing through the blockade any supplies purchased by foreign bond\nissues, however, nullified the effect of foreign credit and forced the\nConfederacy back upon the device of paper money. In all approximately\none billion dollars streamed from the printing presses, to fall in value\nat an alarming rate, reaching in January, 1863, the astounding figure of\nfifty dollars in paper money for one in gold. Every known device was\nused to prevent its depreciation, without result. To the issues of the\nConfederate Congress were added untold millions poured out by the states\nand by private banks.\n\n=Human and Material Resources.=--When we measure strength for strength\nin those signs of power--men, money, and supplies--it is difficult to\nsee how the South was able to embark on secession and war with such\nconfidence in the outcome. In the Confederacy at the final reckoning\nthere were eleven states in all, to be pitted against twenty-two; a\npopulation of nine millions, nearly one-half servile, to be pitted\nagainst twenty-two millions; a land without great industries to produce\nwar supplies and without vast capital to furnish war finances, joined in\nbattle with a nation already industrial and fortified by property worth\neleven billion dollars. Even after the Confederate Congress authorized\nconscription in 1862, Southern man power, measured in numbers, was\nwholly inadequate to uphold the independence which had been declared.\nHow, therefore, could the Confederacy hope to sustain itself against\n\nsuch a combination of men, money, and materials as the North could\nmarshal?\n\n=Southern Expectations.=--The answer to this question is to be found in\nthe ideas that prevailed among Southern leaders. First of all, they\nhoped, in vain, to carry the Confederacy up to the Ohio River; and, with\nthe aid of Missouri, to gain possession of the Mississippi Valley, the\ngranary of the nation. In the second place, they reckoned upon a large\nand continuous trade with Great Britain--the exchange of cotton for war\nmaterials. They likewise expected to receive recognition and open aid\nfrom European powers that looked with satisfaction upon the breakup of\nthe great American republic. In the third place, they believed that\ntheir control over several staples so essential to Northern industry\nwould enable them to bring on an industrial crisis in the manufacturing\nstates. \"I firmly believe,\" wrote Senator Hammond, of South Carolina, in\n1860, \"that the slave-holding South is now the controlling power of the\nworld; that no other power would face us in hostility. Cotton, rice,\ntobacco, and naval stores command the world; and we have the sense to\nknow it and are sufficiently Teutonic to carry it out successfully. The\nNorth without us would be a motherless calf, bleating about, and die of\nmange and starvation.\"\n\nThere were other grounds for confidence. Having seized all of the\nfederal military and naval supplies in the South, and having left the\nnational government weak in armed power during their possession of the\npresidency, Southern leaders looked to a swift war, if it came at all,\nto put the finishing stroke to independence. \"The greasy mechanics of\nthe North,\" it was repeatedly said, \"will not fight.\" As to disparity in\nnumbers they drew historic parallels. \"Our fathers, a mere handful,\novercame the enormous power of Great Britain,\" a saying of ex-President\nTyler, ran current to reassure the doubtful. Finally, and this point\ncannot be too strongly emphasized, the South expected to see a weakened\nand divided North. It knew that the abolitionists and the Southern\nsympathizers were ready to let the Confederate states go in peace; that\nLincoln represented only a little more than one-third the voters of the\ncountry; and that the vote for Douglas, Bell, and Breckinridge meant a\ndecided opposition to the Republicans and their policies.\n\n=Efforts at Compromise.=--Republican leaders, on reviewing the same\nfacts, were themselves uncertain as to the outcome of a civil war and\nmade many efforts to avoid a crisis. Thurlow Weed, an Albany journalist\nand politician who had done much to carry New York for Lincoln, proposed\na plan for extending the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific.\nJefferson Davis, warning his followers that a war if it came would be\nterrible, was prepared to accept the offer; but Lincoln, remembering his\ncampaign pledges, stood firm as a rock against it. His followers in\nCongress took the same position with regard to a similar settlement\nsuggested by Senator Crittenden of Kentucky.\n\nThough unwilling to surrender his solemn promises respecting slavery in\nthe territories, Lincoln was prepared to give to Southern leaders a\nstrong guarantee that his administration would not interfere directly or\nindirectly with slavery in the states. Anxious to reassure the South on\nthis point, the Republicans in Congress proposed to write into the\nConstitution a declaration that no amendment should ever be made\nauthorizing the abolition of or interference with slavery in any state.\nThe resolution, duly passed, was sent forth on March 4, 1861, with the\napproval of Lincoln; it was actually ratified by three states before the\nstorm of war destroyed it. By the irony of fate the thirteenth amendment\nwas to abolish, not guarantee, slavery.\n\n\nTHE WAR MEASURES OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT\n\n=Raising the Armies.=--The crisis at Fort Sumter, on April 12-14, 1861,\nforced the President and Congress to turn from negotiations to problems\nof warfare. Little did they realize the magnitude of the task before\nthem. Lincoln's first call for volunteers, issued on April 15, 1861,\nlimited the number to 75,000, put their term of service at three months,\nand prescribed their duty as the enforcement of the law against\ncombinations too powerful to be overcome by ordinary judicial process.\nDisillusionment swiftly followed. The terrible defeat of the Federals at\nBull Run on July 21 revealed the serious character of the task before\nthem; and by a series of measures Congress put the entire man power of\nthe country at the President's command. Under these acts, he issued new\ncalls for volunteers. Early in August, 1862, he ordered a draft of\nmilitiamen numbering 300,000 for nine months' service. The results were\ndisappointing--ominous--for only about 87,000 soldiers were added to the\narmy. Something more drastic was clearly necessary.\n\nIn March, 1863, Lincoln signed the inevitable draft law; it enrolled in\nthe national forces liable to military duty all able-bodied male\ncitizens and persons of foreign birth who had declared their intention\nto become citizens, between the ages of twenty and forty-five\nyears--with exemptions on grounds of physical weakness and dependency.\nFrom the men enrolled were drawn by lot those destined to active\nservice. Unhappily the measure struck a mortal blow at the principle of\nuniversal liability by excusing any person who found a substitute for\nhimself or paid into the war office a sum, not exceeding three hundred\ndollars, to be fixed by general order. This provision, so crass and so\nobviously favoring the well-to-do, sowed seeds of bitterness which\nsprang up a hundredfold in the North.\n\n[Illustration: THE DRAFT RIOTS IN NEW YORK CITY]\n\nThe beginning of the drawings under the draft act in New York City, on\nMonday, July 13, 1863, was the signal for four days of rioting. In the\ncourse of this uprising, draft headquarters were destroyed; the office\nof the _Tribune_ was gutted; negroes were seized, hanged, and shot; the\nhomes of obnoxious Unionists were burned down; the residence of the\nmayor of the city was attacked; and regular battles were fought in the\nstreets between the rioters and the police. Business stopped and a large\npart of the city passed absolutely into the control of the mob. Not\nuntil late the following Wednesday did enough troops arrive to restore\norder and enable the residents of the city to resume their daily\nactivities. At least a thousand people had been killed or wounded and\nmore than a million dollars' worth of damage done to property. The draft\ntemporarily interrupted by this outbreak was then resumed and carried\nout without further trouble.\n\nThe results of the draft were in the end distinctly disappointing to the\ngovernment. The exemptions were numerous and the number who preferred\nand were able to pay $300 rather than serve exceeded all expectations.\nVolunteering, it is true, was stimulated, but even that resource could\nhardly keep the thinning ranks of the army filled. With reluctance\nCongress struck out the $300 exemption clause, but still favored the\nwell-to-do by allowing them to hire substitutes if they could find them.\nWith all this power in its hands the administration was able by January,\n1865, to construct a union army that outnumbered the Confederates two to\none.\n\n=War Finance.=--In the financial sphere the North faced immense\ndifficulties. The surplus in the treasury had been dissipated by 1861\nand the tariff of 1857 had failed to produce an income sufficient to\nmeet the ordinary expenses of the government. Confronted by military and\nnaval expenditures of appalling magnitude, rising from $35,000,000 in\nthe first year of the war to $1,153,000,000 in the last year, the\nadministration had to tap every available source of income. The duties\non imports were increased, not once but many times, producing huge\nrevenues and also meeting the most extravagant demands of the\nmanufacturers for protection. Direct taxes were imposed on the states\naccording to their respective populations, but the returns were\nmeager--all out of proportion to the irritation involved. Stamp taxes\nand taxes on luxuries, occupations, and the earnings of corporations\nwere laid with a weight that, in ordinary times, would have drawn forth\nopposition of ominous strength. The whole gamut of taxation was run.\nEven a tax on incomes and gains by the year, the first in the history of\nthe federal government, was included in the long list.\n\nRevenues were supplemented by bond issues, mounting in size and interest\nrate, until in October, at the end of the war, the debt stood at\n$2,208,000,000. The total cost of the war was many times the money value\nof all the slaves in the Southern states. To the debt must be added\nnearly half a billion dollars in \"greenbacks\"--paper money issued by\nCongress in desperation as bond sales and revenues from taxes failed to\nmeet the rising expenditures. This currency issued at par on\nquestionable warrant from the Constitution, like all such paper, quickly\nbegan to decline until in the worst fortunes of 1864 one dollar in gold\nwas worth nearly three in greenbacks.\n\n=The Blockade of Southern Ports.=--Four days after his call for\nvolunteers, April 19, 1861, President Lincoln issued a proclamation\nblockading the ports of the Southern Confederacy. Later the blockade was\nextended to Virginia and North Carolina, as they withdrew from the\nunion. Vessels attempting to enter or leave these ports, if they\ndisregarded the warnings of a blockading ship, were to be captured and\nbrought as prizes to the nearest convenient port. To make the order\neffective, immediate steps were taken to increase the naval forces,\ndepleted by neglect, until the entire coast line was patrolled with such\na number of ships that it was a rare captain who ventured to run the\ngantlet. The collision between the _Merrimac_ and the _Monitor_ in\nMarch, 1862, sealed the fate of the Confederacy. The exploits of the\nunion navy are recorded in the falling export of cotton: $202,000,000 in\n1860; $42,000,000 in 1861; and $4,000,000 in 1862.\n\nThe deadly effect of this paralysis of trade upon Southern war power may\nbe readily imagined. Foreign loans, payable in cotton, could be\nnegotiated but not paid off. Supplies could be purchased on credit but\nnot brought through the drag net. With extreme difficulty could the\nConfederate government secure even paper for the issue of money and\nbonds. Publishers, in despair at the loss of supplies, were finally\ndriven to the use of brown wrapping paper and wall paper. As the\nrailways and rolling stock wore out, it became impossible to renew them\nfrom England or France. Unable to export their cotton, planters on the\nseaboard burned it in what were called \"fires of patriotism.\" In their\nlurid light the fatal weakness of Southern economy stood revealed.\n\n[Illustration: A BLOCKADE RUNNER]\n\n=Diplomacy.=--The war had not advanced far before the federal government\nbecame involved in many perplexing problems of diplomacy in Europe. The\nConfederacy early turned to England and France for financial aid and for\nrecognition as an independent power. Davis believed that the industrial\ncrisis created by the cotton blockade would in time literally compel\nEurope to intervene in order to get this essential staple. The crisis\ncame as he expected but not the result. Thousands of English textile\nworkers were thrown out of employment; and yet, while on the point of\nstarvation, they adopted resolutions favoring the North instead of\npetitioning their government to aid the South by breaking the blockade.\n\nWith the ruling classes it was far otherwise. Napoleon III, the Emperor\nof the French, was eager to help in disrupting the American republic; if\nhe could have won England's support, he would have carried out his\ndesigns. As it turned out he found plenty of sympathy across the Channel\nbut not open and official cooperation. According to the eminent\nhistorian, Rhodes, \"four-fifths of the British House of Lords and most\nmembers of the House of Commons were favorable to the Confederacy and\nanxious for its triumph.\" Late in 1862 the British ministers, thus\nsustained, were on the point of recognizing the independence of the\nConfederacy. Had it not been for their extreme caution, for the constant\nand harassing criticism by English friends of the United States--like\nJohn Bright--and for the victories of Vicksburg and Gettysburg, both\n\nEngland and France would have doubtless declared the Confederacy to be\none of the independent powers of the earth.\n\n[Illustration: JOHN BRIGHT]\n\nWhile stopping short of recognizing its independence, England and France\ntook several steps that were in favor of the South. In proclaiming\nneutrality, they early accepted the Confederates as \"belligerents\" and\naccorded them the rights of people at war--a measure which aroused anger\nin the North at first but was later admitted to be sound. Otherwise\nConfederates taken in battle would have been regarded as \"rebels\" or\n\"traitors\" to be hanged or shot. Napoleon III proposed to Russia in 1861\na coalition of powers against the North, only to meet a firm refusal.\nThe next year he suggested intervention to Great Britain, encountering\nthis time a conditional rejection of his plans. In 1863, not daunted by\nrebuffs, he offered his services to Lincoln as a mediator, receiving in\nreply a polite letter declining his proposal and a sharp resolution from\nCongress suggesting that he attend to his own affairs.\n\nIn both England and France the governments pursued a policy of\nfriendliness to the Confederate agents. The British ministry, with\nindifference if not connivance, permitted rams and ships to be built in\nBritish docks and allowed them to escape to play havoc under the\nConfederate flag with American commerce. One of them, the _Alabama_,\nbuilt in Liverpool by a British firm and paid for by bonds sold in\nEngland, ran an extraordinary career and threatened to break the\nblockade. The course followed by the British government, against the\nprotests of the American minister in London, was later regretted. By an\naward of a tribunal of arbitration at Geneva in 1872, Great Britain was\nrequired to pay the huge sum of $15,500,000 to cover the damages wrought\nby Confederate cruisers fitted out in England.\n\n[Illus" }, { "path": "Algorithms/other/Huffman/test.txt", "content": "aaabbbcdd" }, { "path": "Algorithms/other/Kadanes_algorithm.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nPurpose of the Kadane's Algorithm is to the find the sum of the maximum \ncontigous subarray of an array. Ex: [-2,1,-3,4,-1,2,1,-5,4] has [4,-1,2,1]\nwith the largest sum = 6\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n# 2020-03-08 Initial programming\n\n\"\"\"\n\n\ndef kadane_algorithm(array):\n max_current, max_global = array[0], array[0]\n\n for val in array[1:]:\n max_current = max(val, max_current + val)\n\n if max_current > max_global:\n max_global = max_current\n\n return max_global\n\n\nprint(kadane_algorithm([-2, 1, -3, 4, -1, 2, 1, -5, 4]))\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/other/binarysearch.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nPurpose of this is to find a target element in an already sorted list L.\nWe use the fact that it is already sorted and get a O(log(n)) search algorithm.\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n# 2019-03-12 Initial programming\n\n\"\"\"\n\n\ndef binarysearch_iterative(L, target):\n low = 0\n high = len(L) - 1\n\n while low <= high:\n middle = (low + high) // 2\n\n if target == L[middle]:\n return True, middle\n\n elif target < L[middle]:\n high = middle - 1\n\n else:\n low = middle + 1\n\n return False, None\n\n\ndef binarysearch_recursive(L, target, low, high):\n middle = (low + high) // 2\n\n if low > high:\n return False, None\n\n elif target == L[middle]:\n return True, middle\n\n elif target < L[middle]:\n return binarysearch_recursive(L, target, low, middle - 1)\n\n else:\n return binarysearch_recursive(L, target, middle + 1, high)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n target = 1\n sorted_array = [1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1]\n\n exists, idx = binarysearch_iterative(sorted_array, target)\n print(f\"The target {target} exists in array: {exists}. The idx of it is: {idx}\")\n\n exists, idx = binarysearch_recursive(sorted_array, target, 0, len(sorted_array) - 1)\n print(f\"The target {target} exists in array: {exists}. The idx of it is: {idx}\")\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/other/counting_inversions.py", "content": "def merge_sort(array):\n total_inversions = 0\n if len(array) <= 1:\n return (array, 0)\n\n midpoint = int(len(array) / 2)\n\n (left, left_inversions) = merge_sort(array[:midpoint])\n (right, right_inversions) = merge_sort(array[midpoint:])\n (merged_array, merge_inversions) = merge_and_count(left, right)\n\n return (merged_array, left_inversions + right_inversions + merge_inversions)\n\n\ndef merge_and_count(left, right):\n count_inversions = 0\n result = []\n left_pointer = right_pointer = 0\n left_len = len(left)\n right_len = len(right)\n\n while left_pointer < len(left) and right_pointer < len(right):\n if left[left_pointer] <= right[right_pointer]:\n result.append(left[left_pointer])\n left_pointer += 1\n\n elif right[right_pointer] < left[left_pointer]:\n count_inversions += left_len - left_pointer\n result.append(right[right_pointer])\n right_pointer += 1\n\n result.extend(left[left_pointer:])\n result.extend(right[right_pointer:])\n\n return (result, count_inversions)\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n array = [9, 2, 1, 5, 2, 3, 5, 1, 2, 32, 12, 11]\n print(array)\n\n result = merge_sort(array)\n print(result)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/other/interval_scheduling.py", "content": "# Interval Scheduling, we have a set of requests R and we wish to choose\n# the maximum amount of non-overlapping intervals and output the optimal\n# solution as O.\n\n# Programmed by Aladdin Persson \n# 2020-01-25 Initial programming\n\n# Video: https://youtu.be/SmPxC8m0yIY\n\n\ndef interval_scheduling(R, O):\n R.sort(key=lambda x: x[1]) # sort by finish times f1 <= f2 <= ... <= fn\n\n finish = 0\n\n for r in R:\n # remember r[0] start time of request r, r[1] finish time of request r\n if finish <= r[0]:\n finish = r[1]\n O.append(r)\n\n return O\n\n\n# def interval_scheduling_complicated_version(R, O):\n# while R: # keep going while R still has elements\n# (si, fi) = R[0]\n# O.append((si,fi))\n# idx = 0\n#\n# while idx < len(R):\n# (sj, fj) = R[idx]\n#\n# if fi > sj:\n# R.remove(R[idx])\n# idx -= 1\n#\n# idx += 1\n# return O\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n # run small example\n # request is: (start, end)\n r1 = (0, 3)\n r2 = (1, 3)\n r3 = (0, 5)\n r4 = (3, 6)\n r5 = (4, 7)\n r6 = (3, 9)\n r7 = (5, 10)\n r8 = (8, 10)\n\n R = [r1, r2, r3, r4, r5, r6, r7, r8]\n O = []\n O = interval_scheduling(R, O)\n\n print(\"The intervals to choose are: \" + str(O))\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/other/median_maintenance.py", "content": "# Purpose of median_maintenance is given numbers, x then y, w, etc, maintain the median.\n\n# Programmed by Aladdin Persson\n# 2019-02-16 \n\n# This is an optimized version using heap\n\n# note: heapq is a min-heap that is why we do -x, also we want all small values in the maxheap\n# and all large values in the minheap so that we can take the value on the top as our median\n\n# Improvements to be made:\n# * Do it without the use of globals\n# * Comment code\n\nimport heapq\n\n\nclass Maintain_Median(object):\n def __init__(self):\n self.maxheap = []\n self.minheap = []\n\n def medmain_insert(self, x):\n if len(self.maxheap) == 0:\n heapq.heappush(self.maxheap, -x)\n\n else:\n m = -self.maxheap[0]\n if x > m:\n heapq.heappush(self.minheap, x)\n\n if len(self.minheap) > len(self.maxheap):\n y = heapq.heappop(self.minheap)\n heapq.heappush(self.maxheap, -y)\n\n else:\n heapq.heappush(self.maxheap, -x)\n\n if len(self.maxheap) - len(self.minheap) > 1:\n y = -heapq.heappop(self.maxheap)\n heapq.heappush(self.minheap, y)\n\n return (\n (-self.maxheap[0] + self.minheap[0]) / 2\n if len(self.maxheap) == len(self.minheap)\n else -self.maxheap[0]\n )\n\n def main(self, data):\n if len(data) < 1:\n return data\n\n for x in data:\n median = self.medmain_insert(x)\n\n return median\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n data = [1, 3, 8, 5, 10]\n maintain_median = Maintain_Median()\n median = maintain_median.main(data)\n print(median)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/sorting/bubblesort.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nBubblesort sorting algorithm. This is not a very efficient sorting algorithm, T(n) = O(n^2).\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n* 2019-01-23 Initial code\n* 2019-03-05 Improved code by having swapped, while-loop and raise error\n\n\"\"\"\n\n\ndef bubblesort(L):\n swapped = True\n\n while swapped:\n swapped = False\n\n for j in range(len(L) - 1):\n if L[j] > L[j + 1]:\n L[j], L[j + 1] = L[j + 1], L[j]\n swapped = True\n return L\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n unsorted = [5, 2, 4, 6, 1, 3]\n sorted = bubblesort(unsorted)\n print(sorted)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/sorting/hopesort.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nHopesort algorithm. If it works, then it works in constant time.\nUse at own risk :)\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n* 2019-03-08 Initial code\n\n\"\"\"\n\n\ndef hopesort(L):\n # hope it is sorted\n return L\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n unsorted = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]\n # constant time\n hopefully_sorted = hopesort(unsorted)\n print(hopefully_sorted)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/sorting/insertionsort.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nInsertion sort algorithm O(n^2).\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n* 2019-01-23 Initial programming\n* 2019-03-05 Made code cleaner\n\"\"\"\n\n\ndef insertionsort(L):\n # loop through all except first element in list\n for index in range(1, len(L)):\n value = L[index]\n\n position = index - 1\n\n # inserts the key into the correct place\n while position >= 0 and L[position] > value:\n L[position + 1] = L[position]\n position -= 1\n\n L[position + 1] = value\n\n return L\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n unsorted = [7, 2, 4, 1, 5, 3]\n sorted = insertionsort(unsorted)\n print(sorted)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/sorting/mergesort.py", "content": "def merge_sort(array):\n\n if len(array) <= 1:\n return array\n\n midpoint = int(len(array) / 2)\n\n left, right = merge_sort(array[:midpoint]), merge_sort(array[midpoint:])\n\n return merge(left, right)\n\n\ndef merge(left, right):\n result = []\n left_pointer = right_pointer = 0\n\n while left_pointer < len(left) and right_pointer < len(right):\n if left[left_pointer] <= right[right_pointer]:\n result.append(left[left_pointer])\n left_pointer += 1\n\n elif right[right_pointer] < left[left_pointer]:\n result.append(right[right_pointer])\n right_pointer += 1\n\n result.extend(left[left_pointer:])\n result.extend(right[right_pointer:])\n\n return result\n\n\n# if __name__ == \"__main__\":\n# array = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]\n# print(array)\n#\n# result = merge_sort(array)\n# print(result)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/sorting/quicksort.py", "content": "# Quicksort with pivot always using first index as pivot\n\n\ndef quicksort_firstpivot(L):\n if len(L) <= 1:\n return L\n\n pivot = L[0]\n\n i = 0\n\n for j in range(1, len(L)):\n if L[j] < pivot:\n L[j], L[i + 1] = L[i + 1], L[j]\n i += 1\n\n L[0], L[i] = L[i], L[0]\n\n left = quicksort_firstpivot(L[:i])\n right = quicksort_firstpivot(L[i + 1 :])\n left.append(L[i])\n result = left + right\n return result\n\n\n# Quicksort with pivot always using last index as pivot\ndef quicksort_lastpivot(x):\n if len(x) <= 1:\n return x\n\n x[0], x[-1] = x[-1], x[0]\n pivot = x[0]\n\n i = 0\n\n for j in range(1, len(x)):\n if x[j] < pivot:\n x[j], x[i + 1] = x[i + 1], x[j]\n i += 1\n\n x[0], x[i] = x[i], x[0]\n\n left = quicksort_lastpivot(x[:i])\n right = quicksort_lastpivot(x[i + 1 :])\n left.append(x[i])\n\n result = left + right\n return result\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/sorting/randomized_quicksort.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nPurpose is to sort a list. The reason why randomizing is better is that on average, regardless on the input\nrandomized quicksort will have a running time of O(n*logn). This is regardless of the ordering of the inputted list.\nThis is in constrast to first pivot, median pivot, etc Quicksort.\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n* 2019-03-08 Initial programming\n\n\"\"\"\n\nimport random\n\n\ndef quicksort_randomized(L):\n if len(L) <= 1:\n return L\n\n # Randomly choose a pivot idx\n pivot_idx = random.randint(0, len(L) - 1)\n pivot = L[pivot_idx]\n\n # Swap pivot_idx to the first position\n L[0], L[pivot_idx] = L[pivot_idx], L[0]\n\n i = 0\n # range(1, len(L)) because we the pivot element is the first element\n for j in range(1, len(L)):\n if L[j] < pivot:\n L[j], L[i + 1] = L[i + 1], L[j]\n i += 1\n\n L[0], L[i] = L[i], L[0]\n\n left = quicksort_randomized(L[:i])\n right = quicksort_randomized(L[i + 1 :])\n left.append(L[i])\n\n result = left + right\n\n return result\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n l = [6, 7, 3, 4, 5, 1, 3, 7, 123]\n sorted_l = quicksort_randomized(l)\n print(sorted_l)\n" }, { "path": "Algorithms/sorting/selectionsort.py", "content": "\"\"\"\nSelection sort algorithm. T(n) = O(n^2)\n\nProgrammed by Aladdin Persson \n* 2019-03-05 Initial coding\n\n\"\"\"\n\n# Selection sort that creates a copy. More \"intuitive\" but requires extra memory.\ndef selectionsort_intuitive(L):\n correctly_sorted = []\n\n while L:\n min = L[0]\n\n for element in L:\n min = element if element < min else min\n\n correctly_sorted.append(min)\n L.remove(min)\n\n return correctly_sorted\n\n\ndef selectionsort(L):\n for i in range(len(L) - 1):\n min_index = i\n\n # Look through entire list, look which is the smallest element\n for j in range(i + 1, len(L)):\n if L[j] < L[min_index]:\n min_index = j\n\n # If the smallest isn't the index itself, then swap\n if min_index != i:\n L[i], L[min_index] = L[min_index], L[i]\n\n return L\n\n\nif __name__ == \"__main__\":\n unsorted = [10000, 2, 7, 4, 1, 5, 3, 15, 13, 169]\n sorted = selectionsort_intuitive(unsorted)\n print(sorted)\n" }, { "path": "LICENSE", "content": "MIT License\n\nCopyright (c) 2019 Aladdin Perzon\n\nPermission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy\nof this software and associated documentation files (the \"Software\"), to deal\nin the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights\nto use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell\ncopies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is\nfurnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:\n\nThe above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all\ncopies or substantial portions of the Software.\n\nTHE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED \"AS IS\", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR\nIMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,\nFITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE\nAUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER\nLIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,\nOUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE\nSOFTWARE.\n" }, { "path": "README.md", "content": "[![Build Status](https://travis-ci.com/AladdinPersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python.svg?branch=master)](https://travis-ci.com/AladdinPersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python) [![License: MIT](https://img.shields.io/badge/License-MIT-yellow.svg)](https://opensource.org/licenses/MIT) [![codecov](https://codecov.io/gh/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/branch/master/graph/badge.svg)](https://codecov.io/gh/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python)\n\n# Algorithms Collection Python\nWhenever I face an interesting problem I document the algorithm that I learned to solve it. The goals of this repository is to have clean, efficient and most importantly correct code.\n\n:white_check_mark:: If the algorithm is tested \\\n:small_red_triangle:: If the algorithm is untested\n\n# Dynamic Programming\n* :white_check_mark: [Knapsack 0/1](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/dynamic_programming/knapsack/knapsack_bottomup.py) **- O(nC) Bottom-Up implementation (Loops)**\n* :white_check_mark: [:movie_camera:](https://youtu.be/XmyxiSc3LKg)[Sequence Alignment](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/dynamic_programming/sequence_alignment.py) **- O(nm)**\n* :white_check_mark: [:movie_camera:](https://youtu.be/dU-coYsd7zw)[Weighted Interval Scheduling](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/dynamic_programming/weighted_interval_scheduling.py) **- O(nlog(n))**\n\n# Graph theory\n* :white_check_mark: [Kahns Topological Sort](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/graphtheory/kahns-toposort/kahn_topological_ordering.py) **- O(n + m)**\n* :white_check_mark: [Bellman-Ford Shortest Path](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/graphtheory/bellman-ford/bellman_ford.py) **- O(mn)**\n* :small_red_triangle: [Floyd-Warshall Shortest Path](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/graphtheory/floyd-warshall/floyd-warshall.py) **- O(n3)**\n* :white_check_mark: [Dijkstra Shortest Path](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/graphtheory/dijkstra/dijkstra.py) **- Naive implementation**\n* :white_check_mark: [Dijkstra Shortest Path](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/graphtheory/dijkstra/heapdijkstra.py) **- O(mlog(n)) - Heap implementation**\n* :small_red_triangle: [Karger's Minimum cut](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/graphtheory/kargers/kargermincut.py)\n* :small_red_triangle: [Prim's Algorithm](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/graphtheory/prims/prim_naive.py) **- O(mn) Naive implementation**\n* :white_check_mark: [Prim's Algorithm](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/graphtheory/prims/prim_heap.py) **- O(mlog(n)) Heap implementation**\n* :small_red_triangle: [Kruskal's Algorithm](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/graphtheory/kruskal/kruskal.py) **- O(mn) implementation**\n* :white_check_mark: [Kruskal's Algorithm](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/graphtheory/kruskal/kruskal_unionfind.py) **- O(mlog(n))**\n* :white_check_mark: [Breadth First Search](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/graphtheory/breadth-first-search/BFS_queue_iterative.py) **- O(n + m) - Queue Implementation**\n* :white_check_mark: [Depth First Search](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/graphtheory/depth-first-search/DFS_stack_iterative.py) **- O(n + m) - Stack Implementation**\n* :white_check_mark: [Depth First Search](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/graphtheory/depth-first-search/DFS_recursive.py) **- O(n + m) - Recursive Implementation**\n\n# Mathematics\n### Algebra\n* :small_red_triangle: [Karatsuba Multiplication](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/math/karatsuba/karatsuba.py) **- O(n1.585)** \n* :white_check_mark: [Intersection of two sets](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/math/intersection_of_two_sets/intersection_of_two_sets.py) **- O(nlog(n)) + O(mlog(m))** \n* :white_check_mark: [Union of two sets](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/math/union_of_two_sets/union_of_two_sets.py) **- O(nlog(n)) + O(mlog(m))** \n\n### Number Theory\n* :small_red_triangle: [Pollard p-1 factorization](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/math/pollard_p1/pollard_p1.py)\n* :small_red_triangle: [Euclidean Algorithm](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/math/euclid_gcd/euclid_gcd.py) **- O(log(n))**\n* :small_red_triangle: [Extended Euclidean Algorithm](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/math/extended_euclidean_algorithm/euclid_gcd.py) **- O(log(n))**\n* :small_red_triangle: [Sieve of Eratosthenes](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/math/sieve_of_eratosthenes/sieve_eratosthenes.py) **- O(nlog(log(n)))**\n* :small_red_triangle: [Prime factorization](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/math/prime_factorization/primefactorization.py) **- O(sqrt(n))**\n\n### Cryptography\n* :white_check_mark: [Ceasar Cipher](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/cryptology/ceasar_shifting_cipher/ceasar_shift_cipher.py)\n* :small_red_triangle: [Hill Cipher](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/cryptology/hill_cipher/hill_cipher.py)\n* :small_red_triangle: [Vigenere Cipher](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/cryptology/vigenere_cipher/vigenere.py)*\n* :small_red_triangle: [One time pad](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/cryptology/one_time_pad/one_time_pad.py)\n* :small_red_triangle: [RSA-Algorithm](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/cryptology/RSA_algorithm/RSA.py)\n\n\n### Numerical Methods\n* :small_red_triangle: [Bisection Method](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/numerical_methods/bisection.py)\n* :small_red_triangle: [(simple) Fixpoint iteration](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/numerical_methods/fixpoint.py)\n\n# Other\n* :white_check_mark: [Maintaining Median](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/other/median_maintenance.py) **- O(nlog(n))**\n* :small_red_triangle: [Huffman Algorithm](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/other/Huffman/Huffman.py)\n* :white_check_mark: [:movie_camera:](https://youtu.be/SmPxC8m0yIY)[Interval Scheduling](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/other/interval_scheduling.py) **- O(nlog(n))**\n* :white_check_mark: [Binary Search](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/other/binarysearch.py) **- O(log(n))** \n\n# Sorting algorithms\n* :white_check_mark: [Bubble sort](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/sorting/bubblesort.py) **- O(n2)** \n* :small_red_triangle: [Hope sort](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/sorting/hopesort.py) **- O(1), hopefully**\n* :white_check_mark: [Insertion sort](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/sorting/insertionsort.py) **- O(n2)** \n* :white_check_mark: [Selection sort](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/sorting/selectionsort.py) **- O(n2)** \n* :white_check_mark: [Merge sort](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/sorting/mergesort.py) **- O(nlog(n))** \n* :white_check_mark: [Randomized Quick sort](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/sorting/randomized_quicksort.py) **- Average O(nlogn) (Input independent!)**\n* :white_check_mark: [Quick sort](https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python/blob/master/Algorithms/sorting/quicksort.py) **- Average O(nlog(n))**\n\n# Contributing\nI appreciate feedback on potential improvements and/or if you see an error that I've made! Also if you would like to contribute then do a pull request with algorithm & tests! :)\n\n\n" }, { "path": "requirements.txt", "content": "unionfind==0.0.10\nnumpy==1.18.1\nbitarray==1.2.1\negcd==0.0.1.1\nsympy==1.5.1\n" }, { "path": "setup.py", "content": "from distutils.core import setup\n\nsetup(\n name=\"Algorithms\",\n packages=[\"Algorithm_test\"],\n version=\"0.0.7\",\n description=\"Testing Algorithm Collection\",\n url=\"https://github.com/aladdinpersson/Algorithms-Collection-Python\",\n)\n" } ]